HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

Overview
-

Most of us are naturally curious about our bodies; we want to know what
makes us tick
Infants stare at their own hands for a long period of time
Children wonder where food goes when they swallow it
Some believe they could grow a watermelon in their belly if they swallow the
seeds
Scream loudly when approached by medical personnel but like to play
doctors

Anatomy
-

Study of the structure & shape of the body & body parts & their relationships
to one another
If we study large body structures (heart & bones) we are observing gross
anatomy
Derived from Greek words to cut (tomy) apart (ana)
On the other hand, if a microscope or magnifying instrument is used to see
very small structures in the body microscopic anatomy

Physiology
-

Study of how the body & its parts work or function

(physio) nature; (ology) the study of
Like anatomy, physiology has many subdivisions:
- Neurophysiology explains the workings of the NS
- Cardiac physiology studies the function of the heart w/c acts as a
muscular pump to keep blood flowing throughout the body

Relationship B/W Anatomy and Physiology

In the real world, ana & physio are always related
The parts of our body form a well-organized unit, & each of those parts has a job
to do to make the body operate as a whole
Structures determine what functions can take place
Ex. the lungs are not muscular chambers like the heart & cannot pump blood
through the body, but because the walls of their sacs are very thin, they can
exchange gases & provide oxygen to the body
The intimate relationship b/w anatomy & physiology is stressed throughout this
book to make your learning meaningful

Levels of Structural Organization

From Atoms to Organisms
The human body exhibits many levels of structural complexity
Simplest level of the structural ladder is the chemical level, w/c we will study
later on
At this level, atoms tiny building blocks of matter, combine to form molecules
such as water, sugar, & proteins
Molecules in turn associate in specific ways to form microscopic cells the
smallest units of all living things; simplest living creatures are composed of single
cells, but in complex organisms like human beings, the structural ladder
continues on to the tissue level
Tissues consist of groups of similar cells that have a common function; each of
the 4 basic tissue types plays a definite but different role in the body
Organ is a structure composed of 2 or more tissue types that performs a
specific function for the body; at the organ level of organization, extremely
complex functions become possible; ex. Small int. w/c digests & absorbs food is
composed of all four tissue types; all the bodys organs are grouped so that a
number of organ systems are formed
An organ system is a grp. Of organs that cooperate to accomplish a common
purpose; ex. digestive system includes the esophagus, stomach, & sml. & large
int. (to name a few); each organ has its own job to do & working together, they
keep food moving through the DS so that it is properly broken down & absorbed
in the blood, providing fuel to all body cells
In all, 11 organ systems make up the organism w/c presents the highest level of
structural organization, the organismal level
Organ Systems Overview

Integumentary System external covering of the body, or the skin; it

waterproofs the body & cushions & protects the deeper tissues from injury; also
secretes salts & urea (perspiration) & helps regulate body temp.; temperature,
pressure, & pain receptors located in the skin alert us to what happening at the
body surface
Skeletal System consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, & joints; supports
the body & provides a framework that the skeletal muscles use to cause
movement; also has protective function (skull encloses the brain);
hematopoieisis (formation of blood cells) goes on w/n the cavities of the
skeleton; hard substance of bones acts as a storehouse for minerals
Muscular System have only 1 function to contract/shorten, when this
happens, movement occurs; can be viewed as machines of the body; mobility of

the body as a whole reflects the activity of the skeletal muscles the large fleshy
muscles attached to the bones; form the muscular system; these muscles are
distinct from the muscles of the heart & other hollow organs w/c move fluids or
other substances along definite pathways w/n the body
Nervous System bodys fast-acting control system; consists of the brain,
spinal cord, nerves, & sensory receptors; must be able to respond to stimuli from
the outside & inside then send messages to CNS, the CNS in return assess the
info & responds by activating the appropriate body muscle or glands
Endocrine System like the NS it controls the body activities, but acts more
slowly; produce molecules called hormones & release them into the blood to
travel to relatively distant target organs; include the pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid,
adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal, ovaries & testes
Cardiovascular System composed of heart & blood vessels; blood as the
transporting fluid, the CS carries O2, nutrients, hormones, & other substances to
& from the tissue cells where exchanges are made
Lymphatic System complementary (interdependent) to CS; include lymphatic
vessels, lymph nodes, & other lymphoid organs (spleen & tonsils); return fluid
leaked from the blood to the bld. vessels so that blood can be kept continuously
circulating through the body; lymph nodes help to cleanse the blood & house the
cells involved in immunity
Respiratory System keep the body constantly supplied w/ O2 & remove
Carbon dioxide; consists of the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, & lungs; w/n the lungs are tiny air sacs where gas exchanges (through
the thin walls) are made to & from the blood
Digestive System basically a tube running through the body from mouth to
anus, include oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small & large intestines, &
rectum; break down food & deliver the products to the blood for dispersal to the
body cells; breakdown activities begin in the mouth, ends in the sml. Intestine;
include liver & pancreas
Urinary System removes wastes like nitrogen-containing waste (urea & uric
acid) w/c results from the breakdown of proteins & nucleic acids; often called
excretory system, composed of kidneys, ureters, bladder, & urethra; also
maintains body water & salt balance & acid-base balance of the blood
Reproductive System exists primarily to produce offspring; male RS includes
testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands, & duct system; female RS include
ovary, uterine tubes, uterus, & vagina

Maintaining Life
Necessary Life Functions

human beings maintain their boundaries, move, respond to envtal changes,

takes in & digest nutrients, carry out metabolism, dispose of wastes,
reproduce themselves, & grow
Organs work to promote well-being of entire body

Maintaining Boundaries
-

Every cell of the human body is surrounded by an external membrane

The body as a whole is enclosed by integumentary system protects internal
organs from drying out, from bacteria, from damaging effects of heat, sunlight,
chemical substances in the external envt

Movement
-

Includes all activities promoted by MS

Responsiveness
-

Or irritability ability to sense changes in the envt & react to them

Digestion
-

Process of breaking down ingested food into simple molecules that can be
absorbed into the blood; one-celled organism

Metabolism
-

All chemical reactions that occur w/n body cells; includes breaking down
complex substances into simpler building blocks; depends on the DS & RS, &
on CS

Excretion
-

Process of removing excreta, form the body; DS rids body of indigestible food
residues in feces; US disposes nitrogen-containing metabolic wastes in urine

Reproduction
-

Production of offspring; can occur on cellular/organismal level; cellular cell

divides producing 2 identical daughter cells; organismal sperm unites w/
egg, develops into baby

Growth
-

Increase in size
(inc. in no. of cells)

Survival Needs
-

Nutrients contain chemicals used for energy & cell building

O2 20% of the air we breathe
Water 60-80% of body wt.
Body temp. must be maintained at 37C (98F)
Atmospheric pressure force exerted on the surface of the body by the wt. of
air; breathing & exchange of O2 & CO2
All of these must be present in appropriate amounts

Homeostasis
-

Bodys ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions even though the
outside world is continuously changing (homeo=the same, stasis=standing
still); dynamic state of equilibrium
Body is in homeostasis when its needs are being adequately met & its
functioning smoothly

Homeostatic Control Mechanism

-

All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least 3 components:

Receptor some type of sensor that monitors & responds to changes
(stimuli) in the envt; sends info to control center through afferent pathway
Control center analyzes info it receives & determines appropriate response
or course of action
Effector provides the means for the control centers response to the
stimulus through efferent pathway; results of the response feed back to
influence stimulus, either depressing it (negative feedback), or enhancing it (+
feedback tends to increase original disturbance)
Mostly are (- feedback)
Ex. Blood clotting & birth of baby

Homeostatic Imbalance
-

Homeostasis is so impt that most dse is regarded as a result of its

disturbance (homeostatic imbalance)
As we age, our body organs become less efficient & less stable

The Language of Anatomy

-

Confusion is likely to occur without specialized terminology

Anatomical Position & Directional Terms

To accurately describe body parts & position, we must have an initial

reference point & use directional terms
To avoid confusion, it is always assumed that the body is in a standard
position anatomical position (to demonstrate ask student to stand up, stand
erect w/ feet parallel & arms hanging at sides w/ palms facing forward

Superior (cranial/cephalad) toward the head end or upper part of a structure or

the
body; above ex. The forehead is superior to the nose
Inferior (caudal) away from the head end or toward the lower part of a
structure of the
body; below ex. The navel is inferior to the breastbone
Anterior (ventral) toward or at the front of the body; in front of ex. The
breastbone is
anterior to the spine
Posterior (dorsal) toward or at the backside of the body; behind ex. The
heart is
posterior to the breastbone
Medial toward at the midline of the body; on the inner side of ex. The heart is
medial
to the arm
Lateral away form the midline of the body; on the outer side of ex. The arms
are
lateral to the chest
Intermediate b/w a more medial & a more lateral structure ex. The armpit is
intermediate b/w the breastbone & shoulder
Proximal close to the origin of the body part or the point of attachment of a
limb to the
body trunk ex. The elbow is proximal to the wrist (elbow is closer to the
shoulder or attachment point of the arm than the wrist is)
Distal farther from the origin of a body part or the pt. of attachment of a limb to
the
body trunk ex. The knee is distal to the thigh
Superficial toward or at the body surface ex. The skin is superficial to the
skeleton

Deep away from the body surface; more internal ex. The lungs are deep to
the rib
cage
Directional terms
allow to explain exactly where one body structure is in relation to another;
ex. We could describe the relationship b/w the ears & the nose informally by
saying: The ears are located on each side of the head to the R & L of the nose.
To The ears are lateral to the nose
- Thus, using anatomical terminology saves a good deal of description &
once learned is much clearer
- Before we continue, lets check your understanding on what youve learned
- Give the relationship b/w the ff body parts using the correct anatomical
terms:
1. The wrist is ___ to the hand - superior
2. The breastbone is ____ to the spine - anterior
3. The brain is ___ to the spinal cord - superior
4. The lungs are ___ to the stomach - superior
5. The thumb is ___ to the fingers (be careful here, Remember the anatomical
position) lateral
Regional Terms
- there are many visible landmarks on the surface of the body; once you know
their proper anatomical names, you can be specific in referring to different
regions of the body
Anterior Body Landmarks

Abdominal anterior body trunk inferior to ribs

Acromial point of shoulder
Antecubital anterior surface of elbow
Axillary armpit
Brachial arm
Buccal cheek area
Carpal wrist
Cervical neck region
Coxal hip
Crural leg
Digital fingers, toes
Femoral thigh
Fibular lateral part of leg

