Aquaculture in The Middle & Africa

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AQUACULTURE IN THE
MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA
STATUS AND RESEARCH NEEDS
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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
AQUACULTURE IN THE
MIDDLE EAST AND NORTH AFRICA
STATUS AND RESEARCH NEEDS
AZAD ISMAIL SAHEB

AND
SALAM AL-ABLANI
EDITORS
Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

New York
Copyright 2012 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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LIBRARY OF CONGRESS CATALOGING-IN-PUBLICATION DATA
Aquaculture in the Middle East and North Africa : status and research needs
editors, Azad Ismail Saheb and Salam Al-Ablani.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-1-62081-718-6 (eBook)
1. Aquaculture--Research--Middle East. 2. Aquaculture--Research--Africa,
North. I. Saheb, Azad Ismail. II. Al-Ablani, Salam.
SH125.A354A78 2011
639.8072--dc22
2011005657
Published by Nova Science Publishers, Inc. New York
CONTENTS
vii
Preface
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Chapter 3
Fish Diseases in Israeli Mariculture:

New Research Challenges
Angelo Colorni and Arik Diamant
Parasitic Protozoans Increasing Menace in Mariculture

Facilities and Marine Aquarium in Kuwait
I. S. Azad and Ahmed Al-Marzouk
11
Status of Aquaculture Health Management

in the Islamic Republic of Iran
Mehdi Soltani
19
Chapter 4
Diseases in Wild and Cultured Fish in Turkey

Ercument Genc
31
Chapter 5
Principle Fish Pathogens in Tunisian Aquaculture

Cherif Nadia and Hammami Salah
41
Chapter 6
Breeding the Silver Pomfret, Pampus Argenteus (Euphrasen),

for Aquaculture: Achievements and Challenges
Sulaiman M. Almatar and Charles M. James
49
Some Metocean Aspects for the Selection of Suitable

Mariculture Sites in the Arabian Gulf
S. Neelamani
87
Chapter 7
Chapter 8
Chapter 9
Industry Perspective of Aquaculture in the Middle East

Status and Issues
C. Regunathan
103
Aquaculture in Israel: Current Status and

Innovative Approaches
W. M. Koven, S. Harpaz, J. Van Rijn and N. Mozes
155
vi
Chapter 10
Contents
Aquaculture Status and Needs in the Islamic
Republic of Iran
Mehdi Soltani
Chapter 11
Review of Moroccan Aquaculture

Abdellatif Orbi, Hassan Nhhala and Mohamed Id Halla
Chapter 12
Aquaculture in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia:

Growth, Prospects and Problems
Feisal Bukhari
Chapter 13
Index
Aquaculture in Turkey Status and Needs

Hayri Deniz
191
209
257
275
319
PREFACE
World population at present stands at approximately 7 billion and is expected to cross the
9 billion mark by the middle of this century. Though, food for the growing population is
believed to be adequately produced the quality of food remains a question. Food quality
depends on the quality of protein, and the aquatic food, especially the fish, has to be ensured
to improve the quality of living. The harvest from the seas and fishable waters has been on the
decline. Aquaculture, whether through traditional practices or through high technology
industries, has provided practical and economically feasible solutions to rescue the declining
wild catches of food fish . Currently, the aquaculture industry contributes to over 50% of the
fish landed in the market on a global scale. Interestingly, Asia holds the lions share by
contributing more than 77% of the world fish production. However, contribution to
aquaculture by the Middle East and North Africa, popularly known as the MENA region, is
not so encouraging as only five countries; Egypt, Iran, Israel, Nigeria and Iraq and Turkey
have a traditional inclination to aquaculture. The remaining countries in the MENA contribute
to less than 1% of the world aquaculture production. Research in the field of aquaculture has
been a traditional strong hold in Israel, Kuwait, Iran, Turkey, Morocco, Tunisia and Egypt.
The challenges in the path of developing aquaculture as a food production sector have to be
addressed by the experts in the region. An account of aquaculture status and research needs in
the Middle East and North Africa is presented here with several renowned aquaculture
experts of the region contributing either detailed chapters, or expert commentaries on
aquaculture health.
Expert commentaries in this book are devoted to a special topic of aquaculture health,
thus emphasizing the importance of health of cultured aquatic species in an intensive
congregated holding facility.
Israel is one of the countries in the region with considerable aquaculture
accomplishments both in the productivity and research related fields. Aquaculture of the gilthead seabream, Sparus aurata, European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax), the white grouper
(Epinephelus aeneus), the grey mullet (Mugil cephalus) and the bluefin tuna (Thunnus
thynnus) during the last 30 years has contributed significantly to the progress achieved by
Israel in this sector. Diseases have been seen as the stumbling blocks in the path of
aquaculture and recent efforts have been aimed at obtaining the best protection for farmed
fish and shellfish. This expert commentary gives an account of the disease condition and
related interventions carried out in Israel.
The commentary on ciliated protozoans in mariculture and aquarium facilities in Kuwait
gives an over view of the increasing menace caused by this important group of parasites
viii
Preface
which is assuming an alarming proportions in aquarium facilities. A special mention is made

in the commentary of the silver pomfret (Pampus argenteus) as a new host for the
scuticociliate, Uornema spp. Also, various host manifestations in the case of some of the
important protozoan infections and future directions in the field of health management
research are discussed.
Iran is one of the important countries in the Middle East with considerable tradition of
aquaculture and contribution to aquaculture in the MENA region. The expert commentary
discusses aspects of health management of important aquaculture species in Iran which covers
freshwater and marine fish and shellfish species. Poor environmental conditions,
inappropriate health management strategies and outbreaks by some devastating infectious
diseases such as WSD, IHN, IPN and streptococcosis are the major constraints that cause
severe losses each year. Although both veterinary and fishery organizations approved some
rules and legislations to improve health management criteria, there is a risk of exotic and
economically important diseases that can be imported through the importation of eyed-eggs,
larvae, brood stock and ornamental species into the country. However, some viral diseases
including IHN, IPN and WSD have become a part of the endemic disease spectrum in the
aquaculture sector.
Followed by, is the commentary on aquaculture health in Turkey. Contribution by Turkey
to the global aquaculture production and to that of the MENA region is note worthy. Cage
culture of important sea fishes has flourished in Turkey in the recent past. Out of a current
production of 780, 000 tonnes about a fifth comes from aquaculture. Currently, many
researchers focus their efforts on new trends in fish health. One of them is eco-parasitology
which discusses the recently described phenomenon of conspicuous metal accumulation by
parasites and how this might be applied to environmental monitoring. They also suggest how
environmental science and parasitology might profit from each other in the near future.
The commentary on the health aspects in Tunisian aquaculture explains the recent
problems faced by the sector in that country. This chapter takes note of the problems
encountered by the Tunisian aquaculture sector due to the rapid extension of the rearing
activity in some Tunisian regions, particularly in the field of pathology. This specialized
database specifically describes some of the viral, bacterial and parasitic disease-related
information and focuses on the available data of these pathogens which have either
devastating effects on fish production in terms of high mortalities or reduction in growth of
farmed fish. Focusing on studies related to improving diagnostic technique, the record
provided the opportunity to have comprehensive information on the isolated and identified
microorganisms.
Eight full-length chapters were contributed by experts from different countries in the
MENA region. Each of these chapters provides valuable information on the status and
challenges faced by the aquaculture sector in the region.
The first chapter deals with the fast depleting wild fish species, silver pomfret (Pampus
argenteus), and gives full details of the successful attempt of captive breeding and larval
rearing of the species. The Mariculture and Fisheries Department of Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research (KISR) provided a significant break-through in breeding and larval
rearing of the very valued and fancied fish species not only in the region but also a widely
liked species in the Asian countries. KISR succeeded, for the first time in 1998, in the larval
rearing and grow-out culture of silver pomfret based on eggs collected from the wild. The egg
collection trips from the wild enabled to study extensively the spawning frequency, fecundity,
Preface
ix
type of spawning and availability of gravid fish in Kuwait waters. Over the years research has
focused on refinements in hatchery larval rearing and grow-out production.
Aquaculture site selection for marine fish farming is a challenging task. The chapter on
Some metocean aspects of site selection for cage culture in the Arabian Gulf gives a newer
dimension to the array topics selected for this book. The site selection is based on many
aspects like the waves, climate, current intensity, tidal variation, quality of marine water,
possibility for better flushing of the ambient water, water temperature and salinity, influence
of the discharges from power stations, desalination and municipal wastes, ease of accessibility
of the aquaculture cage site, ease and availability of suitable manpower, machines, materials,
electric power etc. Developments of Mariculture in the Arabian Gulf may reduce the
dependency on the imports of fish varieties. Mariculture must be economically feasible,
efficient and pollution free. Thus, it is essential to select suitable sites from the view of
different influencing environmental aspects.
Information on aquaculture in the perspective of private entrepreneurs is lacking. This
chapter on the status of aquaculture in the Gulf region on a private sector perspective desribes
the aspects that a private sector looks at when it come to commercialization of aquaculture
technologies The chapter deals with various aspects of financial supports, research back-up,
interests of the private sector to take up aquaculture as a business venture etc., in the light of
information on the policies and the regulations governing the activities in different countries.
In Israel the aquaculture production technologies and the extensive research outputs have
contributed tremendously to the rapid growth of aquaculture not only in the freshwater but
also in the marine sectors. This chapter brings out an array of information on various aspects
of aquaculture in Israel and discusses the problems. In Israel, water and land scarcity as well
as potential environmental damage associated with the marine fish cage culture have been the
driving forces behind the development of recirculation systems. A low-head recirculation
concept was developed to produce the Mega-Flow system. This approach is based on
providing water circulation and water aeration by means of airlifts.
Iran has long been one of the traditionally aquaculture-oriented countries in the Middle
East, where it has made tremendous progress in the field of aquaculture in the last 2-3
decades. Artificial propagation of sturgeon (Acipenseridae) fingerlings for restocking the
Caspian Sea, aquaculture of species such as Rutilus frisii kutum, Caspian trout (Salmo trutta
caspius), bream (Abramis brama), pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca), rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) and four cyprinids species for restocking other suitable inland water
bodies by the Iranian Fishery Organization (Shilat) were the major Fishery and aquaculture
related developments. This chapter explains the recent trends and research developments in
the field.
Morocco is one of the few countries in North Africa that has forged ahead in the
aquaculture sector. Freshwater aquaculture in Morocco started in 1924 through restocking of
hatchery-produced juveniles of ecologically and socio-economically valued fishes. After the
90's, the private sector, with the support of the HCEFLCD, exhibited limited aquaculture
investment in small areas. Marine aquaculture began in Morocco in the 50's and oyster
farming was the first marine aquaculture activity. There after the country has witnessed
several revolutionary changes in the field of aquaculture. The chapter on Aquaculture in
Morocco deals with various facets of aquaculture development in the country and the
challenges faced by the production and research wings.
Preface
Saudi Arabia is passing through amazing series of developments in aquaculture and the
name of National Prawn Company is seen as a result of the increasing importance given to the
seafood production. Several sea fish have been brought under the mariculture developments
and thus, the sector is growing at a promising pace. This chapter explains the status and
research needs of the sector in Saudi Arabia.
The chapter on Aquaculture in Turkey focuses on the aquaculture development activities
carried out in that country. Aquaculture is playing an increasingly important role in the
Turkish economy, as fishery products are the only products of animal origin that are exported
to the European Union. Many factors related to the political, economical and legal aspects
have not been congenial for the future aquaculture developments. However, increasing fish
consumption particularly in the domestic market is the main driving force for the
development of aquaculture. The market potential for aquaculture products makes this sector
one of the most attractive sectors for investment.
Eight full-length chapters with detailed information on important aquaculture countries in
the Middle East and North Africas and five expert commentaries covering various fish and
shellfish health related aspects make this book an interesting reference material for
researchers, teachers and administrators in the region.
The authors are thankful to all the authors who contributed full-length chapters and
expert commentaries. This book would not have been a reality without the active support
from the authors.
In: Aquaculture in the Middle East and North Africa

