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Research Methodology
( MGT 602)
Introduction
Overview of the course :
Business research is an organized and deliberate
process through which organization effectively learn
new knowledge and help improve performance.
Information
Reduces
Uncertainty
I dont know
if we
should
reduce our
product prices?
Research Methods
Is the way in which research studies are
designs
procedures
by which data is collected are analyzed.
We would be focusing on the survey methodology
in which the research is conducted by collecting
data and analyzing them to come up with answers
to various issues of interest.
The different areas of problem could be related to
Finance, Accounting, HR, Marketing etc.
Types of Research
Two purpose of research are
To solve a currently exiting problem in the work
setting
(Applied Research )
To add to the general body of knowledge
(Basic Research)
Philosophy of Choices
Deductive
Develop a theory and hypothesis (or hypotheses)
and design a research strategy to test the
hypothesis
Inductive
Collect data and develop theory as a result of your
data analysis
Observation
Preliminary Information gathering
Theory formulation
Hypothesizing
Further data collection
Data Analysis
Deduction
Observation
One senses certain changes are occurring
New behaviors are surfacing in an environment
When one considers the situation important then
move to the next step
E.g. Customers are not pleased as they used to be.
Are customers at the store are grumbling or
complaining.
Hypothesizing
Some testable or educated supposition are made
E.g.
If sufficient inventory is made customers would
be less dissatisfied customers
Accurate and timely information of the delivery to
the sales person can also reduce the dissatisfied
customer.
Data Analysis
Data gathered statistically is analyzed and see if the
hypothesis have been supported or not.
E.g.
Do an correlation analysis of the tow factors
like level of information and satisfaction.
Deduction
Arriving at a conclusion by interpreting the meaning
of the results of the data analysis.
E.g.
If the customer satisfaction has increase by certain
amount when the availability of information and
the stock.
We could recommend that these two factors
influence the satisfaction of the customers
Research Methodology
Lecture No : 2
Observation
Preliminary Data collation
Problem definition
Theoretical Framework(variables identification)
Generation of Hypothesis
Research Design
Data Collection & Interpretation
Deduction
Report writing (or other wise)
Example(s):
Current existing problem: (The removal is essential as it can
effect the routine operations of the organization)
People are not regularly attending their work.
Career
progress
Management
of complex
project
Attendance
Sales
Literature Survey
Relevant source
Bibliographic database (article name, date, author..)
Abstract Database (all above + summary)
Full
Introduction in an article
Overview of the problem addressed
Specific research objectives
Ends with the summary research questions
Quality
You need to ask
Is the research question / problem clearly stated
Does this study build on previous research
Used appropriate quantitative and qualitative tool etc.
Exercise
Identify the Broad Problem area, define the problem,
and how would you proceed further.
Pioneers minivans and pickup take a big share of the
truck market , while its cars lag behind those of its
competitors. Quality issues like faulty electrical system,
and head lights are a major concern to the management.
Summary
Identify the first three steps in the research process
Identification of the broad problem area
Preliminary information gathering through interviews and
literature survey
Problem definition
Research Methodology
Lecture No : 3
Survey of literature
Survey different sources
Books
Research Articles
Theses
Conference preceding
You can obtain them from
Libraries
Internet
Online databases (Full text, abstract)
Organization of a Literature
Review:
3. Critical review Describe the relationships between the different
variables identified in the previous studies
4. Summarize
states the status of what exists on the topic and
identifies the gaps which provide the rationale for
your study.
Questions
What could be the dimensions used for
measuring OE ?
What factors effect the OE ?
Once the research questions have been stated
then one is ready to develop a theoretical frame
work of their research
Theoretical Framework
So there are two components to theoretical
frame work
Identification of variables and their
relationship
Describing the relationship with arguments
While identifying the different variables we need
to differentiate between the different kinds of
variables
Variables
Any thing that can take on different or varying
values is a variable
Values can be different at various times for the
same object or person or at the same time for
different objects or persons E.g.
Production units (Employee 1 (10 units on Monday) Production
units (Employee 1 (11 units on Tuesday)
Production units (Employee 2 (12 units on Monday)
Production units (Employee 2 (10 units on Tuesday)
Attendance at department x on Monday(10), Tuesday(2)
Types of Variables
Independent
Dependent
Moderating
Mediating
Types of Variables
Dependent
(Criterion Variable)
primary interest
Describe or explain the variability or predict it.
We study what variables influence dependent
variable
So by studying these we might able to find a
solution of the problem
E.g. Sales are low , employee loyalty is
dropping
Independent
(Predictor variable)
Which influences the dependent variable
The influence might be positive or negative
When independent variable is present the
dependent variable is also present.
With each unit of increase in independent
variable there is an increase or decrease in
the dependent variable
E.g. Advertising on sales, recognition on
loyalty
Recap
Literature Review involves searching and
documenting
There are different formats of Documenting
(APA)
There is a structure of review (importance,
objectives, definitions, relationships identified,
gaps)
Theoretical framework is representation of your
belief on how variables related and why
Variables are of 4 different kinds
Research Methodology
Lecture No : 4
(Theoretical Framework)
Recap
Literature Review involves searching and
documenting
There are different formats of Documenting
(APA)
There is a structure of review (importance,
objectives, definitions, relationships identified,
gaps)
Theoretical framework is representation of your
belief on how variables related and why
Variables are of 4 different kinds
Theoretical Framework
After conducting literature review, survey and
defining the problem (research questions)
We develop our theoretical framework
Theoretical framework is a conceptual model of how
we theorarize the relationships among several
factors that have been identified to the problem.
Problem is depleting sales
Factors influencing are quality of products, price,
competition etc ( based on the literature)
Quality
Price
Competition
Sales
Types of Variables
Dependent
(Criterion Variable)
primary interest
Describe or explain the variability or predict it.
We study what variables influence dependent
variable
So by studying these we might able to find a
solution of the problem
E.g. Sales are low , employee loyalty is
dropping
Independent
(Predictor variable)
Which influences the dependent variable
The influence might be positive or negative
When independent variable is present the
dependent variable is also present.
With each unit of increase in independent
variable there is an increase or decrease in
the dependent variable
E.g. Advertising on sales, recognition on
loyalty
Moderating Variables
Moderating Variables have strong contingent
(conditional) effect on the independent dependent
variables relationship.
i.e. in the presences of the a third variable the
relationship between the independent and
dependent is modified
Situation A
Quality of
Training
Programs
Growth
Need of
employee
Willingness to
learn new ways
Situation B
Willingness
to learn
new ways
Quality of
Training Prog
High/Low
Growth
Need
Mediating/Intervening
A variable which surfaces between the time the
independent variable operates to influence the
dependent variable.
Temporal /sequential quality
Surfaces as a function of the independent variable
Exam diff
Exam
Performance
Exam
Difficulty
Stress
Exam
Performance
Workforce
Diversity
Organization
Effectiveness
Theoretical Framework
Is a conceptual model
Foundation of the research
Logically developed, described and elaborated
network of association as a result of interviews,
observation and literature survey.
So we identify a problem
Identify the important variables from literature etc.
Logically developing network of associations and elaborate
Generate hypotheses and later tested
Recap
Types of Variables
Independent, Dependent, Moderating, Mediating(
Intervening)
Research Methodology
Lecture No : 5
Recap
Types of Variables
Independent, Dependent, Moderating, Mediating(
Intervening)
Exercise
A production manager is concerned about the low
output levels of his employee. The articles that he
reads on job performance frequently mentioned
three variables as important to job performance: skill
required by job, rewards and satisfaction. In several
of the articles it was also indicated that only if the
rewards were attractive to the recipients, did
satisfaction, and job performance increase not
otherwise.
Theoretical Framework
( Description and Discussion of the Variables)
In this section of theoretical framework we need to
provide the description of the variables and their
relationships with different variables. For example..