Inguinal area where thigh meets body trunk; groin

Nasal nose area
Oral mouth
Orbital eye area
Patellar anterior knee
Pelvic area overlying the pelvis anteriorly
Pubic genital region
Sterna breastbone area
Tarsal ankle region
Thoracic chest
Umbilical navel

Posterior Body Landmarks

Cephalic head
Deltoid curve of shoulder formed by large deltoid muscle
Gluteal buttock
Lumbar area of back b/w ribs & hips
Occipital posterior surface of head
Popliteal posterior knee area
Sacral area b/w hips
Scapular shoulder blade region
Sural the posterior surface of lower leg; the calf
Vertebral area of spine

Body Planes and Sections

We find it necessary to make a section or cut; when the section is made

through the body wall or through an organ, it is made along an imaginary line
called a plane
Since body is 3D, we can refer to 3 types of planes/sections that lie at right
angles to one another
Saggital section a cut made along the lengthwise, or longitudinal plane of
the body, dividing the body into R & L parts
If the cut is made down the median plane of the body & the R & L parts are
equal in size midsagittal/median section
Frontal section a cut made along a lengthwise plane that divides the body
(or organ) into anterior & posterior parts (also called coronal section)
Transverse section a cut made along a horizontal plane, dividing the body
or organ into superior & inferior parts (also called cross section)

Body Cavities

The body has 2 sets of internal cavities that provide different degrees of
protection to the organs w/n them

Dorsal Body Cavity has 2 subdivisions w/c are continuous w/ each other:
cranial cavity space inside bony skull; spinal cavity extends from cranial
cavity nearly to the end of the v.c.
Ventral Body Cavity much larger than dorsal cavity; contains structure w/n the
chest & abdomen; subdivided into thoracic cavity separated from the rest of the
ventral cavity by a dome-shaped muscle (diaphragm); organs included here are
heart, lungs, others) protected by the rib cage;
- Abdominopelvic cavity contain the stomach, Liver, intestines, & other
organs
- Pelvic cavity w/ repro organs, bladder, & rectum

Umbilical region centermost region deep to & surrounding the umbilicus

(navel)
Epigastric region located superior to the umbilical region (epi=above)
Hypogastric (pubic) region inferior to the umbilical region
R & L iliac/inguinal regions lateral to the hypogastric region
R & L lumbar regions lie lateral to the umbilical region (lumbus=loin)
R & L hypochondriac region flank (side) the epigastric region & contain the
lower ribs (chondro=cartilage)

Review Questions
1. Consider the ff. levels: 1. Chemical; 2. Tissue; 3. Organ; 4. Cellular; 5.
Organismal; 6. Systematic. Which of the ff. choices has the levels listed in order
of increasing complexity?
a. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 b. 1, 4, 2, 5, 3, 6
c. 3, 1, 2, 4, 6, 5
d. 1, 4, 2, 3, 6, 5
e. 4, 1, 3, 2, 6, 5
2. Which of the ff. is/are involved in maintaining homeostasis?
a. Effector b. control center
c. receptor d. feedback e. lack of change
3. Which is not essential to survival?
a. Water
b. O2
c. gravity

d. Atmospheric pressure

e. nutrients

4. A neurosurgeon orders a spinal tap for a pt. into what body cavity will the needle
be inserted?
a. Ventral b. Thoracic c. Dorsal
d. Cranial
e. Pelvic
5. Which of the ff. groupings of the abdominopelvic regions is medial?
a. Hypochondriac, hypogastric, umbilical
b. Hypochondriac, lumbar, inguinal
c. Hypogastric, umbilical, epigastric

d. Lumbar, umbilical, iliac

e. Iliac, umbilical, hypochondriac
BASIC CHEMISTRY
-

Why include it here? The food we eat & the medicines we take when we are
ill are composed of chemicals
Chemical reaction underlie all body processes movement, digestion,
pumping of heart, even our thoughts

Concepts of Matter and Energy

- Matter anything that occupies space & has mass (wt.)
- Chemistry studies the nature of matter how its building blocks are put
together & how they interact
- Exist in solid, liquid, & gaseous states
- May be changed both physically & chemically; physical changes do not alter
the basic nature of a substance (ice melting, cutting food to smaller pieces);
chemical changes alter the composition of the substance (fermenting
grapes, digestion of food)
Energy
-

In contrast to matter, is massless & does not take up space

Defined as the ability to do work or to put matter into motion
actually doing work kinetic energy (energy in motion); when inactive or
stored (batteries of unused toy) potential energy
all living things are built of matter, & to grow & function they require a
continuous supply of energy
thus, matter is a substance; energy is the mover of the substance

Forms of Energy
Chemical energy stored in the bonds of chemical substances
Electrical energy results from the movement of charged particles
Mechanical energy directly involved in moving matter
Radiant energy energy of the electromagnetic spectrum, travels in waves
Energy Form Conversions
- Chemical energy of foods trapped in the bonds of ATP transformed into
electrical energy of a nerve impulse/mech. Energy of shortening muscles
- Conversions liberate (release) heat w/c makes us warm-blooded & contribute
to high body temp.
- When heated, particles begin to move more quickly (kinetic energy increases)
Composition of Matter
Elements and Atoms

Elements compose the matter; unique subs. That cannot be broken down
into simpler subs. by ordinary chemical methods; 112 discovered, 90
produced naturally, the rest, produced artificially in accelerator devices
4 elements C, O, H, N, 96% of body wt.
Building block of element atom; designated by 1- or 2- chemical shorthand,
atomic symbol in most cases are 1st letters of the elements name (ex. Ca
for Calcium); some from Latin name (ex. natrium for Na)

Atomic Structure
- Greek word incapable of being divided
- Atoms representing 112 elements are composed of different nos. &
proportions of 3 basic subatomic particles, w/c differ in their mass, electrical
charge, & location w/n the atom
- Protons have + charge; Neutron uncharged/neutral; Protons & Neutron
are heavy particles & have approximately the same mass (1 atomic mass
unit, or 1 amu); Electrons (-) charge, 0 amu
- Electrical charge a measure of particle in its ability to attract/repel other
charged particles
- Particles w/ same type of charge (+ to +/- to -) repel each other, but particles
w/ unlike charges (+ to -) attract each other; Neutral particles are neither
attracted nor repelled by charged particles
- Because all atoms are electrically neutral, the no. of protons an atom has
must be precisely balanced by its no. of electrons (ex. H has 1 proton & 1
electron)
Identifying Elements
- What determines the unique properties of each element? atoms of different
elements are composed of different numbers of protons, neutrons, &
electrons
Atomic Mass Number
- Sum of the protons & neutrons contained in its nucleus
- Isotopes structural variations
- Decomposition of isotopes of atoms to become more stable radioisotopes
- Atomic decay radioactivity; ejection of particles (alpha or beta) or
electromagnetic energy (gamma rays) from the atoms nucleus & are
damaging to living cells
Molecules and Compounds

Molecules combination of 2 or more atoms

Compound combination of 2 or more different atoms (ex. 4 H atoms & 1 C
atom interact to form methane 4H + C = CH4 (methane)

Chemical Bonds and Chemical Reactions

- Occur whenever atoms combine w/ or dissociate from other atoms

Role of Electrons in bond formation

Valence shell impt when considering bonding behavior; are those in the
atoms outermost shell
When the valence shell of an atom contains 8 electrons, the atom is completely
stable & is chemically inactive (inert)
When valence shell contains fewer than 8, an atom will tend to gain, lose, or
share electrons w/ other atoms to reach a stable state
When any of these events occurs, chemical bonds are formed
The key to chemical reactivity is referred to as the rule of 8s atoms interact in
such a way that they will have 8 electrons in their valence shell
Types of Chemical Bonds
1. Ionic Bonds form when electrons are completely transferred from 1 atom to
another
- Atoms are electrically neutral, but when they gain or lose electrons
during bonding, their (+) & (-) charges are no longer balanced &
charged particles called ions result
- Atom gains electron (-) charge because more electrons than
protons, a.k.a. anions
- Atom loses electron - + charged ion, cation more protons than
electron
- Ex. Of ionic bond - NaCl (table salt)
2. Covalent Bonds bonds in w/c covalent molecules share electrons
3. Hydrogen Bonds are extremely weak bonds formed when a hydrogen atom
bound to one electron-hungry N or O atom is attracted by another electronhungry atom, & the H atom forms a bridge b/w them
Patterns of Chemical Reaction
Synthesis Reaction
- Occur when 2 or more atoms or molecules combine to form a larger, more
complex molecule (A + B = AB); anabolic (constructive); ex. Formation of
CHON molecule
Decomposition Reactions
- Occur when a molecule is broken down into smaller molecules, atoms, or ions
& can be indicated by AB = A + B; catabolic (destructive); ex. Digestion,
breakdown of glycogen to glucose
Exchange Reactions
- Involve both synthesis & decomposition reactions; bonds are both made &
broken

AB + C AC + B & AB + CD + CB

Biochemistry: the Chemical Composition of Living Matter

Chemicals found in the body fall into 1 of 2 major classes of molecules; this is
determined by the presence or absence of Carbon
Organic compounds carbon-containing compounds; ex. Carbohydrates,
lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, CO2
Inorganic compounds lack carbon & tend to be simpler, smaller molecules,
ex. H2O, salts, & many acids & bases
Inorganic Compounds

Water most abundant, 2/3 of body wt.