Editors: Azad Ismail Saheb and Salam Al-Ablani
ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
2012 Nova Science Publishers, Inc.
Chapter 1
FISH DISEASES IN ISRAELI MARICULTURE:

NEW RESEARCH CHALLENGES
National Center for Mariculture
Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research
Eilat, Israel
ABSTRACT
The gilt-head seabream Sparus aurata has been cultured for the last 30 years in Eilat
(Israeli Red Sea) and the progress made in the farming of European seabass
(Dicentrarchus labrax), the white grouper (Epinephelus aeneus), the grey mullet (Mugil
cephalus) and the bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus) have all contributed to the aquaculture
progress achieved by Israel. Diseases have been seen as the stumbling blocks in the path
of aquaculture and recent efforts have been aimed at obtaining the best protection of
farmed fish and shellfish. This commentary gives an account of the disease condition and
related interventions carried out in Israel.
INTRODUCTION
Because of its euryhaline and eurythermal characteristics and general robustness, the gilthead seabream Sparus aurata has been cultured for the last 30 years in Eilat (Israeli Red Sea)
and still dominates the production of the Israeli marine fish farming industry. However,
significant progress has also been made in the farming of the European seabass Dicentrarchus
labrax, the domestication of the white grouper Epinephelus aeneus and grey mullet Mugil
cephalus, and first steps were taken in the study of the reproduction physiology of the
Atlantic bluefin tuna (Thunnus thynnus). While a better understanding of the physiological
requirements of new species in captivity is gradually achieved, health management remains a
E-mail: angelo@ocean.org.il
high priority of Israeli mariculture, as progress of the veterinary aspects traditionally lags
behind other technological advances of the culture practices.
Awareness of the detrimental impact of fish farm operations on the environment has
increased in recent years, as it is becoming clear that no matter how sophisticated
technologies may be, uncontrolled environmental impact will ultimately render fish farm
operations unsustainable. Until recently, most Israeli mariculture activities have been
conducted in the Red Sea near the southern city of Eilat. The economic success of intensive
mariculture in the region was due, to a large extent, to the fact that the cost of effluent
treatment was never included. This approach is nearing its timely end. In inland fish farms
that have been operating for some years with no effluent treatment, certain diseases kept reappearing with astounding regularity. Since sea water inlets and outlets are oftentimes not
overly distant from each other, we hypothesize that certain pathogen agents that are
"amplified" during epizootics are released at significant amounts into the sea, and that over
time, a low-level, "chronic" infection establishes in the local wild fish fauna, which then acts
as an infection reservoir, establishing a stable source of contagion. Following a global trend,
stricter policies regulating effluent discharge are gradually being enacted and enforced in
Israel. Also, the need for developing alternative, environment-friendly and economically
viable culture systems has become increasingly urgent (Shpigel et al. 1993; Cataudella 1999;
Neori et al. 2000; Blancheton 2001). Ending a decade-long controversy, the Israeli
government ruled to discontinue marine cage farming in the Red Sea because it was deemed
detrimental to the local coral reefs. In the summer of 2008, the last of the sea-cages was
removed from the Gulf of Eilat. Attempts are now under way to develop technologically
advanced, storm-resistant submersible cages along the Mediterranean coast, to expand
brackish water aquaculture, while the suitability of geothermal water for aquaculture is
investigated, and polyculture practices encouraged. The elimination of sea-cage farming from
the Red Sea has led to intensive RandD of inland recirculation aquaculture systems (RAS).
The margins of tolerance in these systems are often extremely narrow and the consequences
of even minor environmental deteriorations can be catastrophic. Although environmental
pollution can be significantly reduced and the feasibility of an organic mariculture looks more
promising, new health management problems related to the nature of these closed systems
have appeared. The geographic latitudes, the cultured species and the husbandry methods
employed greatly influence the type and severity of diseases. "Routine" pathogens such as
Lymphocystis Disease Virus (LDV), Pasteurella (Photobacterium damselae ssp.)
piscicida, Vibrio spp., etc., periodically still cause significant economic losses in Israeli
mariculture, and one-time sporadic diseases (caused by Mycobacterium marinum,
Streptococcus iniae, Lactococcus garvieae, Enteromyxum leei, Kudoa iwatai) seem to be on
the rise. A particularly worrisome example is the emergence of encephalitis viruses (causing
VER - Viral Encephalopathy and Retinopathy), which has put severe constraint not only on
sea bass and grouper cultures, but also affected those of grey mullet, barramundi and red
drum (Ucko et al. 2004). Two parasitoses, sustained by Amyloodinium ocellatum, a
cosmopolitan dinoflagellate protophyton, and Cryptocaryon irritans, a ciliate protozoan
found in marine fishes in tropical, subtropical and temperate seas - both virtually unknown in
sea-cage culture - appear to be the main hazard to fish health in RAS, where their control is
particularly challenging. Undoubtedly, physico-chemical factors, such as salinity, total
organic matter, temperature, solar radiation, sedimentation, etc., as well as persistence of
antibiotics and other residues from chemical treatments, all play a role according to the nature
Fish Diseases in Israeli Mariculture
of each particular pathogenic agent. Under the artificial conditions of intensive mariculture,
pathogen-host specificity has been known to break down on occasion (Colorni 1994; Colorni
and Diamant 2005). Outside their natural hosts, certain bacteria are known to enter a
starvation mode and a viable, albeit non-culturable (VBNC) state, while encysted stages of
some parasites have developed asynchronous excystment strategies that enhance their
infection dynamics. In any event, interaction of pathogens with the bacterial flora and
microfauna in the bottom sediment or a fish pond biofilter clearly determines the fate of the
disease agents. The ability of these pathogens to survive, remain infective and propagate in
these artificial ecosystems has yet to be properly studied. Multitrophic (integrated) marine
systems that incorporate fish, invertebrates and algae are a focus of investigation in Israel.
Major efforts are now being invested in reducing capital and operational costs, which are
typically considerably greater in RAS than in traditional flow-through systems.
BACTERIAL DISEASES
Sophisticated biotechnologies have been (or are currently being) developed and many
microbial pathogens are today identified on a molecular basis. A direct PCR method for
detection and identification of Mycobacterium marinum based on the 16S rRNA gene
sequence was developed already sixteen years ago in Israel (Knibb et al. 1993), and the same
methodology is available for several other bacterial fish pathogens (Hiney and Smith 1998;
Zlotkin et al. 1998). A highly specific PCR assay for detecting Amyloodinium ocellatum
dinospores was developed by Levy et al. (2007). In a study by Kvitt et al. (2008), PCR
primers based on the DNA polymerase gene sequence were employed for the detection of
Lymphocystis Disease Virus (LCDV) in gilthead sea bream Sparus aurata, and for
monitoring the course of the disease from onset to full clinical recovery. In spontaneously
infected fish, LCDV DNA was detected in skin and different internal organs, and a
correlation was found between PCR intensity and the persistence of the virus in organs of
recovered fish with no residual clinical symptoms. In experimentally infected fish, PCR
detection was achieved almost two weeks before appearance of clinical signs. LCDV
remained detectable in skin, caudal fin and eyeball for up to four weeks after external signs of
infection had cleared. Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA (RAPD) and Amplified
Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP) are DNA fingerprinting techniques which detect
DNA restriction fragments by means of random PCR amplification. By using whole-genome
structures rather than single gene sequences, both techniques have provided a generally
higher level of precision in genotyping. AFLP in particular has become a useful genetic and
epidemiological tool for detecting strain variation, e.g., in Photobacterium damselae ssp.
piscicida (Kvitt et al. 2002), whereas for Lactococcus garvieae more discriminative results
were achieved with RAPD (Colorni et al. 2003). Comparison of the 16S rRNA sequence of
Streptococcus iniae isolates from Mediterranean Sea and Red Sea fish with that of S. iniae
isolates from Israeli freshwater rainbow trout revealed 6 nucleotide differences (over a total
of approximately 1500 nucleotides), which corresponds to 99.6% homology. Therefore,
despite phenotypic, biochemical and pathogenetic similarities, Israeli marine and freshwater
isolates were demonstrated to be distinct strains (Colorni et al. 2002). Both the AFLP and
RAPD methods demonstrate high discriminative properties, the former differentiating among
closely related bacterial strains (Janssen et al. 1996; Blears et al. 1998), and the latter among
group-A streptococci (Gardiner et al. 1995) and even S. iniae serotypes (Bachrach et al.
2001). Using Restriction Fragment Length Polymorphism (RFLP) of whole rRNA genes,
Eldar et al. (1997) showed that Israeli isolates from tilapia and trout could be differentiated
from U.S. S. iniae isolates from tilapia, and also showed that the S. iniae ATCC 29178T type
strain (originally isolated from skin lesions of an Amazon River freshwater dolphin, Inia
geoffrensis, held in captivity in San Francisco, California) (Pier and Madin 1976) belongs to a
ribotype different from those of the piscine isolates.
PARASITIC DISEASES
Some Myxosporeans, upon gaining access to Sparus aurata and Dicentrarchus labrax
cultures may cause serious harm. Others are quite innocuous, and may only under heavy
infections become pathogenic. One of the most serious of the group is Enteromyxum leei,
which was initially reported in cultured S. aurata from southern Cyprus (Diamant 1992).
Subsequently, it emerged in Israel (Diamant et al. 1994) and soon afterwards was reported
from additional countries around the Mediterranean (Le Breton and Marques, 1995; Sakiti et
al. 1996; Fioravanti et al. 2004). Enteromyxosis is a chronic disease that leads to anorexia and
severe emaciation. Affected fish eventually succumb with a typical bony dorsal ridge and
bloated abdomen appearance. The parasite causes mass disintegration of gut mucosa.
Diagnosis by spore morphology in fresh fecal smears (Figure 1) is straightforward in
advanced cases, whereas early stages may be detected with a highly specific PCR-based assay
(Palenzuela 2006). The host range for E. leei includes several non-sparid families, but
detection has generally been limited to fish kept in captivity (Padrs et al. 2001). This disease
is today widespread and the pathogen is probably present in the entire Mediterranean basin
(Diamant et al. 2006).
In recent years, an increase in the prevalence of Kudoa (the first myxosporean parasite
reported from Sparus aurata) was observed in both land-based and sea-cage facilities in Eilat
(Diamant et al. 2005). Infections with the same Kudoa species occurred in cultured European
sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax and grey mullet Mugil cephalus kept in the same farms, as well
as in 10 species of wild Red Sea reef fish, indicating that the parasite is non-specific and may
parasitize a wide range of host species (Diamant et al. 2005). All affected species harbored
similar 1-2 mm (up to 5 mm) whitish, spherical, or oval polysporous plasmodia, each filled
with millions of spores, each containing 4 polar capsules (Figures 2, 3) The parasite
establishes multiple site infections and is most commonly found in the muscles and
intracranial adipose tissue of the brain and eye periphery, but also in subcutaneous adipose
tissue, neural tissue, mouth, eye, mesenteries, peritoneum, swim bladder, intestinal
musculature, heart, pericardium, kidney, and ovary. On the basis of the spore morphology, the
parasite was identified as Kudoa iwatai Egusa and Shiomitsu, 1983, a species previously
known only from fish of east-Asian Pacific waters. Ultrastructural features were comparable
to those of previously studied Kudoa species. The 18S rDNA from 7 Red Sea isolates was
sequenced and compared with the sequence of the same gene from K. iwatai isolated from
cultured red sea bream, Pagrus major from Japan.
Figure 1. Enteromyxum leei live spores in

fresh fecal wet mount from Oreochromis
mossambicus. Nomarski interference
microscopy (Bar = 10m).
Figure 2. Spore-packed young Kudoa iwtai

plasmodium in Sparus aurata. Nomarski
interference microscopy (Bar = 20m).
Figure 3. Kudoa iwtai spores from S. aurata.