Rewards are two types, intrinsic and extrinsic ..,
where as job enrichment is making the job more
challenging and utilizes all the skills of the
employeewhen the.. . Rewards are known to
enhance the satisfaction of employees which leads to
higher organization performance But for some
employees the rewards are not attractive hence does
not contribute to the satisfaction of employee .etc
Theoretical Framework
(Schematic Diagram)
Job
Enrichment
Employee
Satisfaction
Rewards
Attraction
for
rewards
Organization
Performance
Research Questions
Does job enrichment and rewards influence the
performance ?
Does the satisfaction intervenes the relationship
between rewards and performance?
Does the satisfaction intervenes the relationship
between job enrichment and performance?
Does attractiveness of the rewards moderate the
relationship between rewards and satisfaction.
Hypotheses Development
The research problem could be better solved when
we formulate the appropriate research questions.
The logically placed relationships need to be tested.
So we develop statements which would be easily
testable
Formulating such testable statements is called
hypothesis development.
Hypothesis Statements
A hypothesis can be defined as a logically speculated
relationship between two or more variables
expressed in the form of a test able statement.
Different Hypotheses statements can be drawn from
the theoretical framework developed earlier.
E.g.
Ha1: Job Enrichment leads to higher job satisfaction
Ha2: If rewards are offered the job satisfaction level be high
Ha3: Organization performance is effected by job enrichment
through satisfaction
Proposition style
Employees who are more healthy will take sick leaves less
frequently
Directional
The greater the stress experienced on the job , the lower
the job satisfaction of the employees
The motivation level of women is more then motivation
level of men
The age and job satisfaction are negatively related
Non Directional
There is a relations between stress and job satisfaction
There is a difference between motivation level of men and
women.
Exercise
RECAP
Keeping in view the literature review we develop
research questions to address the research problem.
In order statistically respond to the research
questions we develop the Hypotheses statements.
These statements are stated in such way that they
can be easily testable
Hypotheses statement are written in directional, non
directional formats for testing group differences,
relationship between variables.
We develop null and alternate hypotheses
Research Methodology
Lecture No : 6
(Hypothesis Development)
Recap
We learned to develop Hypotheses
statements
Directional ,non Directions
Relationship or Group Difference type
Null and Alternate statements
Statistical Notations
When testing the group differences we need to
Obtain the Mean of the focus variable by each group.
Example:
Mean Motivation Level of a group is obtained and it
is denoted by
(Motivation of a group)
We need to compare the Mean Motivation Level of
Men vs Women
(Motivation-Men) Vs (Motivation-Women)
Ho: =0
Group Difference
Ho:
Ha:
Ho:
Ha:
Directional
=0
>0
OR
<0
a=b
a>b
OR
a<b
Non-Directional
=0
#0
a=b
a # b
Example 1:
Example:2
RECAP
Hypothesis notations
Examples on how to develop hypothesis statements
Steps to test the hypothesis statements
Hypothesis testing through inductive method
Hypothesis testing with qualitative research
Research Methodology
Lecture No : 7
(Research Design)
RECAP
Hypotheses statements are stated in such way that
they can be easily testable
Hypotheses statement are written in directional, non
directional formats for testing group differences,
relationship between variables.
We develop null and alternate hypotheses
We now want to design the research in such a way
that the data can obtained and analyzed in away that
we arrive at a solution
2
Exploratory
Description
Hypotheses
Testing
Types of
Investigation
Establishing:
-Casual
relationship
- Correlation's
- Group
difference
ranks, etc.
Extent of
Researcher
interference
Minimal: studying
events as they
normally occur
Manipulation
Study setting
contrived
non-contrived
Measurement
& Measures
Operational
Definition
scaling
categorizing
coding
1. Feel for
data
2.Goofiness
of data
Units of analysis
(population to be
studied)
individuals
dyads
groups
organizations
\machines
etc
Sampling
design
Time horizon
Data collection
method
3. Hypothesis
Testing
Probability/
Non-probability
Sample size (n)
one-shot
(cross-sectional)
Longitudinal
Observation
Interview
Questionnaire
Physical
measurement
Un-obstructive
Exploratory Study
Exploratory studies are undertaken to better
comprehend the nature of the problem, since very
few studies might have been conducted in that area.
Extensive interviews with many people might have to
be undertaken to get handle on the situation and to
understand the phenomena.
After obtaining a better understanding, more
rigorous research proceed.
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Example : What is the role of virtual markets for e commerce ? (in 2005)
The recent development of the internet and the busy
life style of the people in the west, lots of the
individuals are showing interests in accessing
internet .
11
Descriptive Study:
A descriptive study is under taken in order to
ascertain and be able to describe the characteristics
of the variables of interest in a situation.
For instance a study of class in terms of the
percentage of members who are in their senior and
junior years, gender composition, age groupings,
number of semesters until graduation, and number
of business courses taken, can only be considered as
descriptive in nature
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Example:
A bank manager wants to have a profile of the
individuals who have loan payments outstanding for
six months and more. It would include details of their
average age, earnings, type of occupation they are
in, full time/part time employment status, and the
like.
This information might help to ask for further
information or make an immediate decision on the
types of individuals to whom he would not extend
loans in future.
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Example:
The ministry of science and technology wants to
know how many projects have failed, what were the
reasons. Out of the triple constraints (cost, time,
scope) how many failed due to scope constraint.
The information received can help tighten the scope
definition process at the MOST technology projects.
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Hypotheses Testing:
Hypothesis testing is undertaken to explain the
variance in the dependent variable or to predict
organizational outcomes.
Similar to the kind of examples we had discussed in
the theoretical framework chapter
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Example:
A Marketing manager would like to know the sales
of the company will increase if he doubles the
advertising dollars.
Here, the manager wants to know the nature of the
relationship between advertising and sales that can
be established by testing the hypothesis:
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Example:
A causal study question:
Does smoking cause cancer?
A correlational question:
Are smoking, chewing tobacco related to cancer ?
A causal study hypothesis:
Smoking causes cancer.
A correlational hypothesis:
Smoking and cancer are related
Chewing and cancer are related
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For example,
if a researcher wants to study the factors
influencing training effectiveness
(a correlational study),
the individual simply has to develop a
theoretical framework, collect the relevant
data, and analyze them to come up with the
findings.
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26
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Recap
We covered some of the research design elements
We talked about the research purpose
(exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis testing)
Type of investigation
(causal, correlations)
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Research Methodology
Lecture No : 8
(Research Design-continue)
Recap
We covered some of the research design elements
We talked about the research purpose
(exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis testing)
Type of investigation
(causal, correlations)
Example:
Select all new employees with the same scores in the
entry test and provide one group training and the
other no training and controlling that they are not
exposed to any senior employee who could guide
them.)
Dyads: If the researcher is interested in studying twoperson interactions, then several two-person groups,
is known as dyads and will become unit of analysis.
For example, if we wish to study group decisionmaking patterns, we would probably examining such
aspects as group size, group structure, cohesiveness,
and the like, in trying to explain the variance in group
decision making.
In such cases the unit of analysis will be groups.(use
of I.T by the different department)
Longitudinal Studies
In some cases, the researcher might want to
study people or phenomena at more than one
point in time in order to answer the research
question. For example, the researcher might
want to study employees behavior before and
after a change in the top management, to
learn the effects of change.
Scenarios
Following are some scenarios , for each indicate how
researcher should proceed, giving reasons:
1. Purpose of the study
2. Type of investigation
3. Researcher Interference
4. Study setting
5. Time Horizon
6. Unit of analysis
Recap
Research Design elements
Study setting
Time Horizon
Unit of analysis
Secnarios
Research Methodology
Lecture No : 9
(Measurement of Variables/Operational Definition)
Recap
Research Design elements
Study setting
Time Horizon
Unit of analysis
Measurement of Variables
In order to find answers to our question and in order
to test our hypothesis we need measure our
variables of concern.
Questions like
1. How long have you been working in this
organization?
2. What is your marital status ?
3. How much is your salary ?
4. What was the cost of last project ?
But some variables are abstract and subjective e.g.
satisfaction, happiness, achievement motivation,
effectiveness of the organization.