1. High heat capacity absorbs & releases large amts. Of heat before its
temp. changes
2. Polarity/Solvent properties water is universal solvent liquid or gas in
w/c smaller amounts of other substances called solutes (G, L, S), can be
dissolved or suspended
3. Chemical reactivity ex. To digest food, water molecules are added to the
bonds of larger molecules, hydrolysis reaction
4. Cushioning ex. CSF cushion around the brain; amniotic fluid

Salts ex. Ca & Ph; when dissolved in body fluids, easily separate into their
ions, called dissociation; vital to body functioning; ex. Na & K ions essential for
nerve impulses, Fe forms part of the hgb. molecule that transports O2 w/ RBCs
- Because ions are charged particles, all salts are electrolytes substances
that conduct an electrical current in solution

Acids & Bases are also electrolytes, they ionize & dissociate in H2O & can
then conduct an electrical current
- pH relative concentration of H (& hydroxyl) ions in various body fluids; runs
from 0 to 14, each change of 1 pH unit represents a tenfold change in H-ion
concentration
- ph 7 midpoint, solution is neutral, neither acidic nor basic; blood pH (also
distilled H2O, semen) has pH of 7.35-7.45
- regulated by kidneys, lungs & buffers (no. of chemicals)

12/6/12
Organic Compounds
Carbohydrates hyrated carbon, includes sugar & starches, C, H, & O; classified
according
to size as mono-, di-, or polysaccharides

Monosaccharides simple sugars; single-chain/single-ring structure; ex. Glucose

(universal cellular fuel), fructose, galactose, ribose, deoxyribose
Disaccharides or double sugars; formed when 2 simple sugar are joined by
dehydration synthesis; ex. Sucrose (glucose-fructose), cane sugar; lactose
(glucose-galactose), found in milk; maltose (glucose-glucose), malt sugar
Polysaccharides many sugars are long, branching chains of simple sugars;
ex. Starch (plants) grain products & root vegetables; Glycogen smaller, but
similar polysaccharide (animal tissue)

Lipids large & diverse group or organic compounds; ex. Meat, egg yolk, milk
products, oils

Neutral Fats or triglycerides, composed of 2 types of building blocks fatty

acids, & glycerol; saturated fats animal fats; plant oils/oils unsaturated
Phospholipids has phosphorous-containing group thats always part of the
molecule & takes the place of 1 of the fatty acid chains

Steroids flat molecules formed of 4 interlocking rings; their structure differs quite a bit
from that of fats; made largely of H & C atoms & are fat-soluble
Homeostatic Imbalance
- Saturated fats w/ cholesterol atherosclerosis (deposit of fatty substances in
arterial walls) & arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries); olive oil & liquid
spreads as substitute
Proteins
- About > 50% of the organic matter in the body, have most varied functions;
amino acids for about 20 varieties

Fibrous (structural proteins) & Globular Proteins ex. Collagen (found in bones,
cartilage, & tendons); most abundant protein in the body; Keratin (hair & nails)

Globular Proteins (functional proteins) do the work rather than structural; ex.
Enzymes biological catalysts that regulate chemical reaction
- When 3D structures are destroyed, proteins are said to be denatured can
no longer perform their roles; functions depend on specific structure active
sites fit & interact w/ other molecules
- Most impt types of functional proteins are described w/ the organ system to
w/c they are closely relate

Enzymes & Enzyme Activity

- Functional proteins that acts as biological catalysts;

Catalyst substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction w/o

becoming part of the product; capable of catalyzing millions of reactions /
minute
- Named according to specific type of reaction they catalyze; ex,
hydrolases w/c add H2O, oxidases w/c cause oxidation; usually
ends in ase

Nucleic Acid
- Make up the genes that provide basic blueprint of life; not only determine
what type of organism you will be, but also direct growth & devt
- Composed of C, O, H, N, & Ph atoms
- Building blocks nucleotides; comes in bases Adenine (A), Guanine (G),
Cytosine (C), Thymine (T), Uracil (U)
- 2 major kinds deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) & ribonucleic acid (RNA)
- DNA (1) replicates itself before a cell divides ensuring that genetic info in
every cell is identical; (2) provides instruction for building every protein in the
body
- RNA molecular slave, carries out the orders for protein synthesis issued by
DNA

Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) provides a form of energy that is usable by all

body cells

CELLS AND TISSUES

-

Robert Hooke (late 1600s) saw cube-like structures that he named as cells

Cells made up primarily of 4 elements C, O, H, N plus much smaller amount

of Fe, K, Na
- Ca blood clotting; FE make hgb w/c carries O2 in the blood; Iodine
make the thyroid hormone that controls metabolism
- Ca, Na, & K can carry an electrical charge (electrolytes)
- Na & K ions essential if nerve impulses are to be transmitted & muscles are
to contract
- Interstitial fluid like a dilute saltwater soln
- Different shapes: disk-shaped RBCs; threadlike extensions nerve cells;
toothpicks pointed at each end smooth muscle cells; cubelike epithelial
cells

 Anatomy of a Generalized Cells

-

Nucleus control center, contains the gene; 3 distinct regions/structures

nuclear envelope, nucleoli, chromatin
- Nuclear envelope selectively permeable, encloses a jelly-like fluid
called nucleoplasm
- Nucleoli sites where ribosomes are assembled, the actual sites of
protein synthesis
- Chromatin loose network of threads that coil to form rod-like bodies
called chromosomes

Plasma membrane fragile, transparent barrier that contains the cell

contents & separates them from the surrounding envt; has receptors as
binding sites
- Microvilli (little shaggy hairs) tiny fingerlike projections that greatly
increase cells surface area for absorption
- Has membrane junctions tight junctions (prevents subs. From
passing, ex. In sml. Intestine prevent digestive enzymes from
seeping into the bloodstream); desmosomes (anchoring junction that
prevents cells from being pulled apart, ex. Skin); gap junctions allows
communication b/w cells, connected by connexons

Cytoplasm site of most cellular activities, factory area; has 3 major

elements cytosol semitransparent fluid that suspends the other elements;
organelles metabolic machinery of the cell ex. Synthesize proteins;
inclusions stored nutrients or cell products, include fat droplets common in
fat cells, glycogen granules, pigments such as melanin seen in skin & hair
cells, mucus & other secretory products, & various kinds of crystals

Cytoplasmic organelles little organs, are specialized cellular

compartments that maintains the life of the cell
- Mitochondria threadlike/sausage-shaped organelles, contains
enzymes that cause chemical reaction (ex. Breaking down of food,
formation of ATP), powerhouse of the cell; liver & muscle cells has
huge amts. Of ATP while an unfertilized egg has just a few

Ribosomoes tiny, round, dark bodies made of proteins & variety of RNA
(ribosomal RNA), actual sites of protein synthesis in the cell, when
ribosomes are attached to membranes, the whole ribosome combination is
called rough endoplasmic reticulum

Endoplasmic Reticulum network w/n the cell, a system of fluid-filled

cisterns (tubules) w/c serves as mini circulatory system for the cell because it
provides a network of channels for carrying substances from 1 part of the cell
to another
- Rough ER where building materials of cellular membranes are
formed, fold into 3D shape
- Smooth ER functions in cholesterol synthesis & breakdown, fat
metabolism, & detoxification of drugs (ex. Cells of male testes that
manufacture testosterone)

Golgi Apparatus stack of flattened membranous sacs, principal traffic

director for cellular proteins, modify & package proteins in specific ways,
depending on their final destination

Lysosomes breakdown bodies, membrane bags containing powerful

digestive enzymes, capable of digesting worn-out or non-usable cell
structures & most foreign substances that enter the cell; abundant in WBC
that engulf bacteria & other harmful substances

Peroxisomes membranous sacs containing oxidase enzymes that use

molecular oxygen to detoxify a no. of harmful/poisonous subs., including
alcohol & formaldehyde; disarm dangerous free radicals; numerous in liver &
kidney cells (active in detoxification)
- Free radicals highly reactive chemicals w/ unpaired electrons that
can scramble the structure of proteins & nucleic acids; normal
byproducts of cellular metabolism

Cytoskeleton elaborate network of protein structures, cells bones &

muscles, determines cell shape, support other organelles, & provides the
machinery needed for intracellular transport & various types of cellular
movements
- Microfilament (ex. Actin & myosin), involved in cell motility & in
producing changes in cell shape
- Microtubules determine the overall shape of a cell & the distribution
of organelles; impt during cell division

Centrioles rod-shaped bodies made up of fine microtubules; direct the

formation of mitotic spindle during cell division

Some cell have projections cilia whip-like cellular extensions that move
subs. along cell surface (ex. Ciliated cells in RS that move mucus up & away
from the lungs; flagella longer projections of cell (ex. Sperm)

 Cell Diversity
- Trillions of cells in the human body are made up of 200 different cell types
that vary greatly in size, shape, & function
1. Cells that connect body parts
Fibroblast - elongated shape that lies along cable-like fibers that it
secretes
Erythrocyte (RBC) carries O2, in the bloodstream, concave disk-shaped
provides extra surface area for uptake of O2
2. Cells that cover & line body organs
Epithelial cell hexagonal shape that allows to pack together in sheets
that resist tearing when rubbed/pulled
3. Cells that move organs & body parts
Skeletal & smooth muscle cells elongated & filled w/ abundant
contractile filaments that shorten forcefully & move bones/change the size
of internal organs
4. Cell that stores nutrients
Fat cell huge spherical shape of fat cell produced by large lipid droplet in
its cystoplasm
5. Cell that fights disease
Macrophage (a phagocytic cell) extends long pseudopods (false feet);
digest the infectious M.O. it takes up
6. Cell that gathers info & controls body functions
Nerve cell (neuron) has long processes for receiving messages &
transmitting them to other structure in the body
7. Cells of reproduction
Oocyte (female) largest cell in the body; contains many copies of
organelles for distribution to the daughter cells that arise when the
fertilized egg divides to become an embryo
Sperm (male) long & streamlined built for swimming to the egg for
fertilization; has flagellum
Cell Physiology
- Most cells have the ability to metabolize (use nutrients to build new cell
material, break down substances, make ATP), digest foods, dispose of
wastes, reproduce, grow, move, & respond to stimulus

Membrane Transport

It is impt to really understand solutions before we dive into explanation

of membrane transport
Solution a homogenous mixture of 2 or more components (ex. Air
we breathe mixture of gases; seawater mixture of water & salt)
The dissolving medium is called solvent; subs. present in smaller
amounts solute
ICF; interstitial Fluid continuously bathes the exterior of our cells,
contains nutrients (sugar, vitamins, hormones, neurotransmitters,
waste products)
Plasma membrane selectively permeable barrier allows some
substances to pass through it while excluding others
Homeostatic Imbalance: if damaged (burn), can no longer be selective,
becomes permeable to nearly everything
Movement of subs. happens in 2 ways: passive transport
substances are transported across the membrane w/o any energy
input from the cell; active transport cell provides ATP that drives the
transport process
Passive Transport Process: Diffusion impt means for every cell of
the body; Filtration generally occurs only across capillary walls
Diffusion process by w/c molecules tend to scatter from a region
of greater concentration to a region of lesser concentration (ex.
Juice) to their concentration gradient
Simple diffusion unassisted diffusion of solutes through the
plasma membrane
Diffusion of H2O through a selectively permeable membrane
(plasma membrane) osmosis
Another ex. of diffusion facilitated diffusion provides a
means for certain substances that are both lipid-insoluble & too
large to pass through the membrane pores to enter the cell
Filtration - process by w/c water & solutes are forced through a
membrane by fluid or hydrostatic pressure (usually exerted by
blood) in the body
Pressure gradient pushes solute-containing fluid from higherpressure area to lower pressure area (in kidneys water & sml.
solutes filter out of the capillaries into the kidney tubules
because the blood pressure in the capillaries is > the fluid
pressure in the tubules)