Nomarski interference microscopy (Bar =
20m).
Figure 4. Ceratomyxa sparusaurati spores from the

gall bladder of S. aurata. Nomarski interference
microscopy (Bar = 20m).
The phylogenetic position of K. iwatai within the genus was determined using sequence
analysis of all related taxa available in GenBank. The 3 isolates of K. iwatai clustered
together in a newly formed, highly supported clade. The absence of records of Kudoa iwatai
from the extensive Mediterranean sea bream and sea bass production industries supports these
findings, implying that it is indeed not a Mediterranean species. K. iwatai appears to be an
Indo-Pacific species that extended its natural host range in the Red Sea to include the gilthead sea bream, European sea bass, and grey mullet imported for mariculture from the
Mediterranean. Nevertheless, it is important to note that should K. iwatai gain access to the
Mediterranean, it may become a significant problem in sea bream and sea bass cultures.
A third myxosporean that infects S. aurata is Ceratomyxa sparusaurati (Figure 4), which
targets the gall bladder (Sitj-Bobadilla et al. 1995). This parasite is usually rather innocuous,
but may sometimes produce heavy infections that result in biliary system pathology.
Since quarantine restrictions, especially in the past, have rarely been enforced, certain
pathogens have been translocated over considerable geographic distances, usually with
hatchery seed shipped from one locality to be cultured in another, or with adults caught in the
wild to be used as broodstock. Therefore, rapid and accurate molecular diagnosis of
pathogens is of great epidemiological importance. Precise taxonomic positions is often
essential for the development of effective curative strategies. Significant headway has been
made in recent years and identification may today be determined with much greater
confidence. At the same time, the increase in precision has created frequent and widespread
need for major taxonomic shifts and re-classifications. For example, Pasteurella piscicida has
been renamed Photobacterium damselae ssp. piscicida (Gauthier et al. 1995), Myxidium leei
Diamant, Lom and Dykov, 1994, has been changed to Enteromyxum leei (see Palenzuela et
al. 2002), and Cryptocaryon irritans (Phylum Ciliophora), considered for half a century as the
seawater counterpart of Ichthyophthirius multifiliis, was moved from the family
Ichthyophthiriidae to the newly formed Cryptocaryonidae and re-classified to a different
subphylum level (Wright and Colorni 2002).
NEW APPROACHES
As a new sub-discipline of fish immunology, the emerging field of antimicrobial research
known as host-defense peptide biology seeks to understand how various life forms defend
themselves by using endogenous, gene encoded, 10-50 amino acid peptides endowed with
powerful, broad-spectrum antimicrobial properties. These molecules act rapidly and
nonspecifically, stemming or preventing colonization of a wide range of potentially
pathogenic microorganisms by affecting membrane permeability, inhibiting the synthesis of
specific membrane proteins, or interfering with DNA synthesis (Kelley 1996; Schrder 1999).
Recently detected, purified and characterized in fish, endogenous antibiotics (endobiotics)
are peptides located in the epithelial surfaces of skin, gills and alimentary tract (Park et al.
1997; Cole et al. 1997, 2000; Robinette et al. 1998; Lauth et al. 2002; Noga et al. 2002). An
important family of endobiotics, originally detected in hybrid striped bass, are piscidins,
22-amino acid peptides expressed in mast cells of gill, skin and gut and visceral blood vessels
in various families of fish in the suborder Percoidei, including Dicentrarchus labrax
(Silphaduang and Noga 2001; Noga and Silphaduang 2003). Their three members display a
broad antibacterial spectrum and at least one of them is effective against protistan
ectoparasites such as the dinoflagellate Amyloodinium ocellatum and the ciliate Cryptocaryon
irritans (Colorni et al. 2008). Potentiating the natural, nonspecific, non-adaptive defenses of
the host (such as histone-like polypeptides in S. aurata and piscidins in D. labrax) will limit
use and dependence on treatment drugs and chemicals (antibiotics in particular) and is the
innovative strategic course that fish health research has taken in the past few years. The
factors affecting modulation (up- and down-regulation) of piscidins are being studied.
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Conference, Verona, Italy, February 11-12, Abstract p. 27.
Cole AM, Darouiche RO, Legarda D, Connel N, Diamond G (2000) Characterization of a fish
antimicrobial peptide: gene expression, subcellular localization, and spectrum of activity.
Antimicrob Agents Chemother 44, 2039-2045.
Cole AM, Weis P, Diamond G (1997) Isolation and characterization of pleurocidin, an
antimicrobial peptide in the skin secretions of winter flounder. J. Biol. Chem. 272, 1200812013.
Colorni A (1994) Hyperparasitism of Amyloodinium ocellatum (Dinoflagellida: Oodinidae)
on Neobenedenia melleni (Monogenea: Capsalidae). Dis. Aquat. Org. 19, 157-159.
Colorni A, Diamant A (2005) Hyperparasitism of trichodinid ciliates on monogenean gill
flukes of marine fish. Dis. Aquat. Org. 65, 177-180.
Colorni A, Diamant A, Eldar A, Kvitt H, Zlotkin A (2002) Streptococcus iniae infections in
Red Sea cage-cultured and wild fishes. Dis. Aquat. Org. 49, 165-170.
Colorni A, Ravelo C, Romalde JL, Toranzo AE, Diamant A (2003) Lactococcus garvieae in
wild Red Sea wrasse Coris aygula (Labridae). Dis. Aquat. Org. 56, 275-278.
Colorni A, Ullal A, Heinisch G, Noga EJ (2008) Activity of the antimicrobial polypeptide
piscidin 2 against fish ectoparasites. J. Fish Dis. 31, 423-432.
Diamant A (1992) A new pathogenic histozoic Myxidium (Myxosporea) in cultured gilt-head
sea bream Sparus aurata L. Bull. Eur. Ass Fish Pathol, 12, 64-66.
Diamant A, Lom J, Dykov I (1994) Myxidium leei n. sp., a pathogenic myxosporean of
cultured sea bream Sparus aurata. Dis. Aquat. Org., 20, 137-141.
Diamant A, Palenzuela O, Alvarez-Pellitero P, Athanassopoulou E, Golomazou E, Albiana
G, Padrs F, Crespo S, Lipshitz A, Ghittino C, Agnetti F, Marques A, Le Breton A,
Raymond JF (2006) Epizootiology Of Enteromyxum Leei (Myxozoa: Myxosporea) in
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Health, American Fisheries Society, San Francisco, California, USA, Sept. 2006.
Diamant A, Ucko M, Paperna I, Colorni A, Lipshitz A (2005) Kudoa iwatai (Myxosporea:
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of Pasteurella piscicida (Snieszko et al.) Janssen and Surgalla to the genus
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Bacteriol 45, 139-144.
Hiney M, Smith P (1998) DNA-based diagnostics in aquaculture: can we overcome the
problems of interpretation in the field? In: AC Barnes, GAD Davidson, MP Hiney, D
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587-590.
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identification of a pathogenic marine Mycobacterium from the European seabass,
Dicentrarchus labrax using polymerase chain reaction and direct sequencing of 16S
rDNA sequences. Mol. Mar Biol. Biotech. 2, 225-232.
Kvitt H, Heinisch G, Diamant A (2008) Detection and phylogeny of Lymphocystivirus in sea
bream Sparus aurata based on the DNA polymerase gene and major capsid protein
sequences. Aquaculture 275(1-4), 58-63.
Kvitt H, Ucko M, Colorni A, Batargias C, Zlotkin A, Knibb W (2002) Photobacterium
damselae ssp. piscicida: detection by direct amplification of 16S rRNA gene sequences
and genotypic variation as determined by amplified fragment length polymorphism
(AFLP). Dis Aquat Org 48, 187-195.
Lauth X, Shike H, Burns JC, Westerman ME, Ostland VE, Carlberg JM, Van Olst JC, Nizet
V, Taylor SW, Shimizu C, Bulet P (2002) Discovery and characterization of two
isoforms of moronecidin, a novel antimicrobial peptide from hybrid striped bass. J. Biol.
Chem 277, 5030-5039.
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cultured species: Puntazzo puntazzo C. and Pagrus major. Bull. Eur Ass Fish Pathol, 15,
210-212.
Levy MG, Poore MF, Colorni A, Noga EJ, Vandersea MW, Litaker RW (2007) A highly
specific PCR assay for detecting the fish ectoparasite Amyloodinium ocellatum. Dis
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207-215.
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Myxidium leei (Myxozoa) infections in aquarium-reared Mediterranean fish species. Dis
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27-29.
Palenzuela O, Redondo MJ, lvarez-Pellitero P (2002) Description of Enteromyxum
scophthalmi gen. nov., sp. nov. (Myxozoa), an intestinal parasite of turbot (Scophthalmus
maximus L.) using morphological and ribosomal RNA sequence data. Parasitology 124,
369-379.
Park CB, Lee JH, Park IY, Kim MS, Kim SC (1997) A novel antimicrobial peptide from the
loach, Misgurnus anguillicaudatus. Fed. Eur. Biochem. Soc. Lett. 411, 173-178.
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isolated from an Amazon freshwater dolphin, Inia geoffrensis. Int. J. Syst. Bacteriol. 26,
545-553.
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in the skin of the channel catfish Ictalurus punctatus : characterization of broadspectrum
histone-like antimicrobial proteins. Cell Mol. Life Sci. 54, 467-475.
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d'une Mixosporidie histozoque pathogne dans les levages du daurade, Sparus aurata.
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clean land-based culture of fish, bivalves and seaweeds. Aquaculture 117, 115-128.
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(Myxosporea: Bivalvulida), a New Parasite from Cultured Gilthead Seabream (Sparus
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PCR. J. Clin. Microbiol. 36, 983-985.

ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 2
PARASITIC PROTOZOANS INCREASING MENACE

IN MARICULTURE FACILITIES AND MARINE
AQUARIUM IN KUWAIT
Mariculture and Fisheries Department (MFD)
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR)
Salmiya, Kuwait
Aquaculture or confinement as experienced by the aquarium fish provide ample scope for
the obligate and facultative fish parasites to cause considerable damage to the host fish on
which they thrive. Protozoan parasites constitute an important group of fish parasites which
are often associates with severe host mortalities. The myxozoans, the sporozoans (eg.
Myxosoma sp), the ciliates (eg. Holotrichus Icththyoptherius sp; freshwater ich,
Cryptocaryon sp. the marine ich the scuticociliates Uronema sp. and peritrichusTrichodina sp.) and the flagellates (Icthyobodo sp. and Amyloodinium sp.) are some of the
important protozoan ichthyoparasites.
These parasites are seen even in marine fish both in commercial aquaculture and fish
hobbyists holding facilities. Protozoan parasitic problems especially those by the ciliates
regularly cause disease problems in the on-shore fish hatchery and rearing facilities of
Mariculture and Fisheries Department (MFD) in Kuwait. Marine Aquarium of Scientific
Centre, the major tourist attraction in Salmiya, Kuwait, also regularly reports of parasitic
problems due to the marine ich, the scuticociliate and the Trichodinia sp. in its different
exhibit fish species such as zobaidy (silver pomfret), the goatfish, the sea horse etc.
Three major disease outbreaks due to the ciliates were noticed under the MFD facilities
of KISR during the period 2003-2007. An out break due to the marine ich Cryptocaryon sp.
during 2003-04 and again during 2006; an episode of silver pomfret mortalities in April 2005
due to the scuticociliate and Amyloodinium-related bluefin bream (Sparidentax hasta)
mortalities during June 2007 were recorded by the fish health scientists of MFD.
Corresponding author: azadis@hotmail.com; Phone: +965-25711295; Fax: +965-25711293
12
All these episodes were severe on cultured silver pomfret adults and sub-adults and the
bream, respectively. The incidences of scuticociliatosis were associated with a raise in the
water temperature, increased bacterial load and the sensitivity of the fish species. The
flagellated protozoan (Amyloodinium) was suspected to be due to the protozoan sporecontaminated forage fish, minor mullet. Sporadic incidences of marine ich infestations were
also recorded from the breams and groupers in the facilities of both, MFD and Marine
Aquarium of Scientific Centre, Kuwait.
Cryptocaryon Sp.
The marine ich has been reported to cause severe mortalities in silver pomfret, orange
spotted grouper (Epinephelus coioides) and the silvery-black porgy (Sparidentax hasta) in the
on-shore rearing facilities of the Mariculture and Fisheries Department of KISR, Kuwait
[1,2]. Severity of infection was coinciding with a raise in the water temperatures during MayJune and with deteriorated water quality (total heterotrophic bacterial counts exceeding 105
CFU/ml in the water supply). Upon an earliest detection of the parasite, freshwater bath or 57 day treatment with copper sulphate (25 ppm for 2-3 h immersion) was found to be
satisfactory in controlling the spread of the disease. However, it was almost impossible to
stop the mortalities once the disease was blown-up.
Tank-cultured orange spotted grouper (E. coioides) in on-shore tank facilities of was
infested by C. irritans resulting in about 50% mortality [2]. Similar out breaks were reported
in these facilities stocked with bluefin bream (S. hasta) during 2004-05. The parasite
appeared again in 2008 causing 30-40% larval mortality in one of the bluefin bream larval
rearing tanks (Figure 1).
The marine ich belongs to the group of holotrichous ciliates and is an obligate parasite
infecting almost all types of fish [3,4] unlike the scuticociliate which prefers soft-skinned and
small-scaled fish such as tuna [5] and silver pomfret [6]. C. irritans, the prime causative of
marine ich disease, is known to have a wide geographical distribution with records from the
Indo-Pacific, the Persian Gulf, the Red Sea, the Atlantic Ocean and the Caribbean Sea7.
Marine aquaculture and marine aquariums have been often reported have suffered severe
losses due to the marine ich.
Red sea bream tiger puffer and the flounder were found to be severely infested with the
marine ich [8, 9], thus widening the species range that could become susceptible to this
devastating protozoan parasite. Aquaculture stress and the crowding seem to provide the right
environment for the proliferation and pathogenesis of marine ich. Dangers of threats due to
outbreaks were predicted long ago by Mathews and co-workers [10] due to the growing
ornamental fish industry and the expanding mariculture activities.
Clinically, infestation by the parasite is termed white spot disease due to the clear white
spots caused by the colonisation of the parasite on the skin. Corneal opacity is another clinical
manifestation induced by the marine ich. Heavy infestation of the gill epithelium leading to
respiratory stress and failure could be the major cause of mass mortalities in cultured fish.
Parasitic Protozoans
13
Figure 1. Marine itch in adult cultured sobaity (Cryptocaryon irritans). Note the different stages of the
parasite life cycle.
Scuticociliatosis
Another group of holotrichous ciliates is the scuticociliatida that has been reported from a
variety fish species causing mild to very severe infestations. Tuna, flat fish, silver pomfret,
seahorse, goatfish etc., have been known to be affected by the opportunistic bacterivore
ciliate. The hymenostomatid protozoan infestations have been reported by many researchers
world over [11, 12]. In 1980, nine species of saltwater aquarium fish suffered mortalities due
to Uronema marinum [11]. Cultured striped trumpeter (Latris lineata) and southern bluefin
tuna (Thunnus maccoyii) suffered from myositis and encephalitis, respectively due to
Uronema sp [13, 14]. Mortalities of fish due to scuticociliatosis have been recorded from a
variety of fish species such as the olive flounder Paralichthys olivaceus [15,16,17], turbot
Scophthalmus maximus [18,19,20], seabass Dicentrarchus labrax [21], southern bluefin tuna
Thunnus maccoyii [5], American lobster Homarus americanus [22], blue crab Callinectes
sapidus [23] and seahorse Hippocampus erectus [24]. Preliminary observations on the
14
diseases of cultured silver pomfret were reported in 2004 from Kuwait [25] and later, in 2007,
a detailed investigation on scuticociliate-associated mortality of silver pomfret (Figure 2) was
reported [6].
Figure 2. Scuticociliatosis due to Uronema spp. in silver pomfret (2a) and seahorse (3) noticed in
cultured fish and aquarium exhibit, respectively.
Earliest detection of the parasite and separation of normal fish in a group from the
affected group was found to be more successful compared to the combination of treatments
such as daily formalin bath [6]. The affected fish were found to become more serious sources
of infection and the ciliate was more virulent after it leaves an infected fish as evidences
through the reduced protease activity of the parasite when repeatedly cultured in vitro on
bacteriological medium compared to a live challenge [26]. The parasite was found to invade
almost all the organs including the brain, making it almost impossible to control the disease
spread once it becomes serious. The marine aquarium exhibit fish and sea horses in the
Scientific Centre, Salmiya of Kuwait were also found to be severely affected by the
scuticociliate during the summer months of April during 2005. The infested sea horse showed
lethargy, rubbing behaviour and bleached tail (Figure 3). Though, bath treatment with
formalin, copper sulphate, hydrogen peroxide and even freshwater has been recommended,
vaccination could provide a more effective and long-lasting solution to this major parasitic
disease.
Amyloodinium (Marine Velvet Disease)

The marine velvet disease is caused by the dianoflagellate, Amyloodinium ocellatum. Its
an ectoparasite found on skin and gills and causes severe mortalities in cultured and aquarium
fish [27]. The velvet-like appearance is characteristic of the parasite infestation. Other
clinical signs include anorexia, irritability and splashing behavior. Histopathological lesions
15
include gill inflammation, haemorrhages and hyperplasty. Elevation of temperature is

frequently associated with mortalities due to severe infections in mariculture and sea aquaria.
The life cycle starts with the infective stage (dinospore) that attaches to the host,
transforming into a feeding (trophont) stage. The grown trophont detaches from the host cell,
falls off and enters the reproductive (tomont) stage producing dinospores. Thousands of
feeding stages develop fast on the infected fish gill leading to asphyxiation and morality
(Figure 4).
Edward Nogas laboratory has been working extensively on this species and other
parasitic protozoans and the team has demonstrated in 1981 that A.oscellatum can be
propagated on fish hosts such as clown fish (Amphiprion oscellaris). They also showed that
the parasite can be acclimatized and propagated on fish gill cell lines [28,29]. Histone like
proteins, in the mucus of trout and hybrid bass infected with the flagellate, were noticed and
these proteins showed a clear anti-Amyloodinium characters indicating that non-specific
immune responses are elicited by the host due to infection by the flagellate [30].
Figure 4. Flagellate infestation by Amyloodinium spp. in cultured sobaity (Sparidenatx hasta) in

Kuwait.
16
These parasites are of immense importance from the health management point of view
especially in the backdrop of expanding aquaculture activities in the coastal environments.
Prophylactic and therapeutic health management measures need to be developed in such a
way that the longer interests of the host and the environment have to be given equal priority.
In this context, immune modulation using immunostimulation and vaccination strategies need
to be intensified to meet the challenges of diseases.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors are thankful to Dr. Sulaiman Almatar, DM/MFD, KISR, Dr. Khalid Abdul
Al-Elah for their help and cooperation.
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[24] Thompson, C.L.Jr.and Moewus, L. (1964). Miamiensis avidus n. g. n. s., a marine
facultative parasite in the ciliate order Hymenostomatida. J. Protozool. 11, 378-381.
[25] Al-Marzouk, A., Durumdez, R.and Al-Gharabally, H. (2004). Efforts to control
outbreaks of diseases among cultured silver pomfret Pampus argenteus in Kuwait. J.
Aquacult. Trop. 19, 103-110.
18
[26] Ahmed Al-Marzouk and I.S. Azad. (2007). Growth kinetics, protease activity and
histophagous digestibility of Uronema sp. infesting cultured silver pomfret (Pampus
argenteus Euphrasen) in Kuwait. (Accepted for publication) Diseases of Aquatic
Organisms. 76: 49-56.
[27] Noga, E.J. andLevy, M.G. (1995). Dinoflagellate parasites of fish. In: Woo PTK (ed)
Fish diseases. I: Protozoan and metazoan infections. CAB International, Oxford, p 1
25.
[28] Noga, E.J. (1987). Propagation in cell culture of the dinaoflagellate Amyloodinium, an
ectoparasite of marine fishes. Science News Series, 236 (4806): 1302-1304.
[29] Noga, E.J. (1989). Culture conditions affecting the in vitro propagation of
Amyloodinium ocellatum. Dis. Aquat. Org. 6: 137143.
[30] Noga, E.J., Fan, Z. and Silphaduang, U.( 2001). Histone-like proteins from fish are
lethal to the parasitic dinoflagellate Amyloodinium ocellatum. Parasitology 123: 5765.

ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 3
STATUS OF AQUACULTURE HEALTH MANAGEMENT

IN THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN
Mehdi Soltani
Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Tehran and Center of Excellence of Aquatic Animal Health,
University of Tehran Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT
Despite the rapid development of this industry during the recent years, it is faced
with several constraints including lack of modern technology, insufficient financial
resources, and negative impact of environmental pollution and occurrence of devastating
infectious diseases. Poor environmental conditions, inappropriate health management
strategies and outbreaks by some devastating infectious diseases such as white spot viral
disease (WSD),infectious heamatopoeitic necrosis (IHN), infectious pancreatic necrosis
(IPN) and streptococcosis/lactococcosis are the major constraints faced causing
considerable losses each year. Although both veterinary and fishery organizations
approved some rules and legislations to improve health management criteria, there is a
risk of exotic and economically important diseases that can be imported through the
importation of eyed-egg, larvae, brood stock and ornamental species into the country.
However, some viral diseases including IHN, IPN and WSD have become a part of
endemic diseases in the aquaculture sector.
INTRODUCTION
Iran commenced her aquaculture development processes from the early 1970's with the
technical assistance from the former Soviet Union for the artificial propagation of sturgeon
(Acipenseridae) fingerlings for restocking the Caspian Sea. Since then, the capacity to mass
produce other species such Rutilus frisii kutum, Caspian trout (Salmo trutta caspius), bream
(Abramis brama), pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca), rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
Email address: msoltani@ut.ac.ir (Mehdi Soltani, DVM, PhD, professor of aquatic animal health).
20
Mehdi Soltani
and four cyprinids species for restocking other suitable inland water bodies was rapidly
acquired by the Iranian Fishery Organization (Shilat). Aquaculture has since expanded to
culture of food fish in raceways (trout) and ponds (cyprinids). Other species such as Hamor
and Barbus sharpeyi are also being targeted for future culture. Development projects on the
farming of penaeid shrimp (Feneropeneaus semisulcatus and F. indicus) in the Persian Gulf
region and along the southeastern area of the Caspian Sea are currently underway. Iran has
also initiated projects to evaluate the feasibility of culturing Artemia cyst, grouper, pearl
oyster, and aquatic plants. Also, for a sustainable aquaculture new species of fish and shrimp
such as tilapia, sea bass and F. vannamei have been imported inside the country.
Although aquaculture sector has been rapidly developed during the recent years in Iran, it
has been faced with several problems including outbreaks by some economically important
contagious diseases, use of insufficient technology, inadequate financial resources and
negative impact of environmental pollution. Diseases and poor health management are one of
the major bottlenecks for the development of the aquaculture sector worldwide including Iran.
Trans-boundary movement of live aquatic animals in the region is one of the principal reasons
for increased occurrence and spread of several serious diseases inside the country. Examples
of diseases and pathogens introduced to new areas and hosts leading to serious consequences
in Iran region include WSD, IHN, IPN, and viral encephalopathy and retinopathy also called
viral nervous necrosis (VNN). Continued mass mortalities of common carp, silver carp and
grass carp in the north and southwest parts of country since last decade, and recent detection
of spring viremia (SVC) and koi herpesvirus (KHV) are sad reminders of the dangers
associated with trans-boundary spread of pathogens. Careful examination of the history and
spread of these diseases in Iran indicate how irresponsible or ill-considered movements of
live animals can impact Iranian aquaculture and wild fisheries resources. Sound health
management protocols incorporating principles of biosecurity, at the pond, farm, national, and
regional levels, is increasingly becoming crucial for ensuring successful and sustainable
aquaculture. Some of the most serious problems faced by the aquaculture sector in Iran are
mainly those pathogens and diseases introduced and spread through movements of hatchery
produced stocks, new species for aquaculture, and the ornamental fish trade.
The aim of this paper was to review the health status of aquaculture industry in Iran.
HEALTH MANAGEMENT OF AQUACULTURE SECTOR IN IRAN

Coldwater Fish Farming
Infectious hematopoeitic necrosis (IHN) was first identified as one of the main causative
agents of fry trout mortality syndrome in rainbow trout farming in 2002 (Figures 1 and 2).
Further serological and molecular studies of geographical distribution of the disease
outbreaks shows that almost all major trout producing are infected. Molecular and serological
studies have been also confirmed the occurrence of infectious pancreatic necrosis (IPN) in a
number of farmed trout. Annual losses due to both IHN and IPN is estimated about 3 million
US dollars in trout hatcheries. Although, the incidences by spring viremia of carp (SVC) and
Status of Aquaculture Health Management in the Islamic Republic of Iran
21
viral hemorrhagic septicemia (VHS) are suspected in trout farming, more works are required
to clarify these important viral diseases in Iran aquaculture.
Figure 1. Cytopatic effect of IHNVon third passage on EPC. (Photo by R. Falahi).
Figure 2. Electron micrograph of IHNV in pelleted materials of EPC cells showing bullet shaped viral
particles (32000) (Photo by Dr R. Falahi).
At the moment Lacotococcus garveiae and Streptococcus iniae outbreaks are one of main
bacterial diseases in farmed rainbow trout in different parts of Iran where the trout farms are
located. The first reports of disease outbreak in Iran appeared during 2000-2001. Later on S.
iniae was identified as the cause of some mass mortality in Fars, Mazandaran, Charmah-vabakhteyri and Kohgiloyeh-va-Boyerahmad regions. Further studies showed that besides the S.
iniae, L. garvieae also plays a serious role in disease outbreaks in farmed trout in different
parst of the country including Lorstan, Mazandaran, Charmah-va-bakhteyri, Fars,
Kohgiloyeh-va-Boyerahmad, Kermanshoh and Kordestan. Data obtained on the clinical
observations as well as traditional and molecular bacteriology provides adequate information
on the epizootiology of disease zoonotic bacterial disease in trout aquaculture in Iran.
Clinically, in most cases the affected farms show a chronic to subacute disease and the most
diseased fish showed bilateral exophthalmia together with cataract and in some cases a
complete loss of the eyes. Sluggish in movement, darkening of body, mild abdominal
22
Mehdi Soltani
distention, prolaps of anal area, hemorrhage in the intestine and accumulation of bloody fluid
in the abdominal cavity are also clinically observable signs (Figures 3 and 4). Total mortality
is varied from 5 to 70%. The peak of outbreaks occurred during late spring till late summer
when water temperature is increased. In most cases the affected fish are in the
fattening/marketing sizes >100g. Total annual loss due to the disease outbreak is estimated 15
million US dollars. The results of epizootiological studies have shown that several parameters
can act as the predisposing factors including high water temperature above 15 C
overcrowding, overfeeding and over handling of the affected farmed fish. Also, poor biosecurity such as contaminations of the water sources at the up-stream of rivers and poor
quarantine conditions can accelerate the disease outbreak inside the country. Recent
molecular epidemiology of diseased farms of seven provinces with major trout production
during 2008 till 2009 resulted in identification of 59.2% outbreaks by S. iniae and 40.8% by
L. garvieae. Regional distribution of disease outbreak showed that the highest and lowest
infected trout farms were Mazandaran (33.3%) and Kermanshah (1.9%) regions, respectively.
In addition to, the regional distribution of infection by S. iniae shows that trout farming in
Mazandaran (29.7%) and Fars (25%) states were more affected than other examined states.
Furthermore, infection by L. garvieae was higher in Mazandran (39%) and Lorestan (25%)
regions than other studied states, while no infection by L. garvieae was detected in Gilan
region. Phylogenetic analysis of the S. iniae isolates resulted in a maximum similarity to
some strains reported from Taiwan and all Brazilian strains and, one strain showed had high
similarity with ATCC 29178 strain, all reported Chinese and some Taiwanian strains. Also,
analysis of S. iniae LctO gene sequence showed that this isolate clustered within the S. iniae
group. The sequence analysis of L. garvieae strains also showed that they have maximum
similarity to all Japanese and Chinese strains, but one strain has lower sequence similarity
values with all other recorded strains. The results of this study clearly show that trout farming
in Iran is severely affected by both species of S. iniae and L. garvieae and therefore required
serious preventive criteria. Also, genetic diversity of 44 strains of L. garvieae recovered from
mortality of farmed trout in different provinces of the country were studied using random
amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis, and four profile patterns consisting of 5601330 bp in 5 bands, 56--1260bp in 5 bands, 560-1260bp in 4 bands and 560-1200bp in 5
bands were obtained. The phylogenetic tree of the RAPD product using UPMGA software
included these strains in three different clusters with four different genetic groups. The results
of this study clearly showed that L. garvieae strains from the diseased rainbow trout in the
north part of Iran are geneticly different from those in the west part of country, although there
is some genetic similarity between some strains of these two regions of Iran. A local
polyvalent vaccine to both isolates of S. iniae and L. garvieae has been commercially
produced with a satisfactory efficacy.
Also, infections by Cytophaga/Flexibacter like-bacteria was occurred in farmed rainbow
trout of different size causing saddle back lesions and a mortality up to 16%. The
epizootiological studies of such outbreaks shows that unsuitable long transportation, poor
water quality, long exposure to the sunlight and nutritional deficiency particularly vitamin
deficiency are probably the main predisposing factors involved in the occurring of infections
by Gram negative filamentous bacteria.
23
Figure 3. Typical bilateral exophthalmia caused by L. garvieae in fattening rainbow trout in a fish farm
in north Tehran province (Photo by Dr Mehdi Soltani).
Figure 4. Hemorrhage of intestine of a diseased rainbow trout affected by L. garvieae (Photo by Dr

Mehdi Soltani).
The first outbreak of yersiniosis with a total mortality of 10-20% was reported in some
farmed rainbow trout in Iran during summer 1997 and 2000. The disease outbreaks can
become a serious problem mainly in those trout farmings that use the rivers as their water
sources. In addition, infection by Ichthiophtirius multifiliis is sometimes an obstacle in trout
recirculation biofilteration systems.
Infection by Saprolegnia genera is also the most important fungal infectious diseases
currently occur in rainbow trout, sturgeon and cyprinids hatcheries. The losses due to
saprolegniosis in trout hatcheries is more than other species because of low water temperature
and longer period of hatching period required for rainbow trout. In trout culture, an increase
in levels of unionized ammonia, trite, carbon dioxide, low dissolved oxygen, high level of
total suspended/dissolved solids and high fluctuation in water temperature are the main
environmental problems encountered the industry. Such water quality parameters are more
serious in trout recirculation systems.
Warm Water Fish Farming