5
Steps to Operationalization
one needs the define component of the
concept.
Under each concept possible quantitative
measurable elements need to identified.
Against each developed concepts specific
questions could be formulated. The questions
could be supported by secondary data,
observation or self report
9
Operational Definition
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12
13
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15
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Recap
Measurement is necessary to give answers or to the
research question , or to test our hypotheses.
The opeationalizing of certain subjective variables
are necessary for measurement.
The abstract concepts are broken down to
dimensions and its elements.
Questions are formulated on them
Not to confuse dimensions with antecedents
20
Research Methodology
Lecture No : 10
(Measurement of Variables/Scales)
Recap
Measurement is necessary to give answers or to the
research question , or to test our hypotheses.
The opeationalizing of certain subjective variables
are necessary for measurement.
The abstract concepts are broken down to
dimensions and its elements.
Questions are formulated on them
Not to confuse dimensions with antecedents
Types of Scales
Four types of scales are used in research, each with
specific applications and properties. The scales are
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
Nominal Scale:
Simply the Nominal scale is count of the objects
belonging to different categories.
Ordinal Scale:
The ordinal scale positions objects in some order
( such as it indicates that pineapples are juicer then
apples and oranges are even more juicer than
pineapples)
7
Interval Scale:
It can gives us information as to what extent(level)
one is juicer than the other.
How much better is the pineapple than the apple
and orange is better than the pine apple.
Is pine apple only marginally better than the apple .
Ratio Scale:
It is most comprehensive scale, has all characteristics
of other scales.
Nominal Scales
Nominal scales are used to classify objects,
individuals, groups, or even phenomena.
Examples of nominal variables:
Gender
State of residence
Country
Ethnicity
10
11
2. Your department
___Production
___Sales
___Accounting
___Finance
___Personnel
___R & D
___Other (specify)
13
Ordinal Scales
These scales allow for labeling (or categorization) as
in nominal scales, but they also allow for ranking.
Example: Rate these vacation destinations in terms
of how much you would like to visit from one to five
with one your most preferred and five your least
preferred.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Bermuda
Florida
Hawaii
Aspen
London
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15
16
____Hewlett Packard
____IBM
____Packard Bell
____Sony
____Toshiba
17
Interval Scales
Contains the information available in ordinal scales
(ranking) but with the added benefit of magnitude of
ranking.
Interval scales have equal distances between the
points of a scale.
These scales can contain a zero point, but they are
subjective and are not meaningful (0 C = 32 F).
Temperature is an example of a interval scale
Permitted statistics; mean, median, mode, as well as
more advanced tests.
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1
Strongly
disagree
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Somewh
at
disagree
Neither
Somewhat
agree
Strongly
agree
19
Ratio Scale
The most comprehensive scale
Has all of the characteristics of the other three with
the additional benefit of an absolute, meaningful
zero point.
Examples include:
Weight
Sales volume
Income
Age
Permitted statistics same as with interval data.
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Balanced or Unbalanced
How good a car is Honda?
Very bad
Bad
Neither good nor bad
Good
Very good
Poor
Fair
Good
Very good
Excellent
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Very bad
Bad
Neither good nor bad
Good
Very good
No opinion
Dont know
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Rating Scales
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34
What sources did you use when designing your new home?
Please check all that apply.
Online planning services
Magazines
Independent contractor/builder
Designer
Architect
Other (specify:_____________)
35
Likert Scale
36
Semantic Differential
37
Numerical Scale
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Stapel Scales
Constant-Sum Scales
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Research Methodology
Lecture No : 11
(Goodness Of Measures)
Recap
Measurement is the process of assigning numbers or
labels to objects, persons, states of nature, or events.
Scales are a set of symbols or numbers, assigned by
rule to individuals, their behaviors, or attributes
associated with them
Goodness of Measure
Once we have operationalized, and assigned scales
we want to make sure that these instruments
developed measure the concept accurately and
appropriately.
Measure what is suppose to be measured
Measure as well as possible
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11
12
13
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15
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Validity
Definition: Whether what was intended to be
measured was actually measured?
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Face Validity
The weakest form of validity
Researcher simply looks at the measurement
instrument and concludes that it will measure what
is intended.
Thus it is by definition subjective.
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Content Validity
The degree to which the instrument items represent
the universe of the concepts under study.
In English: did the measurement instrument cover all
aspects of the topic at hand?
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Concurrent Validity
Is established when the scale discriminates
individuals who are known to be different that is
they should score differently on the test.
E.g. individuals who are happy at availing welfare
and individuals who prefer to do job must score
differently on a scale/ instrument which measures
work ethics.
Construct Validity
Does the measurement conform to some underlying
theoretical expectations. If so then the measure has
construct validity.
i.e. If we are measuring consumer attitudes about
product purchases then do the measure adhere to
the constructs of consumer behavior theory.
This is the territory of academic researchers
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Recap
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Research Methodology
Lecture No : 12
(Data Collection-Interview)
Recap
Primary Data
Primary Data = information obtained exclusively for
current research
Personal Interview
Focus Groups
Panels
Delphi Technique
Telephone Interview Computer assisted telephone
interviewing and Computer administered telephone
survey
Self-Administered Surveys
Secondary Data
Company Archives
Gov Publications
Industry Analysis
Focus Group
Panels
Interviews (face to face, telephone, electronic media)
Questionnaires (personally, mail, electronic)
Observation
Other (projective tests)
Focus Group:
Usually consist of 8 to 10 members , with a
moderator leading the discussion for 2 hours on a
particular topic, concept or product.
Member are chosen on the bases of their expertise
on the topic.
E.g Discussion on computers and computing , or
women mothers , social networking etc
Less expensive and usually done for exploratory
information. Cannot be generalized
6
Panels:
Similar to focus group but meets more than once in
order to study the change or interventions need to
be studies over a period of time.
Members are randomly chosen
E.g effect of advertisement of a certain brand need
to be assessed quickly, panel members could be
exposed to the advertisement and intention of
purchase could be assessed.
When the product is modified then the response of
the panel can be observed
Observation measures:
Methods through which primary data is collected
without the involving people.
E.g: Wear and tear of books , section of an office,
seating area of railway station which indicate the
popularity, frequency of use etc.
E.g: The number of cans in the dust bin and their
brands, the number of motor cycles vs cars parked in
the university parking lot
8
Interviewing:
Collect data from the respondent on an issue of
interest.
Usually administered at the exploratory stage of
the research.
In case large set of respondents are needed then
more than one interviewer are used , hence they
need to be trained so that biases , voice
inflections, difference in wording are avoided
Structured and Unstructured
Un Structured:
No planned sequence of questions, help in exploring
preliminary issues.
e.g. Tell me something about your unit and department
, and perhaps even the organization as a whole in
terms of work, employee and whatever else you
think is important
Compared to other departments, what are the
strengths and weakness of your department
10
11
12
Structured:
Know at the outset what information is needed.
Focusing on factors relevant to the problem.
The focus is on the factors which have surfaced
during the un structured interview.
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Listen carefully
Motivate the respondents
How to take notes
Built proper trust and rapport with interviewee
Clarification of complex issues
Physical setting
Explaining the reasons for research and criteria of
selection
Face to Face
Adv :Clarify doubts, repeating, rephrasing, getting
non verbal cues
Dis : vast resources required, cost, anonymity
Telephone:
Adv : Wider reach in short time, some time easy to
discuss personal information over the phone
Dis: Can be terminated without warning, cannot have
a prolonged interview, non verbal cue.
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Recap
The Data is collected from primary and secondary
sources
The primary data collect via
Observation, panels, interviews, questionnaires etc
Interview are structure and unstructured
While interviewing there are certain guidelines
There are structured and unstructed interviews
There are some advantages / disadvantages of face
to face vs telephone interviews .