Active Transport Processes

- When cell uses some of its ATP supply to move substances across the
membrane
Solute Pumping (active transport) similar to facilitated diffusion
both processes require protein carriers to be transported across
the membrane; uses ATP to energize its protein carriers, called
solute pumps (Na-K Pump); no pump no transport

 Bulk Transport transport some subs. that cannot get through the
plasma membrane w/ the help of ATP; types:
Exocytosis out of the cell; moves subs. out of cells;
packaged into sac & migrates to pm, fuse w/ it, & ruptures
Endocytosis into the cell; engulf extracellular subs., sac is
formed, detaches from pm, moves into cytoplasm, fuses w/
lysosome & digest the contents; types: phagocytosis (celleating); pinocytosis (cell drinking), presently known as
bulk-phase endocytosis
Cell Division
- 2 major periods: interphase (metabolic phase) cell grows & carries on
metabolic activities; cell division where it reproduces itself
DNA Replication
- Nucleotides building blocks, consists deoxyribose sugar, phosphate
grp., nitrogen-containing bases
Event of Cell Division
- 2 events: mitosis or division of nucleus occurs 1 st; 2nd division of
cytoplasm (cytokinesis), begins when mitosis is nearly completed
- Mitosis stages: - results in the formation of 2 daughter nuclei w/
exactly the same genes as the mother nucleus
1. Prophase separation of cell content
2. Metaphase they cluster & become aligned
3. Anaphase they split & move slowly apart toward opposite ends of
cell
4. Telophase formation of cleavage & separation of cell into 2
Protein synthesis directed by DNA
The Role of RNA
- DNA requires not only a decoder but also a messenger to achieve its
task
- RNA single-stranded, have ribose instead of deoxyribose, has uracil
base instead of thymine; types: transfer RNA (tRNA), ribosomal RNA
(rRNA), messenger RNA (mRNA); involves 2 major phases:
transcription & translation
- Transcription transfer of info from DNAs base sequence into
the complementary base sequence of mRNA; only DNA &
mRNA are involved
- Translation the base sequence (language of nucleic acid) is
translated into the language of proteins (amino acid sequence)
mRNA (attaches to the ribosome) tRNA transfer amino acids to
ribosome
bound together by enzymes

BODY TISSUES
- Group of cells that are similar in structure & function
- Organized into organs (heart, kidneys, lungs)
- Study of tissues should be helpful in your later study of bodys organs & how
they work
Epithelial tissue/Epthelium (covering)
lining, covering & glandular tissue of the body; functions include
protection, absorption, filtration & secretion (ex. Skin, lining the RT, stomach,
sml. Intestine, kidneys); they are avascular (no bld. supply of their own), if
well nourished, regenerate easily
o Classification: (by cell arrangement)
1. Simple epithelium (1 layer of cells) forms membranes where
filtration or exchange of substances by rapid diffusion occurs (ex.
Air sacs of lungs, walls of capillaries, serous membranes line the
ventral body cavity & cover organs in cavity)
2. Stratified epithelium (> 1 cell layer)
o (by shape)
1. Squamous cells flattened like fish scale, (stratified) ex.
Esophagus, mouth, outer portion of skin
2. Cuboidal cube-shaped, common in glands & their ducts (ex.
Salivary glands, pancreas, walls of kidney tubules, covering of
ovaries)
3. Columnar cells shaped like columns, ex. (goblet cells produce
lubricating mucus), lines Digestive tract form stomach to anus;
mucosa membranes that line body cavities open to body exterior
Pseudostratified lines most of the RT
Glandular epithelium 2 major types: endocrine glands (ductless);
exocrine glands retain their ducts (ex. Sweat, oil glands, liver,
pancreas)
Connective Tissue
connects body parts, most abundant & widely distributed, involved in
protecting, supporting, & binding together other body tissues; ability to absorb
large amounts of H2O thus serve as water reservoir
o Characteristics:
- Variations in blood supply tendons & ligaments have poor
bld. Supply; cartilages avascular; heals slowly when injured
- Extracellular matrix includes collagen (white) fibers, elastic
(yellow) fibers, reticular (fine collagen) fibers
- Types:
1. Bone (sometimes called osseous) sit in cavities called lacunae,
surrounded by hard matrix that contains Ca salts
- Cartilage less hard & more flexible than bone; hyalin cartilage
most widespread (larynx/voice box, attach ribs to breastbone,

covers ends of bones where they form joints); fibrocartilage

cushion-like disks b/w the vertebra of spinal column; elastic
cartilage found where structure of elasticity is desired
(supports external ear)
2. Dense Connective Tissue/dense fibrous tissue
a. Tendons attach skeletal muscles to bones
b. Ligaments connect bones to bones at joints
c. Dermis
3. Loose Connective Tissue softer, have more cells, fewer fibers
- Areolar tissue helps to hold internal organs together; lamina
propria soft layer of areolar tissue underlies all mucous
membranes
- Adipose tissue areolar tissue in w/c fat cells predominate;
forms the subcutaneous tissue beneath the skin
- Reticular connective tissue support many free blood cells in
lymphoid organs
4. Blood (or vascular tissue) consists of blood cells surrounded by a
non-living fluid matrix, blood plasma, contains fibers seen esp.
during blood clotting
Muscle Tissue
highly specialized to contract, to produce movement

Skeletal Muscle these are packaged by connective tissue sheets

into organs w/c are attached to skeleton; controlled voluntarily; form
the flesh of the body; their cells are long, cylindrical, multinucleate,
have striations (stripes)
Cardiac Muscle found only in the heart; has striation, are
uninucleate, has intercalated disks (branching cells that fit tightly
together at junctions where ions pass freely resulting in rapid
conduction of electrical impulse across the heart); under involuntary
control
Smooth Muscle or visceral muscle is so called because no striations
are visible; have single nucleus & are spindle-shaped (pointed at each
end); found in the walls of hollow organs (stomach, bladder, uterus, &
blood vessels; contracts much more slowly; peristalsis

Nervous Tissue we think of cells called neurons; irritability & conductivity 2 major functional characteristics; make up the structure of the NS brain,
s.c., & nerves
Tissue Repair (Wound Healing)
- Inflammation generalized (nonspecific) body response that attempt to
prevent further injury
- Immune response specific attacks against recognized invaders

Occurs in 2 major ways: regeneration replacement of destroyed

tissue by the same kind of cells; fibrosis involves repair by dense
(fibrous) connective tissue (ex. Formation of scar tissue) depends
types of tissue damage, severity of the injury

The capillaries become very permeable

- walls off injured area
Granulation tissue forms
- Pink tissue composed of new capillaries, are fragile & bleed
freely when a scab is picked away from skin wound; contains
phagocytes - dispose blood clot & synthesize collagen fibers
(scar tissue)
The surface epithelium regenerates
- Makes its way across granulation tissue, covers underlying area
of fibrosis

Developmental Aspects of Cells and Tissues

-

We all begin as a single cell

(Preliminary Exam)
THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM
Skin bodys tough, outer protective covering
- Together w/ its glands, hair, & nails, the skin makes up the integumentary
system
- Partly exposed to view we scrub it, cream it, coat it w/ makeup; cut, shave,
curls its hair, & manicure its nail
- Also important in communication has sensory perception that permit us to
feel a handshake, kiss, stroke, squeeze, or slap
- Involuntary changes in the skin reflect emotional states ex. Blush w/
embarrassment, blanch (turn pale) w/ fear or rage; sweat excessively when
anxious
- Appearance, coloration, temperature & feel of the skin are impt indicators of
general health & of many dse states

As a Protective Barrier
- Outer boundary of the body in direct contact w/ external envt
- Must resist wear & tear, drying, exposure to cold, heat, & toxic substances
- Impt in maintaining homeostasis the balanced internal envt
1. Protects body against injury & is the bodys 1 st line of defense against harmful
bacteria & other agents of dse

2. Receives info about outside world w/ sensory receptors for touch, pressure,
heat, cold, & pain
3. Prevents drying out are bathed in an internal sea dilute salt solution
essential to life so that cells wont loss fluid & dry out
4. Helps maintain body temp. capillary networks & sweat glands are part of
the bodys temperature-regulating system
5. Has sweat glands that excrete excess water & some wastes from the body
6. Contains compound that is converted to vitamin D when the skin is exposed
to the UV rays of the sun

Consists of the Epidermis and Dermis

- Consists of 2 main layers: epidermis & dermis. Beneath it is the underlying
subcutaneous layer
The Epidermis Continuously Replaces Itself
- As thick as the page of your book, yet consists of several sublayers
- Consists of stratified squamous epithelial tissue
- Outer cells continuously wear off & are immediately replaced by new cells
- Keratin a tough water-proofing protein that gives skin mechanical strength &
flexibility
The Dermis Provides Strength and Elasticity
- Dermis thick layer of the skin beneath the epidermis; consists of dense
connective tissue composed mainly of collagen fibers largely responsible for
the mechanical strength of the skin
- Permits skin to stretch & return to its normal form again
- Blood vessels & nerves w/c are generally absent in the epidermis are found
throughout the dermis
- Specialized skin structures such as hair follicles & glands are found in it; they
develop from cells of the epidermis that push down into the dermis
- Upper portion has many small fingerlike extensions (dermal papillae) that
project into the epidermal tissue; its extensive networks of capillaries deliver
O2 & nutrients to the cells of the epidermis & also fxn in temperature
regulation
- Patterns of ridges & grooves visible on the skin of the soles & palms
(including fingertips) reflect the arrangement of the dermal elevations beneath
- These patterns provide the fingerprints so useful to law enforcement officials
- They also serve as friction ridges that help us hold onto the objects we grasp
The Subcutaneous (Hypodermis) Layer Attaches the Skin to Underlying
Tissues
- A.k.a. superficial fascia consists of loose connective tissue, usually
containing a lot of adipose tissue (fat)
- Attaches the skin to the muscles & other tissues beneath
- Helps protect underlying organs from mechanical shock, insulates the body,
thus conserving heat

Fat stored w/n the adipose tissue can be mobilized & used as an energy
source when adequate food is not available
Its distribution is largely responsible for characteristic M & F body shapes