Infection caused by Flavobacterium psychrophilum-like bacteria has been frequently
reported from silver carp farming during the winter seasons in south country. Also, for many
24
Mehdi Soltani
years the cyprinid farming including grass carp and silver carp are suffering from significant
morbidity and mortality when water temperature increased. Various etiological agents
including motile Aeromonas bacteria, Aeromonas hydrophila and Aeromonas veronii, a
reoviral like virus and poor water quality conditions have been so far discriminated as the
main cause of such losses. Also, recent surveillance for detection of SVC and koi herpesvirus
(KHV) resulted in a few positive cases by polymerase chain reaction test in a couple of carp
farms in southwest country and therefore, required further attention.
Many protozoans and metazoans have been reported from different species of fish
including both wild and cultured fish by several workers. Among them infections by
Ichthiophtirius multifiliis, Trichodina sp., Diplostomum spataceum, Dactylogyrus sp., Lernea
sp. and Botirocephalus sp. are the more economically important parasitic infections currently
occurs in the farmed cyprinid industry.
Sturgeon Farming
Despite the value of sturgeon species as a part of aquaculture activity in Iran minimum
data are available on the health status particularly infectious diseases of these valuable species
both in wild and cultured conditions. The most available data has been focused on
the identification of the external and internal parasites in these species. Cucullanus
sphaerocephalus, Skrjabinopsolus semiarmatus, Leptorhynchoides plagicephalus,
Pseudotracheliastes stellatus, Diclybothrium armatum, Nitzschia storionis, Eustrongyluides
excisus, Anisakis sp., Amphilina foliace and Corynosoma stroumosum .have been reported by
various workers from different species of sturgeons including Persian sturgeon (Acipenser
persicus) and great sturgeon (Huso huso).
Motile Aeromonas, Edwardsiell sp., Ichthiophthirius multifiliis, Trichodina, monogenic
trematods and Saprolegnia spp. are the main causative agents identified so far in sturgeon
aquaculture. There is no information on the possible viral diseases in these fishes. Similar to
trout and carp culture systems, an increase in levels of unionized ammonia, nitrite, carbon
dioxide, low dissolved oxygen, high level of total suspended/dissolved solids and high
fluctuation in water temperature are also the main environmental problems encountered the
sturgeon industry.
Ornamental and Other Fish species

Despite the frequent importation of different species of ornamental fish from different
regions including East Asia, minimum data are available on their health status. Infections by
Edwardsiella tarda, Aeromonas hydrophila, Aeromonas veronii, Flavobactria, some protozoa
and trematods such as I. multifiliis, Trichodina , Dactylogyrus and Gyrodactylus occur
infrequently in some ornamental species such as Oscar, catfish, goldfish, guppy and goramy.
Also, occasional outbreaks causing extensive ulcerative lesions on the skin of some species
including gold fish have been observed in some parts of country such as Gilan province and
the so far microbilogical works has shown in no bacterial or fungal isolation. Therefore,
further studies are required to clarify the causative agents of such gold fish ulcerative disease
particularly Koi herpes viral disease (Figure 5).
25
Figure 5. EUS-like lesiosns on the skin of gold fish in north Iran. No bacterial or fungal agents were
recovered. ( photo by Dr Mehdi Soltani).
The first outbreak by nodavirus was seen in wild golden grey mullet (Liza auratus) in the
Caspian Sea causing mass mortalities have been observed in the fish population in southern
coastal sea since 2002. Clinical signs were neurological abnormalities such as erratic
swimming behavior, spiral swimming, belly-up at rest and over inflation of the swim bladder.
In histopathological works signs of necrosis and vacuolation of the brain, nervous opticus and
retina were evident and cytopathic effect of nodavirus characterized by vacuolation was
observed in SSN-1 cell line at 25C, 5 days after inoculation with the filtered supernatant of
the brain and eye of affected fish. The recovered virus from cell line exhibited 104 TCID50 per
mL when titrated. Indirect immunoflorescent antibody test showed nodavirus antigens in
retina and positive-CPE SSN-1 cells (Figures 6 and 7). Also, RT-PCR product of
approximately 289 bp was amplified from the brain and retina of the collected samples
including the SSN-1 positive samples. Therefore, with this isolation and characterization of
nodavirus from golden grey mullet, the possible infection in other valuable species e.g.
sturgeons of the Caspian Sea warranted more attention and research works.
Figure 6. Transmission electron micrograph of the section of eye tissue of the affected L. auratus
showing nodavirus particles (25-30 nm in size) in retina (arrow) (mag. x 7650).
26
Mehdi Soltani
Figure 7. Indirect immunoflurecent antibody test showing nodaviral antigens in SSN1 Cell line 6 days
post-inoculation (x 400).
Shrimp Farming
The first outbreaks of white spot viral disease causing a rapid and high mortality occurred
in farmed Feneropeneaus indicus in Abadan region, south Iran during June till July 2002
causing remarkable losses. The second outbreak was also seen two years later in Busheher
province. The third outbreak was seen in Chaabahar region, south Iran causing remarkable
losses. Outbreaks by baculoviral agents such as Monodon baculovirus have been also
occurred in shrimp farming in south country. However, the exact impact of such viral diseases
in Iran shrimp industry remains unknown.
The risk for the occurrence of other economically important shrimp viral diseases such as
Tura viral disease, yellow head viral disease and infectious hypodermal and heamatopoeitc
necrosis viral diseases in Iran shrimp farming is high because of probably low level of
quarantine and inadequate inspection measurements. Also, vibriosis caused by Vibrio
anguillarum, Vibrio harveyi, Vibrio alginolyticus and Vibrio parahemolyticus is infrequently
involved in F. indicus, F. vannamei and F. semisulcatus in south Iran. Also, since the
beginning of shrimp larviculture in Iran 1995 on the coast of the Persian Gulf in southern
Iran, more than 30% of larval and post-larval shrimp (mainly at zoeal stages 1-3)
eliminations have been attributed to the development of a red-pink color at the bottom of
the rearing tanks. In particular, the province of Bushehr has been the most affected area.
This phenomenon referred to as the red spot syndrome accounts for up to 95% of shrimp
mortality. Recent bacteriological and molecular studies resulted in isolation and
characterization of high virulent of red-pink producing Pseudomonas strains..
27
Nutritional and Environmental Health Problems

Several fish and shrimp feed plants have been established inside the country so far mostly
by the private sector. However, still some of these plants are unable to produce the standard
feed both in quality and quantity. For instance, the quality and quantity of protein,
carbohydrate, lipid, mineral and other trace elements are quite variable from one factory to
another. Therefore, use of such low level fish feed can cause some nutritional deficiency and
an increasing in cost benefit for the fish/shrimp farmers.
At present, deficiency by some vitamins such as ascorbic acid and pentatonic acid, low
level of some essential amino acids such niacin, lysine and metionin, high level of lipid and
low level of protein in the diets are most frequent nutritional deficiencies can be seen in trout
farming. Use of some immunostimulators such glucans has been started in aquaculture
industry particularly in both trout and shrimp farming. There are also some attempts to use
some herbal plant essences Zataria multiflora as food additive to improve both growth
performance and health condition in trout farming.
The residuals of some antibiotics such as oxytetracycline (OTC), enrofloxacin (EN) and
erythromycin (ET) are increasing in trout farming because of frequent usage of these
chemotherapeutants in the industry. For instance, screening of 17 trout farming by high
performance liquid chromatography resulted in detection of OTC (5.8%) (0.75 to 7.13 g/g),
EN (35%) (0.5- 0.73 g/g) and ET (29.4%) (23.38 -181.38 g/g). Although the obtained
results showed that the residual of these antibiotics were in acceptable levels, the detection of
ET and EN in 29-35% of fish farms requires a serious constant monitoring of antibiotic
residuals in trout farming.
Pollution of the aquaculture environment by chemical and toxic substances is a cause for
growing concern in aquaculture industry in Iran. The immediate concern is human health and
welfare, but the effect of pollution on aquatic organisms such as fish also has wide
consequences on the ecosystem. Effects of pollutions on fish and water quality have been
demonstrated in rainbow trout industry particularly in those fish farms with river as water
sources. The main sources of pollution are industrial and domestic wastewaters such as waters
from power stations, from desalinating facilities, treated and untreated waters from domestic
and industrial factories, contaminated sludge, and runoff waters from industrial and
agricultural activities. Several pesticides and herbicides such as organophosphate toxicants
are used in the agriculture industry worldwide to control plant and animal pests including
insecticides, fungicides, acaricides, herbicide and algaecides. The main source of pollution of
water bodies with pesticides is the melt waters, rain waters and underground waters. Results
of a number of studies showed that such toxic chemicals can affect fish health conditions at
various levels including the fish immune system resulting in an increase in fish susceptibility
to infectious disease. For instance the increasing pollution has caused a remarkable impact on
aquatic species particularly sturgeons in the Caspian Sea and entering river waters which are
the major aquaculture sources in north Iran.
Disease Control and Aquaculture Veterinary Medicine

Usually strategies that may be adapted to control fish and shellfish diseases, such as viral
diseases, range from no action to test and slaughter. These may also include intermediate
appropriate interventions for halting mortality. These include surveillance, therapy, and
28
Mehdi Soltani
modification of physical /environmental conditions, alteration of production schemes, vector

control, carrier elimination, quarantine and mass vaccination of target species which is under
investigation.
In Iran, because of a number of gaps in our current knowledge about the outbreaks of
viral diseases in both fish and prawn farming, the use of one or a combination of some of
these strategies is vital. At the moment because of no confirmation for devastating diseases,
e.g. VHS, SVC, VNN and KHV in Iran aquaculture, the use of current surveillance on
epizootiology of exotic diseases and quarantine legislation are critical.
Control of Exotic Disease Risks

The exotic viral disease risks exist in aquaculture species in Iran because of poor control
measures in quarantine, husbandry management, and vaccination and chemotherapy
activities. Husbandry measures should be based on recognition of a number of potential risk
factors that help transmission and persistence of disease. e.g. the risk of importing diseases
with the imported fish stock that may act as agents of IPN, IHN, VNN, VHS, herpesvirus and
iridovirus carriers or vectors. Importation of aquatic animals and a particular ornamental fish
species are the main risk factors for both farmed rainbow trout and cyprinids in Iran.
Evaluation of brood stock health is also an important disease control measure. However, there
are currently no particular available tests for brood stock of cyprinids, sturgeons and rainbow
trout in Iran. Information on larval health is also critical and recently the veterinary
organization has approved some rules and regulations to minimize the transmission of
vectors, carriers and affected larval or brood stock inside the country.
Recommendations and Prospective

The main aquaculture activities planned to achieve the aquaculture goals in Iran are to: 1.
develop individual and complex aquaculture of warm water species, 2. enhance the
aquaculture management through the improving water quality criteria, feed quality etc 3.
Employ new and modern technologies such as recirculation systems and cage culture, 4.
Improve the integrated aquaculture to reduce the environmental pollutions, 5. Support
sufficient financial resources 6. Improve the aquaculture marketing and 7. Improve the health
management criteria. Although both veterinary and fishery organizations approved some roles
and legislations to prevent outbreaks by contagious infectious diseases in Iran aquaculture,
there is still a risk of exotic and economically important infectious diseases that can be
imported through the importation of eyed-egg, larvae, brood stock and ornamental species
into the country. This is because of: insufficient routine screening programs for disease
detection, no adequate data collection from fish/shrimp farmers and no sufficient
training/education plans for many fish/shrimp farmers to get more familiar with the impact of
predisposing factors, eradication, quarantine and other aspects of health conditions in their
farmed animals. Therefore, the use of current surveillance on epizootiology of contagious
diseases and quarantine legislation are highly recommended.
29
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Soltani, M. (2008) Lacotoccosis caused by Lacotococcusgarvieae in farmed rainbow trout
(Onchorhyncus mykiss) in Iran. The 7th Symposium on Diseases in Asian Aquaculture,
Taiwan, Book of Abstracts, p.163.
Soltani, M. Nikbakht, Gh, Ebrahimzadeh Mousavi, H.A and Ahmadzadeh H. (2008) Epizootic
outbreaks of lactococcosis caused by Lactococcus garvieae in farmed rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Iran. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish
Pathologists, 28(5),207-212.
Soltani, M., (2010) Streptococcosis/ lactococcosis in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus
mykiss) aquaculture in Iran- what should I do? 2nd International conference of aquatic
animal health and management, Tehran, Iran, pp.1-6
Soltani, M.; Ahmadi, M.R.;Yavari, H. and Mirzargar, S.S.(2010) Red-pink colonyproducing Pseudomonas sp. is the causative agent of mass mortality in larvae and postlarvae of raised in hatcheries in south Iran Pseudomonas Litopenaeus vannamei
International Journal of Veterinary Research, 4(2):89-94.
Soltani, M., Ghasemi, M, Rohani, M., Sharifpour, I. and Zoriehzahra, J.E. (2010)
Isolation and
identification of betnodavirus causing mass mortalities in golden grey mullet (Liza
auratus) in the Caspian Sea. International Journal of veterinary Research, 4(3):201-
208.
Tokhmafashan, M,, Shariff, M. Hassan, and Wang, Y.G. (2004) Identification of Penaus
monodon baculovirus (MBV) in cultured Penaus semisulcatus in Isamic Republic of Iran.
Iranian Journal of Fisheries Sciences, (1), 25-32.
Tokhmafashan, M., Akbari, S., Tamjidi, B., Laloi, F. and Soltani, M (2004) Occurrence of
white spot syndrome disease in farmed Penaus indicus in Iran, Applied Fisheries and
Aquaculture, IV (1), 42-47.

ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 4
DISEASES IN WILD AND CULTURED FISH IN TURKEY

Ercument Genc
Fish Diseases Lab., Faculty of Fisheries, Mustafa Kemal University,
Iskenderun, Hatay, Turkey
ABSTRACT
In this chapter, the current status of major health problems in freshwater and marine
aquacultures as well as in wild fishes in Anatolia/Turkey is examined. Information is
presented as the form of agent-host list. The agent-host list is organized on a common
systematic basis and provides information for each disease agents on various regions of
Turkey. Occurrences of different health problems are increasing due to the intensive
culture facilities and also negative changes in the environment including the global
warming. Moreover, the statistical data warns us about the overfishing problem. This
means that fish stocks are decreasing and also the number of threatened fish species is
increasing day by day. This review summarizes information on the fish disease agents of
Turkish fishes contained in the Turkish literature dating from the earliest available
records to the end of 2010.
INTRODUCTION
The land of Turkey is a large and shaped as a rectangular peninsula. It is a bridge
connecting the Middle East and Europe, and it shares the history and characteristics of both
those distinct parts of the world. Turkey extends more than 1.600 kilometers from west to east
and approximately less than 800 kilometers from north to south. Total land area is about
779.452 square kilometers, of which 755.688 square kilometers are in Asia and 23.764 square
kilometers are in Europe. The European part of Turkey, known as the Thrace (Trakya), is
separated from the Asian part of Turkey by the Bosporus Strait (Istanbul), the Sea of
Marmara, and the Dardanelles Strait (Canakkale). The Asian part of the country is known by
a variety of names like the Asia Minor, and the Anatolia (Anadolu) (Anonymous, 2005).
E-mail: ercumentgenc@yahoo.com
32
Ercument Genc
Turkey is surrounded by sea on three sides, the Black Sea in the north, the Mediterranean
Sea in the south, and the Aegean Sea in the west. Utilizing this advantage, Turkey has been
known as a country of fishery products since ancient times. Differences in terms of
temperature, salt content etc. in these seas, provide fish and fishery products of different
species and delicious tastes.
Knowledge-based aquaculture in Turkey was started with rainbow trout in 1970s.
Currently Aquaculture remains to be a popular and vital sector in Turkey (Deniz 2000, Deniz
et al. 2000, Genc et al. 2003). Marine aquaculture in Turkey started with efforts to produce
sea-bream in 1983. This was followed with sea-bass in 1987 and with salmon in 1989. The
first commercial activity towards producing sea bream and sea bass was launched in 1985
with a hatchery in Izmir province (Sanli 2002). However, collecting wild larvae (in 1985 to
1993) for rearing in aquaculture environments harmed the natural stocks. As a consequence,
the government set some criteria for commercially successful and sustainable aquaculture to
better direct efforts to build the first modern hatchery in the Aegean part of Turkey.
The total production of fishery products in Turkey was 772,000 tons in 2007. Fishery
production decreased by 16.32% in 2008 with a total of 646,000 tons. Approximately 494,000
tons of this amount were reached by catching and 152,000 tons were produced by
aquaculture. In 2008, production through catching decreased by 21.87%, while production
through aquaculture increased by 8.8% with respect to the previous year (TURKSTAT 2009).
As a result, more than $ 414 million was gained from the exports of this sector in 2008.
Main export markets of Turkey are the European Union, the USA, and Japan. Major Turkish
export products in this sector are fresh fish, followed by the fresh and canned crustaceans and
mollusks. On the other hand, a great number of fish farms have arisen due to the recognition
of large water resources and request of consumers demanding fishery products available to
them throughout the year. The most common species produced by aquaculture are trout, sea
bream, and sea bass. Fresh water fishing and fish farming has accelerated the progress in the
sector. Turkey is already in a position to become the major trout supplier of EU countries and
the USA (IGEME 2009).
DIAGNOSIS AND CONTROL MEASUREMENTS IN TURKISH

FISHERIES AND AQUACULTURE
Recently, biologists, agri-aquaculture engineers and veterinerians have been studied on
detection (prevalences, intensities, abundance, parasite-host relationships) (Moravec and
Genc 2004, Genc et al. 2005a, b, Genc et al. 2006, Genc et al. 2007a, b, Oral and Genc 2008,
Bozkurt and Genc 2009, Kalay et al. 2009, Konas et al. 2010, Bircan-Yildirim et al 2010a),
diagnosis (heamatological, and molecular) (gt 2001, Yavuzcan 2004, ahan et al. 2007)
and development of prevention technologies: chemoterapy, vaccines, immunostimulants
(Ispir and Drc 2005) for fish diseases in Turkey.
All activities in fisheries and aquaculture are governed by the fisheries law No:1380,
enacted in 1971. Local authorities under the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs in 81
provinces are responsible for implementing fishing and aquatic animal health regulations.
Additionally, all animal health control issues are regulated by the law of animal health control
No: 3285, enacted in 1986. In accordance with the law, aquaculture health control circulars
33
are published and announced annually in the official journal about the control for these
diseases. Based on these laws, notifiable diseases are determined by the Animal Health
Information Organization and approved by the Ministry (Table 1.).
Table 1. The notifiable diseases list for aquatic animals in Turkey
Aquatic animal
Fish
Shellfish
Crustacean
Notifiable diseases
VHS
IHN
SVC
BKD
Bonamiasis
Marteliosis
Crayfish plaque disease
Diagnosis of presence of a disease is carried out by a laboratory accredited by the

Ministry. The Bornova Veterinary Control and Research Institute (BVCRI) is responsible for
diagnosis of aquatic animal diseases as the National Reference Laboratory (ISO 17025) in
Turkey. Currently, Turkey follows the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE)
principles regarding aquatic animal diseases and diagnostic methods. On the other hand, for
the last 15 years Turkey has been trying to adapt EC rules and following most of EC
regulations (91/67/EC, 93/53/EC, 95/70/EEC and 2001/183/EC) related on aquatic animal
diseases and diagnostic methods.
When fish on a farm are suspected of being infected with a list of diseases, official
regulations are immediately applied to confirm the presence of disease, including clinical
examination and taking samples necessary for laboratory examination. If a laboratory report
confirms a disease in fish, an official veterinarian prepares a report for the Animal Health
Control Commission which declares the outbreak. The commission passes an official decision
about the outbreak in order to control and eradicate the disease. Then a cordon and quarantine
can be set up by this commission (Ozyer 2008).
Some important bacterial, viral, and parasitic agents that cause significant economic
losses in cultured fishes such as sea bass (Dicentrachus labrax), sea bream (Sparus aurata),
and rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) are listed in Table 2.
Pathogenic ciliates, flagellates, dinoflagellates, monogenean, digenean, cestoda,
nematodes, crustacea, isopoda, copepoda and bivalvia groups from the wild and cultured
aquatic animals in Turkish seas and inland waters were reported up to 1931 by Monod (1931).
Early reviews on parasites of Turkish fishes were made by Oktener (2003) and Oktener et al.
(2004). After these reviews, new parasites and hosts were reported (Kayis et al. 2009). This
information is considered as a useful data for the aqaculturists and fish disease researchers in
Turkey and also in the Middle East.
On the parasitic disease agents Kayis et al. (2009) pointed out that protozoans can
seriously affect cultured and wild fish populations. Moreover, Genc et al. (2005c) claimed
that many parasite species, especially helminthes, possess complex life cycles involving
trophic transmission from one host to the next by the consumption of infected intermediate
hosts. Therefore, control of fish parasites requires knowledge of the parasites, their hosts, and
their prevalence and also distribution (Mitchum, 1995).
34
Ercument Genc
Table 2. Cultured finfish diseases*
Diseases of cultured seabass and seabream

Bacterial
Vibriosis; Listonella anguillarum, V. alginolyticus

Pasteurellosis; Pasteurella piscicida
Photobacterium damsela subsp. piscidia
Myxobacteriosis; Tenacibaculum maritimum
Streptococcosis; Streptococcus iniae, S. uberis
Motil aeromonas septicaemia; A. hydrophilia
Winter diseases; Pseudomonas anguilliseptica
Clamidiosis; Clamidia like organism
Viral
Lymphocystis is common in juvenile seabream

IPNV was isolated from seabass
VHSV was isolated from turbot in the Black Sea
Nervous necrosis virus (VNN) symptoms were observed in seabass. However

there is not yet identification report.
Parasitic
Cryptocaryon irritans, Isopoda sp., Trichodina sp., Dactylogyrus
sp.,Gyrodactylus spp., Lernanthrophus sp., Caligus sp., Ichtyobodo
necatrix,Microcotyle sp., Amyloodinium sp., Ceratomyxa sp., Myxosporodean,
Eimeria sp.
Diseases of Cultured rainbow trout
Bacterial
Viral
ERM; Yersinia ruckeri, Lactococcosis; L. garivieae,