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Research Methodology
Lecture No : 13
(Data Collection-Questionnaire)
Recap
The Data is collected from primary and secondary
sources
The primary data collect via
Observation, panels, interviews, questionnaires etc
Interview are structure and unstructured
While interviewing there are certain guidelines
There are structured and unstructed interviews
There are some advantages / disadvantages of face
to face vs telephone interviews .
2
Questionnaires
Data Collection is mechanism when the
researcher knows exactly what is required and
how to measure the variables of interest.
Types of Questionnaire:
Mail Questionnaires:
Wide geographical area can be reached, respondents
have flexibility of time , It is more cost effective but
the response rate is low,
Can improve by giving some incentives and doubts
cannot be clarified.
Biases in Questions:
Double Barreled:
Questions has more than one question within it.
E.g. Do you think that the course content is
adequate and it applicable at your work?
Ambiguous Question:
Respondent does not know what it means. E.g. To what
extent would you say you are happy?
Do you discuss you work with your boss regularly? Do
you go to movies frequently?
Frequently may mean once in a week, or once in a
month. Regularly may mean every day, or every week ,
or every month.
Recall Dependent:
Questions based on past experiences and rely on
memory.
E.g. After 30 years of work one would not
remember the first job details such as name of
the boss/ years worked in a department
Leading Questions:
Are worded in such a way that it would lead the
respondent to answer in a way that the
researcher would like to or want to give.
E.g. Dont you think that in these days of
escalating costs of living employee should be
given good pay raise?
Better.. To what extent do you agree that
employee should be given higher pay raise.
Example:
Dont you think that more women should be
promoted to decision making line positions in
organization
Loaded Questions:
Are when they are phrased in an emotionally
charged manner.
E.g. To what extent do you think management is
likely to be vindictive/(cruel) if the union decides to
go on strike.
Better. To what extent you favor strike To what
extent you fear that there would be a adverse
reaction from the management.
Social Desirability:
Is when questions are worded such that they
elicit(draw out) socially desirable response
e.g. Do you think that older people should be laid off?
..better
There are advantages and disadvantages to retaining
senior citizens in the workforce. To what extent do you
think companies should continue to keep the elderly
on their payroll.
Exercise
If you have been in the company for fifteen years
please indicate the year of joining or the name of you
colleague.
Bad question as it is recall dependent
Recap
Questionnaires
Personally Administered Questionnaires
Mail questionnaires
Guide line for wordings
Research Methodology
Lecture No :14
(Sampling Design)
Sampling
The process of selecting the right individuals,
objects, or events as representative of entire
population is known as sampling.
Population
Sample
Population
It refers to the entire group of people, events or
things of interest that the researcher wishes to
investigate.
Example: If regulators want to know how patients
in nursing homes run by a company in France are
cared for, then all the patients in all the nursing
homes run by them will from the population.
Element
An element is a single member of a population
Example: If 1000 blue collar workers(labor
workers) in a particular organization happen to be
the population of interest to a researcher, each
blue collar worker therein is an element.
Sample
A sample is a subset or subgroup of the
population. By studying the sample, the researcher
should be able to draw conclusions that are
generalizable to the population of interest.
Example: If there are 145 in-patients in a hospital
and 40 of them are to be surveyed by the hospital
administrator to access their level of satisfaction
with the treatment received, then these 40
members will be the sample.
Sampling unit
It is the element or set of elements that is available
for selection in some stage of sampling process.
Example: Sampling units in a multistage sample
are city blocks, households, and individuals within
the households.
Subject
It is a single member of the sample, just as an
element is a single member of the population.
Example: If a sample of 50 machines from a total
of 500 machines is to inspected, then everyone of
the 50 machines is a subject, just as every single
machine in the population of total population of
500 machines is an element
Parameters
The characteristics of the population such as the
population mean, the population standard
deviation, and the population variance are referred
to as its parameters.
Example: Average weight, , of all 30 year old
women in Australia, % of voters, p, in N.S.W who
think the Government is doing a good job to
control inflation.
we
are
interested
in
Example:
Recap
Sampling is the process of selecting the right
individuals
Sample is used to represent the whole data or
population
Sampling process include defining population,
sample frame, sampling design, sample size
and sampling process
Research Methodology
Lecture No :15
(Sampling Design / Probability vs Non probility)
Probability Sampling
Unrestricted or simple random sampling
Technique which ensures that each element in
the population has an equal chance of being
selected for the sample.
The simple random sampling is the least bias
and offer the most generalizability.
Probability Sampling
The major advantage
sampling is its simplicity.
of
The
sampling
process
cumbersome and expensive.
simple
random
could
become
Probability Sampling
Restricted or complex probability sampling:
It is an alternate to simple random sampling
design, several complex probability sampling
designs can be used.
Efficiency is improved in that more information
can be obtained for a given sample size using
the complex probability sampling procedures.
Probability Sampling
The most common complex probability sampling
design
1. Systematic sampling
2. Stratified sampling
3. Cluster sampling
1.
Area sampling
4. Double sampling
Probability Sampling
Systematic Sampling:
Technique in which an initial starting point is
selected by a random process, after which every
nth number on the list is selected to constitute
part of the sample.
Probability Sampling
Stratified Sampling:
Technique in which simple random subsamples
are drawn from within different strata that share
some common characteristic. Within the group
they are homogenous and among the group
they are heterogeneous.
Probability Sampling
Stratified Sampling
Example: The student body of CIIT is divided into
two groups (management science, engineering)
and from each group, students are selected for a
sample using simple random sampling in each of
the two groups, whereby the size of the sample for
each group is determined by that groups overall
strength.
Probability Sampling
Cluster Sampling
Technique in which the target population is first
divided into clusters. Then, a random sample of
clusters is drawn and for each selected cluster
either all the elements or a sample of elements
are included in the sample.
Cluster samples offer more heterogeneity within
groups and more homogeneity among groups
Probability Sampling
Area sampling
Specific type of cluster sampling in which clusters
consist of geographic areas such as counties, city
blocks, or particular boundaries within a locality.
Area sampling is less expensive than most other
sampling designs and it is not dependent on
sampling frame.
Key motivation in cluster sampling is cost
reduction.
Probability Sampling
Area sampling
Example: A city map showing the blocks of the city
is adequate information to allow the researcher to
take a sample of the blocks and obtain data from
the resident therein.
Example: If you wanted to survey the residents of
the city, you would get a city map, take a sample of
city blocks and select respondents within each city
block.
Probability Sampling
Single stage and multistage cluster sampling
Single stage cluster sampling involves the
division of population into convenient clusters,
randomly choosing the required number of
clusters as sample subjects, and investigating all
the elements in each of the randomly chosen
clusters
Cluster sampling can also be done in several
stages and is then known as multistage cluster
sampling.
Probability Sampling
Example: If we were to do a national survey of the
average monthly bank deposits, cluster sampling
would be used to select the urban, semi urban and
rural geographical location for study. At the next
stage particular areas in each of these locations
would be chosen. At the third stage, banks within
each area would be chosen.
Example:
Probability Sampling
Double sampling:
A sampling design where initially a sample is
used in a study to collect some preliminary
information of interest, and later a subsample of
this primary sample is use to examine the matter
in more detail.
Probability Sampling
Double sampling
Example: A structured interview might indicate that
a subgroup of respondents has more insight into
the problems of the organization. These
respondents might be interviewed again and again
and asked additional questions.
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling:
Sampling technique which selects those
sampling units most conveniently available at a
certain point in, or over a period, of time.
Non-Probability Sampling
Convenience Sampling:
Major advantages of convenience sampling is
that is quick, convenient and economical; a
major disadvantage is that the sample may not
be representative.
Convenience sampling is best used for the
purpose
of
exploratory
research
and
supplemented subsequently with probability
sampling.
Non-Probability Sampling
Judgment (purposive) Sampling:
Sampling technique in which the business
researcher selects the sample based on
judgment about some appropriate characteristic
of the sample members.
Example: Selection of certain students who are
active in the university activities to inquire about
the sports and recreation facilities at the university.