Sweat Glands Help Maintain Body Temperature

- Also called sudoriferous gland is a tiny coiled tube in the dermis or
subcutaneous tissue, w/ a duct that extends up through the skin & opens onto
the surface
- About 3M in the skin help maintain body temp. because heat is required for
evaporation, the body becomes cooler as sweat evaporates from the skin
- Secretes excess water, salts, & sml. amounts of N wastes
- About 1 quart (1L?) of water is excreted in sweat each day; normally
perspiration is unnoticed; more salt is lost in sweat
- Certain sweat glands found in association w/ hairs are concentrated in a few
specific areas (armpits & genitals); secretion is thick, sticky, & odorless
Sebaceous Glands Lubricate the Hair and Skin
- Also known as oil glands attached to hair follicles by little ducts through w/c
they release their secretion; most numerous on face & scalp
- Secrete oily substance (sebum) that oils the hair, lubricates the skin, & helps
prevent water loss; inhibits the growth of certain bacteria & may have
antifungal action
- When sebum accumulates in the duct of the sebaceous gland & hair follicle &
blocks it, it forms a blackhead (comedo)
Hair & Nails are Appendages of the Skin
- Serves a protective function; found on all skin surface except palms & soles
- Part of the hair we see is the shaft; the portion below skin surface is the root
- The root, together w/ its epithelial & connective tissue coverings is the hair
follicle
- Each hair consists of cells that multiply, manufacture keratin as they move
outward, & then die
- Shaft of hair consists of dead cells & their products
- As long as hair follicle remains intact, new hair will continue to grow
- Tiny bundles of smooth muscle are associated w/ hair follicles (arrector pili
muscle) & contract in response to cold or fear (gooseflesh/goosebumps)
- Nails develop from horny epidermal cells & consist mainly of a closely
compressed, tough keratin
- The actively growing area is the white crescent (lunula) at the base of the
nail

 Melanin Helps Determine Skin Color

- Scattered throughout the lowest layer of the epidermis that produce granules
containing pigment
- Asians have yellowish pigment (carotene) & melanin
- In albinism, an inherited condition, the cells are not able to produce melanin
- Impt protective screen against the sun absorbs harmful UV rays

American Cancer Society

- Suggests that sun worshippers periodically (regularly) examine their skin for
moles or pigmented spots & apply ABCD rule for recognizing melanoma
(malignancy)
- A Asymmetry 2 sides of pigmented spot/mole do not match
- B Border irregularity borders of the lesion are not smooth but exhibit
indentations
- C Color the pigmented spots contain areas of different colors (black,
brown, tan, sometimes blue & red)
- D Diameter spot is larger than 6mm in dm (the size of a pencil eraser)
Chapter Quiz

1. The skin w/ its glands, hair, nails, & other structures makes up the _____ system.
- IS
2. The 2 main layers of the skin are the outer ____ & the inner ____. epi & der
3. The tough waterproofing protein of the epidermis is ____. - keratin
4. The ____ layer beneath the dermis consists of loose connective tissue. - subcu
5. _____ glands are attached to each hair follicle by ducts; they secrete an oil
substance called ___. seb. Glands, sebum
6. Sweat consists mainly of ____ w/ some _____, & small amounts of N wastes.
water, salts
7. The root of the hair together w/ its coverings is called a _____ _______. - hf
8. Nails consists of tough, compressed ____. keratin
9. Pigment granules in the skin produce the dark pigment ___. - melanin
10. Melanin protects against the sun by absorbing ___ rays. UV
Review Questions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

In what ways does the skin help maintain homeostasis?

Compare the structure of the epidermis w/ that of the dermis.
Which cells of the epidermis actively divide? Which are dead?
What are the functions of the dermis? The subcutaneous layer?
What is the function of the sebaceous glands? What happens when they
malfunction?
6. Why is melanin important?
7. Label the diagram.
THE SKELETAL SYSTEM
Bones: An Overview
- Would creep along the ground like slugs
Functions of the Bones:
1. Support internal framework that supports & anchors all soft organs
2. Protection ex. Skull brain; vertebra spinal cord; rib cage vital organs of
thorax
3. Movement muscles use bones as levers
4. Storage fat, minerals (Ca, Ph)
5. Blood Cell Formation hematopoiesis occurs w/n the marrow
Classification of Bones
2 types:

Compact bone dense, looks smooth & homogenous

Spongy bone composed of small needlelike pieces of bone, has
open space
Classification according to shape:

Long bones have shaft w/ heads at both ends, mostly compact bone
(bones of limbs)
Short bones cube-shaped, mostly spongy bone (bones of wrist & ankle,
patella)
Flat bones thin, flattened, usually curve (bones of skull, ribs, sternum)
Irregular bones (vertebra, hip bones)

Structure of a Long Bone

Gross Anatomy
Diaphysis shaft, covered & protected by fibrous connective tissue
(periosteum)
Sharpeys fibers connective tissue fibers that secure periosteum to
underlying bone
Epiphyses ends of long bones
Articular cartilage (a hyaline cartilage) covers external surface of the
epiphyses; provides a smooth, slippery surface
Epiphyseal line
Epiphyseal plate
Yellow marrow/medullary cavity storage for adipose tissue; red marrow in
infants, forms blood cells
Bone markings where muscles, tendons, ligaments attach & where bld.
Vessels & nerves pass; 2 categories projections/processes &
depressions/cavities; all terms beginning w/ T are projections, while F (except
facet) are depressions
Microscopic Anatomy
Osteocytes mature bone cells, found w/n the matrix called lacunae

 Lacunae arranged in concentric circles called lamellae around central

Haversian canals
Osteon/Haversian system central canal & matrix rings
Canaliculi tiny canals; form a transportation system that connect all bone
cells to nutrient supply through hard bone matrix
Perforating (Volkmanns) canals completes the communication pathway
from outside of bone to its interior (& central canal)
Bone Formation, Growth, & Remodeling
Ossification bone formation occurs at articular cartilages & epiphyseal plates by
appositional growth
2 phases:
Hyaline cartilage completely covered w/ bone matrix by boneforming cells (osteoblasts)
Osteoclasts giant bone-destroying cells
Osteocytes mature bone cells
Homeostatic Imbalance
- Rickets dse of children, bones fail to calcify, lack of Ca/Vit. D

Bone Fractures
Homeostatic Imbalance

Closed/simple fracture bone breaks cleanly but does not penetrate the skin
Open/compound fracture broken bone ends penetrate through the skin
Tx reduction realignment of broken bone ends; closed reduction bones are
coaxed back into their normal position by the physicians hands; open reduction
surgery is performed, bone ends secured together w/ pins or wires; immobilized
by cast/traction to allow healing process to begin
Healing time 6-8 wks.

Repair of Bone Fractures

1. Hematoma formation ruptured bld. Vessels
2. Splinted by fibrocartilage callus mass of repair tissue
3. Bony callus osteoblast & osteoclast migrate into the area
4. Remodeling in response to mechanical stresses placed on it
Two parts of Skeleton:
AXIAL SKELETON
- Forms the longitudinal axis of the body skull, vertebral column, bony thorax
Skull formed by 2 sets of bones
- Cranium encloses the brain
- Facial bones
- Joined together by sutures
Cranium boxlike, has 8 large flat bones, parietal & temporal only (are
paired)

Frontal
Parietal
Temporal bones impt bone markings external auditory meatus,
styloid process, zygomatic process, mastoid process, jugular foramen,
carotid canal
Homeostatic imbalance: Mastoiditis mastoid sinuses are close to the
middle ear, may become infected too
Occipital bone at the base is foramen magnum, occipital condyle
Sphenoid bone butterfly-shaped, has sml. Depression, sella
turcica/Turks saddle (holds pituitary gland in place), foramen ovale
allows cranial nerve 5 to pass, w/ air cavities, the sphenoid sinuses
Ethmoid bone forms roof of nasal cavity, has crista galli (cocks
comb), cribriform plates allow nerve fibers from olfactory receptors
(from nose) to reach the brain

Facial bones has 14 bones, 12 are paired (mandible & vomer are single)
- Maxillae has extensions (palatine processes, contain sinuses
(paranasal sinuses) lighten skull bones & amplify the sounds we
speak
- Palatine bones forms the hard palate
- Zygomatic bones commonly referred as cheekbones & orbits
- Lacrimal bones fingernail-size bones
- Nasal bones lower part is made up of cartilage
- Vomer bone single bone at midline of nasal cavity
- Inferior conchae form the wall of nasal cavity
- Mandible lower jaw, largest, strongest bone of face, forms the only
freely movable joints in skull

Hyoid bone
- Suspended in the midanterior neck

*mention regarding fetal skull

Vertebral Column (Spine)
- Formed from 26 irregular bones
- At birth, there are 33 vertebrae, 9 fuse forming sacrum & coccyx
- 24 single bones (at adult), 7 vert. of neck (cervical vertebrae), 12
thoracic vert., 5 supporting the lower back (lumbar vertebrae)
remember the meal times (7am, 12 nn, 5pm)
- Separated by flexible by pads of flexible fibrocartilage intervertebral
discs cushion vertebrae & absorb shocks
- Young person 90%
- Homeostatic imbalance herniated (slipped) discs; scoliosis, kyphosis,
lordosis may be congenital, result from dse, poor posture, unequal
muscle pull on the spine

Common Features of Vertebrae

Body or centrum weight-bearing part
Vertebral arch laminae & pedicles
Vertebral foramen canal where spinal cord pass
Transverse processes lateral projections
Spinous process rising, single projection
Superior & inferior articular processes paired projections that
allow vertebra to form joints with adjacent vertebrae

Cervical Vertebrae
- Identified as C1-C7; 1st two atlas & axis perform functions not
shared by other cervical vertebrae
- Atlas for yes; axis no due to odontoid process/dens

Thoracic Vertebrae
- T1 T12; larger than c. vertebrae; has long spinous process

Lumbar Vertebrae
- L1-L5; have massive, block-like bodies, most sturdy

Sacrum
- Formed by fusion of 5 vertebrae; forms posterior of wall of pelvis

Coccyx
- Formed from fusion of 3-5 tiny irregularly shaped vert.; tailbone

Bony Thorax
- (composed of sternum, ribs, & thoracic vertebrae); often called thoracic
cage

Sternum
- (breastbone) is a flat bone; result of the fusion of 3 bones
manubrium, body, & xyphoid process; attached to 1 st 7 pairs of ribs
- Sternal puncture