Recap
Simple random sampling and restricted
sampling are two basic types of probability
sampling.
Probability ( Simple Random, Systematic,
Cluster,
Single
stage/multistage,
Double
sampling)
Non Probability (Convenience, judgment)
Research Methodology
Lecture No :16
( Sampling / Non Probability, Confidence and Precision, Sample size)
Recap Lecture
Systematic ,stratified sampling, cluster, area and
double sampling are the common types of
complex sampling.
Convenience, judgment, quota and snowball
sampling are the common types of non
probability sampling.
Lecture Objectives
Non Probability Based sampling (Quota/snow
ball)
Discuss about the precision and the confidence.
Precision and Confidence
Factors to be taken into consideration for
determining sample size.
Managerial implications of sampling.
Non-Probability Sampling
Quota Sampling:
This is a sampling technique in which the business
researcher ensures that certain characteristics of a
population are represented in the sample to an
extent which is he or she desires.
Non-Probability Sampling
Quota Sampling
Example: A business researcher wants to determine
through interview, the demand for Product X in a
district which is very diverse in terms of its ethnic
composition.
If the sample size is to consist of 100 units, the
number of individuals from each ethnic group
interviewed should correspond to the groups
percentage composition of the total population of that
district.
Quota Sampling
Non-Probability Sampling
Snowball Sampling :
This is a sampling technique in which individuals
or organizations are selected first by probability
methods, and then additional respondents are
identified based on information provided by the
first group of respondents
Non-Probability Sampling
Snowball Sampling
The advantage of snowball sampling is that smaller
sample sizes and costs are necessary; a major
disadvantage is that the second group of
respondents suggested by the first group may be
very similar and not representative of the population
with that characteristic.
Example: Through a sample of 500 individuals, 20
antique car enthusiasts are identified which, in turn,
identify a number of other antique car enthuiasts
Confidence
Confidence denotes how certain we are that our
estimate will hold true for the population.
The level of confidence can range from 0 to
100%. However 95% confidence is the
conventionally accepted for most business
research.
Non-probability
Convenience
Simple
Random
Judgmental
Systematic
Quota
Stratified
Snowball
Cluster
Other Sampling
Techniques
Managerial Implications
Awareness of sampling designs and sample size
helps managers to understand why a particular
of sampling is used by researchers.
It also facilitates understanding of the cost
implications of different designs, and the trade
off between precision and confidence vis--vis
the costs.
Managerial Implications
This enables managers to understand the risk
they take in implementing changes based on the
results of the research study.
By reading journal articles, this knowledge also
helps managers to assess the generazibility of
the findings and analyze the implications of
trying out the recommendations made therein in
their own system.
Recap
Non Probability based sampling (
Precision we estimate the population parameter
to fall within a range, based on sample estimate.
Confidence is the certainty that our estimate will
hold true for the population.
Roscoe (1975) rules of thumb for determining
sample size.
Some sampling designs are more efficient than
the others.
The knowledge about sampling is used for
different managerial implications.
Research Methodology
Lecture No :17
(
Recap
Non Probability based sampling (
Precision we estimate the population parameter
to fall within a range, based on sample estimate.
Confidence is the certainty that our estimate will
hold true for the population.
Roscoe (1975) rules of thumb for determining
sample size.
Some sampling designs are more efficient than
the others.
The knowledge about sampling is used for
different managerial implications.
Objective
2 Research Papers
First Review Paper
Second Empirical Study
Title
Author(s)
Year of publication
Journal of publication
Key variables ( Independent, Dependent)
Relationships between variables
Model
Hypothesis
Method
Findings
Discussions
Implications
Future Directions
References
Qualitative Paper
Research Methodology
Lecture No :18
(Experimental Design)
Recap
Difference between
Research Paper Qualitative in nature
Research paper Empirical
Objective
Experimental Design
Causal vs Correlations
Field Experiment vs Lab Experiments
Causal Vs Correlation
What factor are related to decrease in sales ?
What causes the decrease in sales ?
Lab Experiment:
Tight Control on the confounding variables hence
higher internal validity
Manipulation of independent variable
Field Experiment:
Less control on confounding variable but good
external validity( Generalizability)
Manipulation of independent variable
Recap
Research Methodology
Lecture No :19
(Experimental Design-Cont)
Recap
Causal vs Correlation
Field Study vs Field Experiment
Control and Treatment
Confounding variables
controllable un controllable
Factors effecting Internal Validity
(History, Maturation, Testing
,selection Biases, Mortality..)
effect,
Instrument
Objective
Factors effecting External Validity
When Experimental Design is necessary
Different types of experimental Designs
Control Group
Experimental Group
Expose (Treatment)
Pretest score (Instrument)
Post Test Score (Instrument)
Difference
Posttest
(Problem , Matching ,Mortality Effect)
Recap
When to use experimental designs
Pretest and Posttest Experimental Group
Design
Posttests only with Experimental and Control
Group
Pretest and Posttest Experimental and Control
Group Design
Solomon Four Group Design
Research Methodology
Lecture No :20
(User Response to an Online Information System: A Field Experiment )
Recap
Experimental Design
When to use experimental designs
Pretest and Posttest Experimental Group Design
Posttests only with Experimental and Control
Group
Pretest and Posttest Experimental and Control
Group Design
Solomon Four Group Design
Objective
Review a research article which has applied an
experimental type of methodology
Title
Author(s)
Year of publication
Journal of publication
Key variables ( Independent, Dependent)
Relationships between variables
Model
Hypothesis
Method
Findings
Discussions
Implications
Future Directions
References
Abstract
Literature Gap
Hypothesis
Null Hypothesis
1(1.1,1.2,1.3,1.4,1.5,1.6)
Field Settings
Research Design
Measures
Measurement/Scales
Results
Research Methodology
Lecture No : 21
Data Preparation and Data Entry
Recap Lecture
In the last few lectures we discussed about:
Research Design
The purpose, investigation type, researcher
interference, study setting, unit of analysis, time
horizon, Measurement of variables
Sources of Data
Sampling
Experimental Design
Lecture Objectives
Getting the data ready for analysis
Data preparation
Coding, codebook, pre-coding, coding rules
Data entry
Editing data
Data transformation
Coding
Data coding involves assigning a number to the
participants responses so, they can be entered into
data base.
In coding, categories are the partitions of a data set
of a given variable. For instance, if the variable is
gender, the categories are male and female.
Categorization is the process of using rules to
partition a body of data.
Both closed and open questions must be coded.
Coding Cont.
Code Construction
There are two basic rules for code construction.
First, the coding categories should be
exhaustive, meaning that a coding category
should exist for all possible responses.
For example, household size might be coded 1,
2, 3, 4, and 5 or more.
The 5 or more category assures all subjects of
a place in a category.
Codebook
A codebook contains each variable in the study
and specifies the application of coding rules to
the variable.
It is used by the researcher or research staff to
promote more accurate and more efficient data
entry.
It is the definitive source for locating the
positions of variables in the data file during
analysis.
Sample Codebook
Pre-coding
One of the primary reasons for using openended questions is that insufficient information
or lack of a hypothesis may prohibit preparing
response categories in advance. Researchers
are forced to categorize responses after the data
are collected.
Coding Rules
Appropriate to the
research problem
Exhaustive
Categories
should be
Mutually exclusive
Data Entry
After responses have been coded, they can be
entered into data base.
Raw data can be entered through any software
program.
For example: SPSS Data Editor.
Keyboarding
Digital/
Barcodes
Optical
Recognition
Voice
recognition
Editing Data
After data entered, the blank responses, if any,
have to be handled in some way, and
inconsistent data have to be checked and
followed up.
Data editing deals with detecting and correcting
illogical, inconsistent, or illegal data and
omissions in the information returned by the
participants of study.
Arranged for
simplification
Consistent
Criteria
Complete
Uniformly
entered
Field Editing
Field Editing Review
Entry Gaps Callback
Validates Re-interviewing
Validates Re-interviewing
The field supervisor also validates field results
by re-interviewing some percentage of the
respondents on some questions to verify that
they have participated.