Ribs
-

12 pairs of ribs form the walls of the thoracic cage

All articulate w/ the vert. column
True ribs 1st 7 pairs attach directly to sternum
False ribs 8-12 attach indirectly to sternum; 2 are floating ribs
Intercostal spaces spaces b/w ribs filled w/ muscles that aid
breathing

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

Composed of 126 bones of limbs (appendages), pectoral & pelvic girdles, w/c
attach limbs to axial skeleton

Bones of Shoulder Girdle

- Or pectoral girdle consists of 2 bones clavicle & scapula
Clavicle or collarbone acts as brace to hold the arm, prevents shoulder
dislocation
- Scapulae or shoulder blades wings, impt processes acromion &
coracoids
Bones of the Upper Limbs
- 30 separate bones are foundations of the arm, forearm, & hand

Arm
-

formed by typical long bone, humerus; has 2 bony projections

greater & lesser tubercles sites of muscle attachment; roughened
area of shaft deltoid tuberosity; radial groove radial nerve; trochlea,
capitulum join w/ bones of forearm; coronoid fossa anterior
depression; olecranon fossa posterior depression

Forearm
- radius lateral bone, thumb side
- radius & ulna articulate at raidoulnar joints; connected by interosseous
membrane
- radial tuberosity where tendon of biceps muscle attaches
- ulna on little-finger side; w/ coronoid process & olecranon process
separated by trochlear notch

Hand
-

Consists of carpals, metacarpals, phalanges

8 carpal bones carpus or wrist
Metacarpals form palm of the hand, its head form the knuckles
Phalanges bones of the fingers
Each contains 14 phalanges; 3 in each finger (proximal, middle &
distal) except in thumb with 2 (proximal & distal)

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

- Formed by 2 coxal bones or ossa coxae commonly called hip bones
- Together w/ sacrum & coccyx, forms the bony pelvis
- Large & heavy
- Bearing wt. is the most impt function

Each hip bone

- Formed by fusion of ilium, ischium, & pubis

Ilium connects w/ sacrum at sacroiliac joint; large bone that forms

most of the hip bone; iliac crest
Ischium sitdown bone, forms most of the inferior part of the coxal
bone
Ischial tuberosity receives body weight when sitting
Ischial spine narrows the outlet of the pelvis through w/c the baby
must pass
Greater sciatic notch allows blood vessel & large sciatic nerve to
pass
Pubis most anterior part of coxal bone
Obturator foramen an opening w/c allows blood vessels & nerve to
pass into anterior part of thigh
Pubic bones fuse anteriorly to form cartilaginous joint, the pubic
symphysis
Acetabulum a deep socket where ilium, ischium, & pubis fuse;
vinegar cup; receives head of the thigh bone
Divided into 2 regions: false & true pelvis allows infants head to pass
(true p.)
Outlet inferior opening & inlet superior opening are critical

Bones of the Lower Limbs

- Carry out total body wt. when we are erect

Thigh
- Femur or thigh bone only bone in the thigh; heaviest, strongest bone
in the body
- Has a ball-like head, a neck, & greater & lesser trochanters separated
anteriorly by intertrochanteric line & posteriorly by intertrochanteric
crest
- Gluteal tuberosity - & trochanter serves as sites for muscle attachment
- Neck of femur common fracture site esp. among old age
- deep Intercondylar notch separate the lateral & medial condyles

Leg
-

Connected by interosseous membrane, composed of tibia & fibula

Tibia or shinbone larger & more medial
Tibial tuberosity where patellar ligament attach
medial malleolus forms inner bulge of the ankle
anterior crest anterior surface of tibia; unprotected by muscles
fibula lies alongside of tibia, thin & sticklike
lateral malleolus forms the outer part of the ankle

Foot
-

Composed of tarsals, metatarsals, & phalanges

2 impt functions: supports body wt., acts as a lever that propels our
body forward when we walk or run
Tarsus forms posterior half of foot; composed of 7 tarsal bones
Body wt. carried mostly by calcaneus or heelbone & talus or ankle
5 metatarsals form the sole; 14 phalanges form the toes
Like the hand, each toe has 3 phalanges except great toe w/ 2
Ligaments tough tissue that bind foot bones together
Tendons tough band connecting muscle that help hold bones
Weak arches referred to as fallen arches or flat feet

JOINTS
- Where 2 bones meet; w/ 1 exception (hyoid) every bone in the body forms a
joint w/ at least other bone
- joints or articulations 2 functions hold bones together securely but give rigid
skeleton mobility
- synarthroses immovable joints, and
- amphiarthroses slightly movable; restricted to axial skeleton where firm
attachments & protection of internal organs are priorities
- diarthroses freely movable joints; predominate in the limbs where mobility is
impt
MUSCULAR SYSTEM OUTLINE
Muscle types:
skeletal ssv
smooth vin
cardiac sci
Muscle functions:
1. producing movement
2. maintaining posture
3. stabilizing joint
4. generating heat
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
- sarcolemma
- myofibrils
- light (I) and dark (A) bands
- sarcomeres
- myofilaments thick filament (myosin); thin filament (actin), myosin
heads/cross bridges
- sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
Skeletal Muscle Activity

Stimulation and Contraction of Single Skeletal Muscle Cells

-

Nerve Stimulus & Action Potential neuromuscular junctions, synaptic

cleft, neurotransmitter Ach; action potential

Ach synaptic cleft receptors (sarcolemma) Na rush into muscle cell

generates upset of muscle electric current (action potential)
-

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction: The Sliding Filament Theory

Muscle fibers activated by NS cross bridges attach to myosin binding sites

(thin filaments) sliding begins
(Energized by ATP) each cross bridge attaches & detaches several times
during contraction muscle cell shortens requires Ca ions (action
potential causes SR to release stored Ca into sarcoplasm)
*when action potential ends, Ca ions reabsorbed into SR, muscle cell relaxes
(takes a few thousandths of second)
1/17/13

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole

-

Graded Responses different degrees of shortening

- by changing the frequency of muscle stimulation, &
- by changing the no. of muscle cells being stimulated
Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation muscle twitches
(single, brief, jerky contractions); fused/complete tetanus/titanic
contraction
Muscle response to stronger stimuli extent how many cells are
stimulated

Providing Energy for Muscle Contraction

- ATP molecules hydrolyzed release the needed energy
1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine phosphate from CP to
ADP
2. Aerobic respiration occurs in mitochondria, involve metabolic
pathways that use oxygen referred to as oxidative phosphorylation
- glucose broken down to CO2 & H2O
3. Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation glucose breakdown
occurs in glycolysis (does not use O2), occurs in cytosol

- glucose pyruvic acid enters O2-requiring aerobic pathways

in mitochondria produce more ATP
- intense muscle activity/O2 & glucose delivery is inadequate to meet
need of working muscles cannot keep up demands for ATP
pyruvic acid converted to lactic acid (anaerobic glycolysis)
-

Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Debt result of O2 debt that occurs during
prolonged muscle activity
- w/o rest active muscle begins to tire contract more weakly
until ceases reacting stops contracting

Types of Muscle Contractions

- Isotonic contraction - same tone/tension; muscle shortens; ex.
Bending the knee, rotating the arms, smiling, straighten a bent elbow
- Isometric contraction same measurement; muscles do not
shorten; myosin filament are skidding; ex. Trying to lift a 400-lb. object
alone, push against the wall w/ bent elbows

Muscle Tone state of continuous partial contraction

Effect of Exercise on Muscles use it or lose it; inc. muscle size,

strength & endurance
Aerobic/endurance aerobics class, jogging, biking; improves
digestion, elimination, enhance neuro-muscular coordination
Resistance/isometric exercises - where muscles are uneven
against some immovable object

Muscle Movements, Types, and Names

- 5 golden rules
1. All muscles cross at least 1 joint.
2. Typically, the bulk of the muscle lies proximal to the joint crossed.
3. All muscles have at least 2 attachments: the origin & the insertion.
4. Muscles can only pull; they never push.
5. During contraction, the muscle insertion moves toward the origin

Types of Body Movements

- Origin attached to the immovable or less movable bone
- Insertion attached to the movable bone (when muscle contracts,
insertion moves toward the origin
Flexion dec. angle of joint, bring 2 bones close together
Extension inc. the angle b/w 2 bones, hyperextension
Rotation movt of bone around its longitudinal axis, common movt of ball &
socket joints

 Abduction moving limb away from midline of body, movt of fingers or toes
when spread apart
Adduction movt of limb toward body midline
Circumduction combination of flexion, extension, abduction, & adduction,
seen in ball & socket joint (shoulder)
-

Special movements occurs only at few joints

Dorsiflexion & plantar flexion

Inversion & eversion
Supination (turning backward) & pronation (turning forward)
Opposition

Types of Muscles
Prime mover has major responsibility for causing a particular movt
Antagonists oppose or reverse a movt (ex. Bicep & tricep)
Synergists together, erg = work; help prime movers stabilize; ex. Making
a fist w/o bending the wrist
Fixators specialized synergists; stabilize origin of prime mover; ex.
Postural muscles that stabilize vertebral column, muscles that anchor the
scapula to thorax
*All in all produces smooth, coordinated, & precise movts

Naming Skeletal Muscles

Direction of muscle fibers rectus (straight) run parallel; ex. Rectus
femoris (straight muscle of thigh); oblique (slanted)
Relative size of the muscle maximus (largest), minimus (smallest), &
longus (long)
Location of the muscle temporalis & frontalis for muscles that overlie
the temporal & frontal bones of the skull
Number of origins ex. Biceps, triceps (2/3 origin)
Location of the muscles origin & insertion ex. Sternocleidomastoid
sterno (sternum), cleido (clavicle), mastoid (inserts on mastoid process of
temporal bone
Shape of the muscle ex. Deltoid (triangular)
Action of the muscle ex. Flexor, extensor (extends the wrist), adductor
(brings about adduction),

Gross Anatomy of Skeletal Muscles

Head and Neck Muscles

- Facial muscles frontalis, orbicularis oculi, orbicularis oris, buccinator,
zygomaticus
- Chewing muscles masseter, temporalis,
- Neck muscles platysma, sternocleidomastoid,

 Trunk Muscles
- Anterior muscles pectoralis major, intercostal muscles, muscles of the
abdominal girdle rectus abdominis, external oblique, internal oblique,
transverses abdominis
- Posterior muscles trapezius, latissimus dorsi, erector spinae, deltoid
- Muscles of the upper limb
Muscles of the Humerus that act on the forearm biceps brachii,
brachialis, brachioradialis, triceps brachii
Muscles of the Lower limb
- Muscles causing movement at the hip joint gluteus maximus, gluteus
medius, iliopsoas, adductor muscles
- Muscles causing movement at the knee joint hamstring group
biceps femoris, semimembranosus, semitendinosus; Sartorius, quadriceps
group rectus femoris, 3 vastus muscles,
- Muscles causing movement at the ankle and foot tibialis anterior,
extensor digitorum longus, fibularis muscles, gastrocnemius, soleus
Homeostatic Imbalance
Muscular dystrophy, atrophy, Duchenne muscular dystrophy, myasthenia gravis
Quiz:
1. Muscle cells are referred to as muscle ______. muscle fibers
2. The _____ is the connective tissue covering around the muscle. - epimysium
3. Cords of connective tissue that connect muscles to bones are called _____. tendons
4. Thick filaments consist mainly of the protein ______; thin filaments consists of
____. myosin; actin
5. A muscle is stimulated to contract by Ach released by a ____ ____. motor
nerve/neuron
6. An action potential in muscle stimulates the release of ____. - Ca
7. The immediate source of energy for muscle contraction is ____. ATP
8. Creatine phosphate is a compound that stores ____. - energy
9. The state of partial contraction that exists in a muscle even when we are not
moving is called ____ ____. muscle tone
10. A muscle that opposes a prime mover (agonist) is called a (an) ____. antagonists
11. Synergists are muscles that stabilize ___. joints
12. The striations in striated muscle result to form: a. creatine phosphate, b. ATP
breakdown, c. the overlapping of actin & myosin filaments, d. the pattern
isometric contraction characteristic of these muscles.

13. Myosin binds to actin, forming cross bridges. What happens next? a. Ach is
released, b. Ca ions stimulate a process that leads to exposure of active sites, c.
filaments slide past each other/muscle fiber shortens, d. myosin is energized
14. Glycogen is: a. produced by actin, b. an energy storage molecule, c. depleted
w/n 1 sec of strenuous activity, d. causes oxygen debt when depleted
15. A muscle used in chewing is the: a. triceps brachii, b. gluteus maximus, c.
quadriceps femoris, d. masseter
16. A muscle that extends the thigh is the: a. gluteus maximus, b. deltoid, c.
quadriceps femoris, d. gastrocnemius
17. A muscle that flexes the trunk is: a. external oblique, b. rectus abdominis, c.
quadriceps femoris, d. gastrocnemius
18. A muscle that extends the elbow is the: a. triceps brachii, b. gluteus maximus, c.
quadriceps femoris, d. masseter
19. A muscle that extends the leg at the knee is the: a. biceps femoris, b. deltoid, c.
quadriceps femoris, d. gastrocnemius
20. A muscle that plantar flexes the foot is the: a. Sartorius, b. deltoid, c. quadriceps
femoris, d. soleus
NERVOUS SYSTEM
Introduction
You are crossing the street when suddenly you stopped due to a fastapproaching vehicle
You are eating eminems then a single piece suddenly fell off out of your hand
but you were able to catch it because you sensed right away that it would fall.
These are all functions of Nervous System
Nervous System master controlling and communicating system of the body
- communicating due to electrical impulses (rapid and specific)
3 overlapping functions:
1. Sensory receptors (millions) - monitor changes (stimuli) gathered info
sensory input
2. Processes and interprets input and makes decisions (integration)
3. Effects a response by activating muscles or glands (motor output)
Ex. When driving and see a red light (sensory input) NS integration of info (red
light means stop) foot goes for brake pedal (motor output)

*Works with endocrine system as regulating system

Organization of the NS
Structural Classification:
CNS brain and spinal cord (dorsal body cavity) integrating and command
center of Nervous System
PNS outside CNS nerves from brain to spinal cord
Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the s.c.
Cranial nerves carry impulses to and from the brain
Functional Classification
PNS Sensory Afferent Division nerve fibers convey impulses to the CNS from
sensory receptors
Somatic sensory fibers deliver impulse from skin, skeletal muscle, and joints
Visceral sensory fibers transmit impulse from CNS to effector organs, muscles,
and glands
- Effect/bring about a motor response
2 divisions:
1. Somatic nervous system/voluntary NS voluntary control skeletal muscles
2. ANS/invol. NS regulates activity automatic/involuntary ex. Activity of
cardiac, smooth muscles, & gland
2 parts:
Parasympathetic & Sympathetic
Nervous Tissue
- Made up of supporting cells and neurons
Supporting cells neuroglia (nerve glue) or glia
Include:

Astrocytes star- shaped nearly half of neural tissue; pick up excess

ions, recapture released neurotransmitters
Microglia spider-like; dispose off debris (brain cells, bacteria)
Ependymal cells line the brain & s.c.; helps circulate CSF
Oligodendrocytes wrap their flat extensions to nerve fibers forming
myelin sheath

Neuroglia not able to transmit nerve impulses; never lose ability to

divide; most brain tumors are gliomas/tumors formed by glial cells
(neuroglia)

2 major varieties:
Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths around nerve fibers (PNS)
Satellite cells protective, cushioning cells
Neurons Anatomy
- A.k.a. as nerve cells

Cell body contain nucleus, metabolic center of the cell; contains usual
organelles except centiroles
Nissl substance (rough ER) & neurofibrils maintain cell shape
Arm-like processes/fibers from microscopic to 3-4 ft. (from lumbar region of
spine to the big toe
Convey incoming messages (electrical signals) toward cell body dendrites
Generate nerve impulses, conduct then away from cell body axons
Branch a terminal ends forming hundreds to thousands axonal terminal
- Contains hundreds of tiny vesicle/membranous sacs that contain
chemicals neurotransmitters
Gap b/w axonal terminal and next neuron synaptic cleft ; functional junction
synapse
Myelin covering of nerve fibers; whitish fatty material; has waxy appearance
- Protects, insulates fibers and inc. transmission rate of nerve impulses
Part of Schwann cell, external to myelin sheath neurilemma
Gaps of myelin sheath/indentations nodes of Ranvier
Cell bodies are found in the CNS clusters nuclei
Small collections of cell bodies ganglia
- Found in PNS
Bundles of nerve fibers (neuron processes) running through the CNS tracts
- (in PNS) nerves
White matter myelinated fibers
Gray matter unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies

Classification
Functional classification groups neurons according to the direction the nerve
impulse is traveling; there are sensory, motor, & association neurons
Sensory/afferent neurons carry impulses from sensory
receptors to CNS cutaneous sense organs sensory receptors in
skin; proprioceptors sensory receptors in tendons & muscles
Motor/efferent neurons carry impulses form CNS to
viscera/muscles/glands; cell bodies are always located in CNS

Association neuron/interneurons connect motor & sensory

neurons in neural pathways; cell bodies always located in CNS

Structural classification is based on the no. of processes extending from cell

body
Multipolar neuron several
Bipolar neuron w/ 2 processes axon & dendrite; found in some
organs (eyes, ear)
Unipolar neurons have single process emerging form cell body; found
in PNS ganglia
Physiology
Nerve Impulses (along unmyelinated fibers)
2 major functional properties
o Irritability ability to respond to stimulus & convert it into nerve impulse
o Conductivity ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons, muscles,
or glands
-

Polarized (there are fewer + ion on inner face of p.m.); major cation is K,
while Na on outside

Different types of stimuli excite neurons to become active & generate

impulse ex. Light eye, sound ear, pressure skin, neurotransmitters

inward rush of Na ions changes polarity of neuron membrane

(depolarization) inside more +, outside less +

Stimulus strong enough activate neuron to initiate & transmit action

potential/nerve impulse in neurons

All or one response

After Na ions rush inward membrane perm. Changes impermeable

to Na but permeable to K ions K ion allowed to diffuse outside

Outflow of + ions from cell restores electrical condition at membrane

to polarized/resting state (repolarization)

Until repolarization occurs, a neuron cannot conduct another impulse

Na & K ions in & out are restored by activation of Na-K pump (uses
ATP)

(myelinated fibers) conduct impulses faster coz nerve impulse jump from node
to node (saltatory conduction)

Conductivity
Action potential arrives vesicle fuses w/ plasma membrane
neurotransmitter is released into synaptic cleft neurotransmitter binds to
receptor on receiving neurons membrane ion channel opens ion
channel closes
Reflex Arc
-

Although there are many types of communication b/w neurons, much of

what we do is programmed as reflexes are rapid, predictable, & inovl.
responses to stimuli
Reflexes occur over neural pathways reflex arcs
Types: autonomic & somatic
Autonomic reflexes regulate activity of smooth muscles, heart, &
glands ex. secretion of saliva (salivary reflex), changes in size of eye
pupils (pupillary reflex)
Regulate body functions digestion, elimination, BP, sweating
Somatic reflexes stimulate skeletal muscles
Moving your finger away from painful object (ex. Pins, knife)
5 elements: sensory receptor (reacts to stimulus), effector organ
(muscle/gland), afferent & efferent neurons (to connect the 2)
integration center (synapse b/w the 2)
Ex. Patellar/knee-jerk reflex (quadriceps muscle attached to
hit tendon is stretched)
Illustration: sensory receptor afferent or sensory neuron
integration center association neuron efferent or motor
neuron effector
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Neural tube (in embryonic devt) (4th wk) anterior end begins to expand
brain formation begins rest of tube becomes s.c. central canal
form chamber (ventricles)

Functional Anatomy of the Brain

- about 2 fistfuls of pinkish gray tissue, wrinkled, has texture of cold
oatmeal, weighs over 3-lbs.
- 4 major regions: cerebral hemispheres, diencephalon, brain stem,
cerebellum

Cerebral Hemispheres
- Most superior part of the brain
- Entire surface have elevated ridges of tissue gyri (twisters); separated
by shallow grooves - sulci (furrows); deeper grooves fissures
(separate large regions of brain)
- These divide each cerebral hemisphere into lobes named after for
cranial bones that lie over them
- Speech, memory, logical & emotional response/consciousness,
interpretation of sensation, vol. movt.
Somatic sensory area (Parietal Lobe)
- Interpret impulses form sensory receptors (except special senses)
- Ex. Recognize pain, coldness, light touch
- Pathways are crossed the L side of the sensory cortex receives
impulses from the R side of the body
Visual area (Occipital Lobe)
Auditory area, Olfactory (Temporal Lobe)
- Also involves complex memories
Primary motor area (Frontal Lobe)
- Allows us to consciously move skeletal muscles
- Form the major voluntary motor tract pyramidal/corticospinal tract
- Control body areas having finest motor control (face, mouth, hands)
- Believed to involve higher intellectual reasoning ; also complex memories
- Language comprehension
Brocas area ability to speak usually at left, causes inability to say words
properly if damaged
Speech area located at the junction of temporal, parietal, & occipital lobes;
allows to sound out words; usually in only 1 cerebral hemisphere
Corpus callosum very large fiber tract that connects the cerebral hems. to
communicate w/ each other
Basal nuclei help regulate voluntary motor activities, found w/n white matter