Ten percent is the typical amount used in data
validation.
Central Editing
Scale of Study Number of Editors
At this point, the data should get a thorough
editing.
For a small study, a single editor will produce
maximum consistency.
For large studies, editing tasks should be
allocated by sections.
to
spot
with
open-ended
Data Transformation
Data transformation, a variation of data coding,
is a process of changing the original numerical
representation of a quantitative value to another
value.
E.g: The data given is in per year consumption
and we need it for each month.
Data are typically changed to avoid problems in
the next stage of data analysis process.
Recap
Questionnaire checking involves eliminating
unacceptable questionnaires.
These questionnaires may be incomplete,
instructions not followed, missing pages, past
cutoff date or respondent not qualified.
Editing looks to correct illegible, incomplete,
inconsistent and ambiguous answers.
Coding typically assigns alpha or numeric codes
to answers that do not already have them so that
statistical
techniques
can
be
applied.
Recap Cont.
Cleaning reviews data for consistencies.
Inconsistencies may arise from faulty logic, out
of range or extreme values.
Statistical adjustments applies to data that
requires weighting and scale transformations.
Research Methodology
Lecture No : 22
Introduction to SPSS
Recap
Questionnaire checking involves eliminating
unacceptable questionnaires.
Editing looks to correct illegible, incomplete,
inconsistent and ambiguous answers.
Coding typically assigns numeric codes to
answers that do not already have them so that
statistical techniques can be applied.
Some times we need to treat the missing
values.
Recap Cont.
Cleaning reviews data for consistencies.
Inconsistencies may arise from faulty logic, out
of range or extreme values.
Statistical adjustments applies to data that
requires weighting and scale transformations.
objective
How to use SPSS for Data entry
Defining variables
Assigning them values
Assigning sizes and constraints
Data entry using data from coded Questionnaires
Job
Satisfaction
Intention to
Leave
Research Methodology
Lecture No :23
(Feel of the Data)
Recap Lecture
In the last lecture we discussed about:
Lecture Objectives
Getting the feel for the data
Frequencies
Bar charts and pie charts
Histogram
Stem and leaf display
Pareto diagram
Box plot
SPSS cross tabulation
Frequencies
Frequencies simply refer to the number of times
various subcategories of a certain phenomenon
occur,
Percentage and the cumulative percentage of
their occurrence can be easily calculated.
Frequency Cont.
Bar Chart
In this slide, the same data are presented in the
form of a bar chart. (Nominal Data)
Pie Chart
Data may be more readily understood when
presented graphically. (Nominal Data)
Histogram
A histogram is a graphical bar chart that groups
continuous data values into equal intervals, with
one bar for each interval. (Ratio Data)
Histogram Cont.
Stem-and-Leaf Display
(e.g. Annual Purchase)
Pareto Diagram
Pareto diagrams represent frequency data as a
bar chart, ordered from most to least, overlaid
with a line graph
(Nominal Data)
The cumulative percentage at each variable
level is shown.
The percentages sum to 100 percent.
Coke
Mrinda
Sprite
Amrit
Obs1
x
x
obs2
x
x
obs3..Frequency
x
3
1
1
x
1
Boxplot Components
The boxplot, or box-and-whisker plot, is another
technique used frequently in exploratory data
analysis.
A boxplot reduces the detail of the stem-and-leaf
display and provides a different visual image of
the distributions location,
spread,
shape,
tail length,
outliers.
Boxplot Comparison
SPSS Cross-Tabulation
Cross-tabulation is a technique for comparing
data from two or more categorical variables
(Nominal Data).
It is used with demographic (male/female)
variables and the studys target variables (taken
overseas assignment).
The technique uses tables having rows and
columns that correspond to the levels or code
values of each variables categories.
Percentages in Cross-Tabulation
Percentages serve two purposes in data
presentation.
They simplify the data by reducing all numbers
to a range from 0 to 100. (Standardize)
They also translate the data into standard form
with a base of 100 for relative comparisons.
Recap
Frequency refers to number of times various sub
categorizes occur in the same pattern.
Frequencies can also be visually displayed as
bar charts, histograms, or pie charts.
Histogram is graphical bar chart.
The stem-and-leaf presents actual data values
that can be inspected directly.
Recap Cont.
A boxplot reduces the detail of the stem-and-leaf
display.
Cross-tabulation is a technique for comparing
data from two or more categorical variables.
Percentages serve two purposes in data
presentation.
Research Methodology
Lecture No :24
Recap Lecture
In the last lecture we discussed about:
Frequencies
Bar charts and pie charts
Histogram
Stem and leaf display
Pareto diagram
Box plot
SPSS cross tabulation
Lecture Objectives
Getting the feel for the data
Measure of central tendency
Measure of Dispersion
Relationship Between Variables
Test
Measure of Dispersion
Dispersion is the variability that exist in a set of
observations.
Two sets of data might have the same mean, but
the dispersion could be different.
mean
sdv
54
50
50
34
50
50
35
35
67
87
51.2
51.2
11.43241
21.46392
Pearson Correlation
Rank Correlations
To test the strength and direction of
association that exists between two
variables
The variables are using ordinal scale
E.g Students score in two different exams
i.e. English and Math
Correlations (SPSS)
Bi vitiate
Spearman
Check for value of r and P
Reliability
The reliability of a measure is established by
testing for both consistency and stability.
Consistency indicates how well the items
measured a concept having together as a set.
Reliability Cont.
Cronbachs alpha is a reliability coefficient that
indicates how well the items in a set are
positively correlated to one another.
Cronbachs alpha is computed in terms of the
average intercorrelations among the items
measuring the concept.
The closer Cronbachs alpha is to one, the
higher the internal consistency reliability.
Reliability Cont.
Another measure of consistency reliability used
in specific situations is the split half reliability
coefficient.
Split half reliability is obtained to test for
consistency when more than one scale,
dimensions, or factor is assessed.
Validity
Factorial validity can be established by
submitting the data for factor analysis.
Factor analysis reveals whether the dimensions
are indeed tapped by the items in the measure,
as theorized.
Validity Cont.
Criterion related validity can be established by
testing for the power of the measure to
differentiate individuals who are known to be
different.
Validity Cont.
Convergent validity can be established when
there is high degree of correlation between two
different sources responding to the same
measure.
Example: Both supervisors and subordinates
respond similarly to a perceived reward system
measure administered to them.
Validity Cont.
Discriminant validity can be established when
two distinctly different concepts are not
correlated to each other .
Example: Courage and honesty, leadership and
motivation, attitudes and behaviors.
SPSS
Cronbach Alpha (Reliability)
Factor Analysis (Validity)
Recap
Goodness of data is measured by reliability and
validity.
Three measures of central tendency: mean,
median and mode.
Dispersion is the variability.
Three measures of dispersion are: range,
variance and standard deviation.
Correlation
SPSS Cronbach Alpha (Reliability) Factor
Analysis (Validity)
Research Methodology
Lecture No :25
(Hypothesis Testing Difference in Groups)
Recap
Goodness of data is measured by reliability and
validity.
Three measures of central tendency: mean, median
and mode.
Dispersion is the variability.
Three measures of dispersion are: range, variance
and standard deviation.
Correlation
SPSS Cronbach Alpha (Reliability) Factor Analysis
(Validity)
Hypotheses Testing
Difference between groups
Relationship between variables
Types of Hypotheses
Null
that no statistically significant difference exists between
the groups
No Statistically significant relationship exists between
variables
Alternative
logical opposite of the null hypothesis
that a statistically significant difference does exist
between groups
That statistically significant relationship exists
Computer Outputs
See the output results of the computer generated
outputs indicating the significance level.
SPSS
Analysis Compare means One sample T Test.