Homeostatic imbalance: Problem in Basal Nuclei unable to walk normally/do

vol. movts (huntingtons chorea, parkinsons dse)

Diencephalon

Quiz:
1. An example of integration by the NS is
a. the feel of a cold breeze
b. the shivering & goose bumps that result
c. the sound of rain
d. the decision to go back for an umbrella
2. A type of brain trauma likely to result in a long-term coma is:
a. concussion
b. cortical contusion
c. brain stem contusion
d. uncontrolled subdural hemorrhage
3. Cranial nerves that have some function in vision include the:
a. trochlear
b. trigeminal
c. abducens

d. facial

4. Na-K pumps:
a. help maintain the hyperpolarized state of the resting neuron
b. pump K ions out of the neuron
c. help maintain the resting potential of the neuron
d. are activated by strong voltage
5. An action potential:
a. is an all-or-none response
b. depends on the presence of myelin in the neuron
c. is accelerated by NE
d. is the mechanism of neural signaling across synapses
6. The part of the brain that helps maintain posture & equilibrium is the
a. medulla
b. cerebellum
c. cerebrum
d. thalamus
7. The part of the brain that controls voluntary movement is the
a. medulla
b. cerebellum
c. cerebrum

d. hypothalamus

8. The part of the brain that links the nervous and endocrine systems is the
a. medulla
b. thalamus
c. cerebrum
d. hypothalamus
9. Visual info is integrated in
a. occipital lobe
b. frontal lobe

c. temporal lobe

d. parietal lobe

10. Spinal nerves are

a. mainly motor nerves
b. transmit sensory info to the s.c.
c. transmit motor info to the s.c. d. consist of both preganglionic & postg. neuron
11. Neurons that release Ach are referred to as
a. adrenergic
b. cholinergic
c. preganglionic

d. terminal

12. The CNS consists of the ______ and the ____ ____ - brain, spinal cord
13. The supporting cells of nervous tissue are called - glial
14. Cells that are specialized to transmit nerve impulses are called ____. - neurons
15. The fiber of a neuron specialized to transmit impulses away from the cell body is
the ________. - axon
16. The junction b/w 2 neurons is called _________. - synapse
17. The cavities w/n the brain are called ________. - ventricles
18. The medulla, pons, & midbrain make up the _______.
19. The central canal of the spinal cord is surrounded by an area of __ matter. - gray
20. The outermost of the meninges is the tough _______. dura mater
21. The space below arachnoid membrane is known as ____. subarachnoid space
22. The part of the PNS that keeps the body in adjustment w/ the external envt is the
_____ division. somatic
23. The 2nd cranial nerve is the ____, the 10th cranial nerve is the ___. optic, vagus
24. The dorsal root of a spinal nerve consists of ____ fibers. sensory (afferent)
25. The rate & force of contraction of the heart are increased by its ___ nerves.
sympathetic
SENSE ORGANS
Quiz:
1. Photoreceptors that function in dim light are:
a. rods
b. cones
c. rods & cones

d. ciliary processes

2. The area of sharpest vision is the

a. fovea
b. optic disc
c. iris

d. optic chiasm

3. The pigment _______ in the rod cells is responsible for our ability to see
rhodopsin
4. The ability to change focus for near or far vision by changing the shape of the
lens is called accommodation
5. The auditory ossicles are the malleus, incus, stapes
6. The organ of Corti are located in the cochlea

7. Information about turning movements is sensed by the three semicircular

canals
8. Information from receptors in the olfactory epithelium is transmitted by what
nerve? olfactory
9. Otoliths are found in the ___ & ___. saccule, utricle
10. How do sensory receptors help us maintain homeostasis?
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
1. Hypothalamus releasing & inhibiting factors LH RF
2. Pituitary gland stimulating hormone TSH, LH
Negative Feedback
dec. TSH inc. T3, T4, Thyrocalcitonin
Positive Feedback Mechanism
inc. TSH, inc. thyroid hormones
Adrenal cortex steroids (Na retention, K secretion) stress response
Hyperthyroidism (Graves Disease)/Thyrotoxicosis inc. BMR hyperactivity
CNS stimulation
Calcitonin dec. Ca metabolism blood bones inc. Ca absorption
Parathormone inc. Ca metabolism bones blood inc. Ca resorption
(release)
Ca clotting factor # 4
3. Thymus T cells (T4)
4. Pancreas
Exocrine gland acinar cells pancreatic enzymes (amylase, lipase,
proteases)
Endocrine gland islets of Langherhans hormones
Alpha cells glucagon glycogen glucose
Beta cells glucose glycogen
- cellular uptake of glucose
- conversion of excess glucose to fats

Concentrated urine osmotic diuresis

Fats ketones CNS depressants DKA (type 2) coma
Hyperglycemia 1000 mg/dl HHNK (type 1 cx)
5. Adrenal glands inc. cortisol Hypercortisolism; Cushing syndrome; inc.
CHO, fat, dec. CHON metabolism; stress response, anti-inflammatory
Cushings Syndrome (Hypercortisolism) hypernatremia; hypokalemia, mood
swings (androgen & estro); edema (inc. Na retention = inc. H2o retention; inc.
blood volume (hypervolemia), JVD, ascites, anasarcha, inc. v/s, muscle
weakness, paralysis, constipation
Increased CHO Metabolism hyperglycemia; inc. fat embolism fatty
deposition buffalo hump, trunchal obesity, moon face
Decreased CHON Metabolism muscle wasting, dec. blood cell production, s/s
of anemia, inc./dec. WBC, dec. platelet ct. poor wound healing, bleeding
tendencies, fragile skin
Increased Sex Hormones inc. androgen masculination, hirsutism (F); (M)
inc. estrogen gynecomastia
Addsions Disease (Hypocortisolism)
- Hyponatremia, hyperkalemia, wt. loss, orthostatic hypotension,
bradycardia
- Bronze discoloration of dse (cardinal sign)
Cohns Syndrome (Hyperaldosteronism)
Adrenal medulla (Sympathetic NS activation)
Pheochromocytoma tumor in adrenal medulla; inc. catecholamines
6. Ovaries pregnancy no ovulation; 400-450 viable ova
ENDOCRINE SYSTEM
Quiz:
1. What does the endocrine gland lack? duct
2. It is defined as a chemical messenger that stimulates a change in some
metabolic activity hormone
3. Hormones combine w/ receptors on ___ cells. - target

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

The hormone ___ stimulates contraction of the uterus oxytocin

The hormone ___ sitmulates milk production in the lactating breast prolactin
GH is produced by what part of the PG? anterior
Antidiuretic hormone is produced by what part of the pituitary gland? posterior
Hypersecretion of GH during childhood may result in ____ - gigantism
The main function of the TH is to stimulate the ___ - metabolism/rate of
metabolism
10. In addition to TH, thyroid gland produces a hormone called ____ - calcitonin
11. A hormone that raises the level of Na in the blood is ___ - aldosterone
12. Blood glucose concentration is lowered by the hormone ___ released by the
pancreas insulin
13. Blood glucose concentration is raised by the hormone ___ released from the
pancreas glucagon
14. Adrenal medulla releases ____ & ____ - epinephrine & norepinephrine
15. Which of the ff. hormones is (are) secreted by neurons?
a. oxytocin
b. insulin
c. ADH
d. cortisol
16. ANP, the hormone secreted by the heart has exactly the opposite function to this
hormone secreted by the outermost zone of the adrenal cortex
a. epinephrine
b. coritsol
c. aldosterone
d. testosterone
17. HPN may result from hypersecretion of
a. thyroxine
b. cortisol
c. aldosterone

d. ADH/Vasopressin

18. Which of the following is given as a drug to reduce inflammation?

a. epinephrine
b. cortisol
c. aldosterone
d. ADH
19. The following are not a correct pair:
a. coritsol/glucocorticoid
c. oxytocin/neurohormone

b. ACTH/tropic hormone
d. estrogens/mineralocorticoid

20. the ff. hormone raises blood calcium concentration:

a. calcitonin
b. PTH
c. melatonin
d. progesterone
BLOOD (15 items)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

The function of red blood cells is to transport _______. oxygen

The liquid portion of blood is called _________. plasma
Some of the gamma globulins serve as _____. antibodies
Fibrinogen functions in blood ________. clotting
Red blood cells are produced in the ______. red bone marrow
A deficiency of hgb is called _______. anemia
The function of neutrophils is to ________. defend body against dse; fight
acute infection

8. ___________ patch damaged blood vessels. platelets

9. Fibrinogen is converted to _____ by an enzyme called _____. fibrin; thrombin
10. A person w/ type B blood has type _______ antigens on the surfaces of his
RBCs and _____ antibodies in his plasma. B; anti A;
11. Hemolytic anemia in the newborn (erythroblastosis fetalis) may occur when there
is _____ incompatibility. This may occur when a woman with ______ blood
produces a baby with _____ blood. Rh; Rh-negative; Rh-positive
Cardiovascular System (15 items)
1. The outer layer of the heart is the visceral _____. pericardium
2. The bulk of the heat wall consists of _____. myocardium/ cardiac muscle
3. The wall separating the ventricles of the heart is called the ____.
interventricular septum
4. The left AV valve is often called the ____ valve. bicuspid/mitral
5. Aortic & pulmonary valves are _____ valves semilunar
6. Blood is delivered to the heart wall by the ____ arteries. coronary
7. The ____ is called the pacemaker of the heart. SA/sinoatrial node
8. From the AV node, the electrical impulse spreads into specialized muscle fibers
that form the AV _____. bundle
9. In the cardiac cycle, the period of contraction is called ______ & the period of
relaxation is called ______. systole; diastole
10. At the time the atria are contracting, the ventricles are in _____. diastole
11. The volume of blood pumped by 1 ventricle in 1 minute is the _____. - CO
12. The amount of blood pumped by 1 ventricle during 1 beat is the ____. - SV
13. Heart rate is slowed by _____ nerves and speeded by _____.- parasympathetic;
sympathetic