Say you set the significance level to 0.05 then
See the output results of generated from the
software. See if the differences are significant or the
relationship significant. (lecture 6-7)
If the differences are not significant then we accept
the null hypotheses other wise accept the alternate
Out Put (T value and significance level)
SPSS
use pair t test and see the value of t and its
significance level
If the differences are not significant then we accept
the null hypotheses other wise accept the alternate
Meaning the before and after training there was no
change i.e. Null hypothesis is accepted
There is no difference between the performance
of before and after the training
SPSS excercises
Research Methodology
Lecture No :26
(Hypothesis Testing Relationship)
Recap
Null and Alternate hypotheses
Choosing the appropriate test based on
number of variables and the type of scales
Setting criteria for acceptance and rejection
(significance level)
Group difference
Objective
Hypothesis testing the
relationship/Association
Correlations
Regression
We already know
Descriptive versus Inferential Statistics
Statistic versus Parameter
Continuous(Ratio, Interval) versus Discrete
Variables (Nominal, Ordinal)
Measures of Central Tendency
Measures of Variability
Parametric (data normal distribution) Vs.
Nonparametric (no need for normal
distribution)
Measure association
Pearson correlation coefficient
r symbolized the coefficient's estimate of linear
association based on sampling data
Correlation coefficients reveal the magnitude and
direction of relationships
Coefficients sign (+ or -) signifies the direction of
the relationship
Assumptions of r
Linearity
Bivariate normal distribution
Regression
Inferential statistics
Simple Regression
(One independent and One Dependent variable)
Lowering the salary influences the performance
Multiple Regressions
When simultaneously multiple independent
variables influence the dependent variables
Independent variables jointly are regressed
Need interval or ratio scale to use regression
Multi Regression
Examples
A study in behavior consider many variables
influencing the an individual intentions
The researcher is interested to test the role of
attitude , subjective norms and perceived
behavior control.
They theorize the model as attitude ,
subjective norms and perceived behavior
control effects the intentions.
SubNorm
PBC
Intent
Behavior
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Pearson Correlation
Sig. (2-tailed)
N
Attitude
1
SubNorm
.472**
.000
60
60
.472**
1
.000
60
60
.665**
.505**
.000
.000
60
.767**
.000
60
.525**
.000
60
60
.411**
.001
60
.379**
.003
60
PBC
.665**
.000
60
.505**
.000
60
1
60
.458**
.000
60
.496**
.000
60
Intent
Behavior
.767**
.525**
.000
.000
60
60
.411**
.379**
.001
.003
60
60
.458**
.496**
.000
.000
60
1
60
.503**
.000
60
60
.503**
.000
60
1
60
Model Summary
Model
1
R
.774a
R Square
.600
Adjusted
R Square
.578
Std. Error of
the Estimate
2.48849
ANOVAb
Model
1
Regression
Residual
Total
Sum of
Squares
519.799
346.784
866.583
df
3
56
59
Mean Square
173.266
6.193
Model
1
Attitude
SubNorm
PBC
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
.807
.095
-.126
t
6.966
.946
-1.069
Sig.
.000
.348
.290
F
27.980
Sig.
.000a
Research Methodology
Lecture No :27
(Sample Research Project Using SPSS Part -A)
Recap
Hypothesis testing the
relationship/Association
Correlations
Regression
Objective
Develop a research project from the start
Problem definition
Importance of research
Gap
Research objective/ questions
Introduction and Literature review
Theoretical framework
Methodology
Gap
A number of researcher have conducted research
to find the antecedents to knowledge sharing (ref
ref ..ref..)
Among them some also have explored the
knowledge sharing from the cognitive level (ref
., ref ..)
But just one has studied knowledge sharing from
the project management aspect and
recommends that more research is needed (ref
.)
Introduction
What is knowledge
What is a project
Role of Project manager
Specifics of project experience
Behavior and Intentions
Intentions formation
Theory of Reasoned Action
Literature Review
Knowledge sharing can be defined as a process of
conveying knowledge from a person to another and also to
collect shared knowledge through information and
technology (Hwie Seo et al., 2003)..
Riege (2005) lists three dozen of these barriers which need
to be addressed in order to implement a knowledge
management strategy. One way to understand the effect of
these barriers is through the Theory of Reasoned Action
(TRA). TRA helps us understand the cognitive process of
formation of intentions and it has been successfully used in
numerous studies to understand intentions and predict
behavior (Sheppard et al., 1998)
One study by tried to study the .knowledge sharing of
projects .. and recommended more to be conducted..
Theoretical Framework
The attitude towards a specific action will lead to formation
of intentions , which will lead to the behavior ..
Knowledge sharing is one such act , if you have attitude
towards sharing then you would also show intent to share.
The norms influences the behavior, individual get
influenced by the people around them specially the people
who they consider important. If the norms of the important
people is to share then and then individuals are influenced
by that but it also important that to note that individuals
motivation to comply with the norm is also important ins
determining the effect norms in an organization
Schematic Diagram
Attitude
towards
sharing
project
knowledge
Subjective
Norm for
sharing projects
knowledge
Normative Belief
Motivation to
Comply
position
Nature
Intention to
share project
knowledge
Hypotheses
H1: The higher the attitude towards projects knowledge sharing the
higher the intentions to share PROJECT knowledge.
H2: The higher the subjective norm of projects knowledge sharing the
higher the intentions to share projects knowledge.
H3: The higher the subjective norm the higher the attitude to share
projects knowledge
H4: The attitude mediates the relationship between subjective norm and
intentions
H5: The women have higher level of sharing their knowledge about
projects then men
H6: The project managers permanent /temporary positions at the
company would moderate the relationship between attitude and
intentions
Methods
Population : Senior I.T project managers in the 150 software
house of Islamabad.
Sample: Randomly select 50 companies and approach
around 150 senior managers to be part of the study.
A 5-point Likert scale anchored by strongly disagree (1) to
strongly agree (5) is used. It is ensured that not more
than 3 responses per firms are obtained.
Data collection: Adapted Questionnaire from (ref )
personally administered or Mailed
Feel of data ( Descriptive Analysis- Mean, Percentage)
Goodness of Data (Reliability and Validity-Cron Bach,
Factor Analysis)
Group Difference ( Independent sample T test)
Inferential Statistics : Correlations and Regression Analysis
Instrument
Research Methodology
Lecture No :28
(Sample Research Project Using SPSS Part -B)
Recap
Develop a research project from the start
Problem definition
Importance of research
Gap
Research objective/ questions
Introduction and Literature review
Theoretical framework
Methodology
Objectives
Analysis using SPSS
Descriptive
Reliability (Cron Bach Alpha)
Validity ( Factor Analysis)
Correlations
Regression
Interpretations
Schematic Diagram
Attitude
towards
sharing
project
knowledge
Subjective
Norm for
sharing projects
knowledge
Normative Belief
Motivation to
Comply
position
Nature
Intention to
share project
knowledge
Instrument
Reliability
Reliability Statistics
Cronbach's Alpha N of Items
.734
5
Correlation
Research Methodology
Lecture No :29
(Sample Research Project Using SPSS Part -C)
Recap
Develop a research project from the start
Problem definition
Importance of research
Gap
Research objective/ questions
Introduction and Literature review
Theoretical framework
Methodology
Apply SPSS for Data Analysis
Descriptive and Reliability
Recap
Analysis using SPSS
Descriptive
Reliability (Cron Bach Alpha)
Validity ( Factor Analysis)
Correlations
Regression
Interpretations
Objectives
Moderation
Mediation
Group difference (Independent Sample t Test)
Moderation
Scenario
Anxiety level effects the depression level of the
individuals. But the relationship is moderated by
Anxiety Free days.
To test the moderation we need to have develop
hierarchical regression equations and see if there is
any change in the R-square. If the change is
significant then we claim there is moderation
Step 1 : Create a new interaction variable Anxiety
level * Anxiety Free days
Analyze
Descriptive Statistics
Select the variables
Save standardized values
Transform
Compute
New variable (Interaction)
Target Z score variables (*)
okay
Schematic Diagram
Attitude
towards
sharing
project
knowledge
Subjective
Norm for
sharing projects
knowledge
Normative Belief
Motivation to
Comply
position
Nature
Intention to
share project
knowledge
Mediation
Barron & Kenny method
HC
Hc
b
PF
PF
a
c=PF=f(HC)=0.374,P=0.003
a=cc= f(HC)
b=Pf=f(cc)
cc
=f(HC,CC)=0.12388,P=0.2053
If becomes zero then full mediation exists other wise
it will be partial mediation.
Group Difference
Independent Sample T test ( Intentions and
Gender)
Anova ( intentions and education levels)
Research Methodology
Lecture No :30
(Research Output Discussions and Report Format)
Objectives
Findings and Discussion section of the research
Research Report Layout
Title
Introduction
A brief literature review
Research Questions
Theoretical Framework
Hypothesis
Method section
Study Design (cross sectional , )
Population and Sample
Data Analysis
Discussion of Results
Recommendations
Research Methodology
Lecture No :31
(Revision Chapter 1,2,3,4,5,6,7)
Introduction
Overview of the course :
Business research is an organized and deliberate
process through which organization effectively learn
new knowledge and help improve performance.
Introduction
Overview of the course :
Business research is an organized and
deliberate process through which organization
effectively learn new knowledge and help
improve performance.
Introduction
Research is a
Systematic effort to investigate a problem
Types of research
Applied (solve a current problem of org)
Basic (improve understanding of a problem)
Research Philosophical Choice
Deduction / Induction
Why managers should know about research
Identify problems , discriminate b/w good and bad
research, appreciate the multiple influences of different
factors ,etc.
Problem/Literature/Question
Identification of the broad problem area
Preliminary information gathering through
interviews and literature survey
Problem definition
Literature Review involves searching and
documenting
There is a structure of review (importance,
objectives, definitions, relationships identified,
gaps)
There are different formats of Documenting (APA)
Based on the gaps identify your research
objectives/problem definition/research questions
Hypotheses
In order statistically respond to the research
questions we develop the Hypotheses statements.
These statements are stated in such way that they
can be easily testable
Hypotheses statement are written in directional, non
directional formats for testing group differences,
relationship between variables.
We develop null and alternate hypotheses
Group Difference
Ho:
Ha:
Ho:
Ha:
Directional
=0
>0
OR
<0
a=b
a>b
OR
a<b
Non-Directional
=0
#0
a=b
a # b
Research Design
We covered some of the research design elements
We talked about the research purpose
(exploratory, descriptive, hypothesis testing)
Type of investigation
(causal, correlations)
Extent of researcher's interference
(High, moderate, low)
Types of
Investigation
Extent of
Researcher
interference
Study setting
Measuremen
t
& Measures
1. Feel for
data
Exploratory
Description
Hypotheses
Testing
Establishing:
-Casual
relationship
- Correlation's
- Group
difference
ranks, etc.
Minimal: studying
events as they
normally occur
Manipulation
contrived
non-contrived
Operational
Definition
scaling
categorizing
coding
2.Goofiness
of data
Units of analysis
(population to be
studied)
individuals
dyads
groups
organizations
\machines
etc
Sampling
design
Time horizon
Data collection
method
3. Hypothesis
Testing
Probability/
Non-probability
Sample size (n)
one-shot
(cross-sectional)
Longitudinal
Observation
Interview
Questionnaire
Physical
measurement
Un-obstructive
Opertionalization
Measurement is necessary to give answers or to the
research question , or to test our hypotheses.
The opeationalizing of certain subjective variables
are necessary for measurement.
The abstract concepts are broken down to
dimensions and its elements.
Questions are formulated on them
Not to confuse dimensions with antecedents
14
15
Research Question/Items
for the five Dimensions
16
Scales
Measurement means that scales are used.
Scales are a set of symbols or numbers, assigned by
rule to individuals, their behaviors, or attributes
associated with them
Nominal , Ordinal, Interval, Ratio
17
Goodness of Data
Four types of scales are used in research, each with
specific applications and properties. The scales are
Nominal
Ordinal
Interval
Ratio
18
Research Methodology
Lecture No :32
(Revision Chapters 8,9,10,11,SPSS)
Data Collection
The Data is collected from primary and secondary
sources
The primary data collect via
Observation, panels, interviews, questionnaires etc
Interview are structure and unstructured
While interviewing there are certain guidelines
There are structured and unstructed interviews
There are some advantages / disadvantages of face
to face vs telephone interviews .
2
Questionnaire Design
Questionnaires
Personally Administered Questionnaires
Mail questionnaires
Guide line for wordings
Sampling
Sampling is the process of selecting the right
individuals
Sample is used to represent the whole data or
population
Sampling process include defining population,
sample frame, sampling design, sample size and
sampling process
Sampling
Simple random sampling and restricted sampling are
two basic types of probability sampling.
Probability: Probability of selection is known
Non Probability : Probability is not known
Sampling
Precision we estimate the population parameter
to fall within a range, based on sample estimate.
Confidence is the certainty that our estimate will
hold true for the population.
Sample size.
Some sampling designs are more efficient than
the others.
The knowledge about sampling is used for
different managerial implications.
Non-probability
Convenience
Simple Random
Judgmental
Systematic
Quota
Stratified
Snowball
Cluster
Other Sampling
Techniques
Experimental Design
Causal vs Correlations
Experimental Design
Field Experiment vs Lab Experiments
Experimental Design
Experimental Designs
When to use experimental designs
Pretest and Posttest Experimental Group Design
Posttests only with Experimental and Control Group
Pretest and Posttest Experimental and Control Group
Design
Solomon Four Group Design
(Data Analysis)
Getting Data Ready
Questionnaire checking involves eliminating unacceptable
questionnaires.
These questionnaires may be incomplete, instructions not
followed, missing pages, past cutoff date or respondent not
qualified.
Editing looks to correct illegible, incomplete, inconsistent and
ambiguous answers.
Coding typically assigns alpha or numeric codes to answers
that do not already have them so that statistical techniques
can
be
applied.
(DATA ANALYSIS)
Hypotheses Testing using SPSS
How to use SPSS for Data entry
Defining variables
Assigning them values
Assigning sizes and constraints
Data entry using data from coded Questionnaires
Serial number the questionnaire
SPSS
Frequency refers to number of times various sub
categorizes occur in the same pattern.
Frequencies can also be visually displayed as bar
charts, histograms, or pie charts.
Histogram is graphical bar chart.
The stem-and-leaf presents actual data values that
can be inspected directly.
SPSS
A boxplot reduces the detail of the stem-and-leaf
display.
Cross-tabulation is a technique for comparing data
from two or more categorical variables.
Percentages serve two purposes in data
presentation.
SPSS
Three measures of central tendency: mean, median
and mode.
Dispersion is the variability.
Three measures of dispersion are: range, variance
and standard deviation.
Correlation
Goodness of data is measured by reliability and
validity.
SPSS Cronbach Alpha (Reliability) Factor Analysis
(Validity)
SPSS-Hypotheses Testing
Hypothesis testing(Difference between
groups, Relationship)
Null and Alternate Hypotheses
Choose appropriate test
Significance
Group difference
Hypothesis Testing
Hypothesis testing the relationship/Association
Correlations
Regression
Research Proposal
The purpose of the study
The specific problem to be investigated/problem
statement/ Research Questions
The scope of the study/what is covered and not
covered.
The relevance of the study/importance
The research design offering detail on
Sampling, data collection methods, data analysis,
Time frame
The budget
Title
Introduction
A literature review
Research Questions
Theoretical Framework
Hypothesis
Method section
Study Design (cross sectional , )
Population and Sample
Final Words
You have by now developed basic research skills not
necessarily become an expert.
But as a managers / students should be able
differentiate between good or bad research.
You also by now recognized research is an integral
part of the organization reality and can improve the
organization.
Should be able to appreciate that for any problem a
scientific way to address is by identifying its factors
and collecting data systematically on it so that the
results would be have some credibility in the industry
and academia as well