Motil aeromonas septicaemia; A. hydrophilia, Hitra diseases; V. salmonicidia,
RTFS; Flavabacterium psychophlium; BKD (Host: Salmo trutta labrax)
Renibacterium salmoninarum
IPN, VHS
Parasitic
Ichtyopthyrius multifilis, Trichodina sp., Gyrodactylus spp., Oodinium sp.
*Modified from Ozyer (2008).
CONCLUSION
It is a great concern that the incidence of infectious diseases in aquaculture leads to
significant economic losses and also causes problems in the ever developing sector in some
parts of the world (Direkbusarakom et al. 1998) including Turkey and the Middle East region.
This reality forced us to carry out collaborative studies on wild and cultured fish diseases and
also growth promoters in aquaculture.
Altinok and Kurt (2003) implied that under optimum conditions, even the fish looking
healthy (without a clinical sign or lesion) can carry pathogens that create serious risks for the
spread of contagious diseases in fish populations. Therefore, to detect pathogen carrier fish, a
cost-effective, sensitive, and specific system such as a molecular diagnosis is required for
surveillance and monitoring fish populations.
35
Rapid growth and high disease resistance are two of the most important concerns in
aquaculture production. In the last several decades, antibiotic growth promoters have been
included in animal feeds worldwide at sub-therapeutic concentrations as a standard practice
because of their positive effects on weight gain, feed utilization, and survival (Genc et al.
2007c, d). On the other hand, the use of antimicrobial agents in aquaculture has resulted in an
increase of high resistant bacterial strains (Smith et al. 1994, Cabello, 2006). The use of
synthetic antibiotics threats the consumer health, non-target organisms, and the environment
(Muniruzzaman and Chowdhury 2004, Abutbul 2005). Moreover the main disadvantage of
chemotherapotics is cost and the risk of higher residues should be encountered. One of the
best prevention methods in aquaculture are good husbandry and appropriate vaccination
(Cagirgan and Tanrikul 1998). The treatment of bacterial fish diseases with natural products
might be a safe second option for the ecological/organic aquaculture. As a result, the
prophylactic measurements should be considered. Hence, the global demand for safe food has
prompted the search for natural food additives, new alternative profilaxy and treatments.
Besides disease resistant (specific pathogen free) strains development, vaccine development,
dietary supplements, including probiotics and prebiotics, such as mannan oligosaccharides
(MOS) (Dugenci et al. 2003, Yilmaz et al. 2007, Mazlum et al. 2011) and other
immunostimulants (beta glucans, yeast, ect.), have received heightened attention for
producing healthy and safe fishes.
Currently, many researchers focus their efforts on two new trends in fish health. One of
them is eco-parasitology. This type studies discuss the recently described phenomenon of
conspicuous metal accumulation by parasites and how this might be applied to environmental
monitoring. They also suggest how environmental science and parasitology might profit from
each other in the near future. Approximately 130150 papers have been published since 1980
that are directly concerned with the relationship between pollution and parasitism, mainly in
the aquatic environment (Suresh 2004, Genc et al. 2008, Dural et al. 2010a, b).
Another research topic is welfare of fishes. Some researchers focus their efforts on fish
welfare in aquaculture and fisheries (Kumlu and Yanar 1999, Yanar and Kumlu 2001, Yanar
and Genc, 2004, Huntingford et al. 2006, Bircan-Yildirim et al. 2010b) in Turkey. The fish
welfare can be explained as painless and stress-free state of being. Tsantilas et al. (2006)
speculated that this term has been questioned by producers. Fishes need a stable environment
of being so that they can survive, develop, and reproduce. The absence of such stability is
termed as stress. There are various causes of producing stress (inadequate conditions of
farming, high stocking-density, unbalanced food, unsuitable water quality, disease prevention
and treatment methods, techniques of killing and transport). Thus, nowadays, fish welfare is
actually regulated legally in several countries as well as in Turkey.
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36
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39
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ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 5
PRINCIPLE FISH PATHOGENS

IN TUNISIAN AQUACULTURE
Cherif Nadia1 and Hammami Salah2
ABSTRACT
This chapter takes note of the problems encountered by the Tunsian aquaculture
sector due to the rapid extension of the rearing activity in some Tunisian regions,
particularly in the fi1eld of pathology. This specialized database specifically describes
some of the viral, bacterial and parasitic disease-related information and focuses on
available data of these pathogens which have either devastating effects on fish production
in terms of high mortalities, or reduction in growth of farmed fish. Focusing on studies
related to diagnostic technique improving, the record provided the opportunity to have
comprehensive information on the isolated and identified microorganisms.
INTRODUCTION
Mediterranean finfish farming has been dominated by the culture of sea bass
(Dicentrarchus labrax, Moronidae) and gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata, Sparidae) (Rigos
and Katharios, 2009). Africa contributes with 5.54 million MT (4.5%) to the world harvest of
aquatic organisms (Ababouch, 2000). Fisheries represent a vital sector for many countries in
Africa, for domestic food supply, employment opportunities and foreign exchange earnings.
Despite the low level of African fish production and export in comparison with the other
continents, fish represent the major protein source in many countries (36-58% of animal
proteins in Cote d'Ivoire, Congo, Senegal, Angola), in addition, fishing is a vital activity for
Senegal, Mauritania, Morocco, Ghana, Tunisia and other countries (Ababouch, 2000).
Tunisia occupies a central place in the Mediterranean Sea and disposes approximately 1
300 km of littoral length, in addition to 7 lagoons, covering a total surface of 105 200 ha and
1
2
Veterianry Research Institute of Tunisia. 20 Rue de Jebel Lakdhar. La Rabta. 1006 Tunisia
National Center of Zoosanitary surveillence. Charles Nicolle Avenue,Belvdre. Tunis*
42
an exceptional continental shelf of a few 88 000 Km2. This geographic distribution of the
Tunisian waters, as well as their varieties, resulted in the development of rich ecosystems.
Furthermore, Tunisia has 41 maritime fishing ports including 10 large ports permitting the
shelter of the trawlers, the tuna boats, the light fishing boats and the units of inshore fishing.
The fishing sector, with its annual production of 100 thousand tons in 2008, is placed at the
second position within the agriculture product exportation after the olive oil. Regarded as a
strategic activity that can support the fishing sector, aquaculture benefits in Tunisia of a
particular interest. Wright now, few private farms are producing fish aquaculture (mainly Sea
bass and Sea bream). Additional farms are working on blue fin tuna fattening since 2003.
Private projects assuring the production of clams, mussels and cupped oysters have been also
initialized. Actually thirty four dams are in exploitation in the North and the middle of
Tunisia. The dams water contains the following species: Mullet, Pike perch, Carp, Barbell,
catfish and Black-bass. In addition to this activity, 3 Chinese carp species (Silver carp,
Bighead carp and grass carp) are bred in a Technical Aquaculture Center.
In addition to the technical and economic parameters which are very important to control
for the promotion of aquaculture, market investigations require specific norms of
competitiveness, which has urged authorities to establish a global and coherent strategy for
the development of the sector. Towards this end, Tunisia realized the Master Plan for
Aquaculture, carrying out ambitious objectives and directly involving the whole staff.
The open design of many aquaculture systems allows the transmission of infectious
pathogens from the environment or wild fish into aquaculture animals. In addition, the
greatest risk for the spread of diseases lies with the careless, cross-boundary movement of
living animals or fry destined directly for aquaculture facilities. All the trans-located animals
would have had the potential to carry pathogens. Disease interaction between farmed and wild
populations is fundamental to disease emergence and it is believed that diseases in farmed
populations have their origin in wild populations of the same or similar species (Hastein and
Lindstad 1991; Amos and Thomas 2002; Olivier 2002). The most ominous would be viral and
parasitic diseases (Flegel T.W., 2006).
VIRAL DISEASES
The presence of viruses in lower vertebrates proved to be of veterinary and public
interest, especially RNA viruses causing severe diseases in fish aquaculture which became
worldwide of economical importance. Some DNA viruses induce diseases resulting in
important economic losses in fish farms. During the last 20 years, understanding of the
virology of the lower vertebrates has been substantially improved and viral diseases are
considered to be of socio-economic and/or public health importance within countries, and
significant to the international trade in aquatic animals and aquatic animal products. Of
special mention are the Nodaviruses of marine fish which represent a potential threat of the
expanding industry in Tunisia. Viral encephalopathy and retinopathy (VER), a disease caused
by infection with a betanodavirus, occurs mainly in larval and juvenile marine finfish in more
than 30 species worldwide (Gagne et al., 2004). It is a particular problem where stocking
density is high and has caused severe losses in hatcheries. At least one species of
betanodavirus, Red Spotted Grouper Nervous necrosis Virus occurs in Tunisia (Cherif et al.,
43
2009). Sea bream has been initially reported as an asymptomatic carrier of the disease
(Castric et al., 2001). However, it has been shown that sea bream can be experimentally
susceptible to nodavirus, depending upon the temperature and route of infection (Aranguren
et al., 2002). Also, sea bream is often cultured in the Mediterranean in the vicinity of sea bass
and other susceptible species, raising the possibility of cross infection.
The spread of viral nervous necrosis (VNN) might be attributed to either vertical or
horizontal transmission. While these viruses have apparently spread within the natural ranges
of affected species as a result of commerce, VER has also been reported in these species in
countries where they do not naturally occur and to which they have been exported. In Tunisia,
the main cultured species involved has been Dicentrarchus labrax, which suffers mass
mortality of larval and juvenile fish. Moreover, no VER symptoms were observed in sea
bream species Sparus aurata reared next to sea bass tanks displaying disease signs. However,
using RT-PCR and IFAT, Nodavirus was isolated from the above species (Chrif et al.,
2009). The control of the disease in based on the virus detection in infected animals.
Molecular techniques, particularly, the recent introduction of several real-time PCR detection
systems is providing great impulse for the upgrading of previous PCR diagnostic assays
(DallaValle et al., 2005).
BACTERIAL DISEASES
Vibriosis is primarily a disease of marine fish, both in commercial production systems
and natural waters throughout the world including Tunisia. Stress and overcrowding often are
associated with the disease outbreak. The research and the identification of pathogenic
bacteria within farmed sea bass and sea bream in Tunisia was conducted during several years.
Most frequently was isolated vibrions belonging the genus Vibrio alginolyticus and Vibrio
parahaemolyticus which were obtained from different samples, sea water and fish (larvae and
adults) (Bahkrouf et al.1995, Kahla-Nakbi et al., 2006 ). Vibrio alginolyticus was also isolated
from the internal organs of diseased gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and sea bass
(Dicentrarchus labrax) cultured in two fish farms located on the Tunisian Mediterranean
coast, from 2003 to 2005.
After phenotypic characterisation, a selection of 34 isolates from gilthead sea bream and
sea bass were molecularly typed by repetitive intergenic consensus PCR (ERIC-PCR)
showing a high polymorphism among the isolated strains (19 genotypes). (Kahla Nakbi et al .,
2006 and Snoussi et al., 2008). Furthermmore, Khemiss et al. (2009) demonstrated that Vibrio
vulnificus causes cell damage to the intestine of sea bream.
PARASITIC DISEASES
On the gills and bronchial arch of eleven sparidae species, from different Tunisian
lagoons, nine lernaeopodidae species (copepods parasites) have been obtained. It has been
revealed that they belong to three genera based on their morphology (Ben Hassine OK et al.,
1978). In addition, Plectanocotyle major sp. n. (Monogenea: Polyopisthocotylea:
Plectanocotylidae) is described from Chelidonichthys obscurus (Bloch and Schneider, 1801)
44
collected from the Mediterranean coasts (Tunisia and France) (Boudaya et al., 2006).
Pseudodiplectanum syrticum n. sp. (Monogenea: Diplectanidae) was described from the gills
of Synapturichthys kleinii (Risso) collected from the Gulf of Gabs in the Mediterranean Sea
off Tunisia. (Derbel et al., 2007). Besides, two gadiform species with an ecological and
economical importance in the Mediterranean fishing industry, Phycis blennoides and Phycis
phycis, were selected for a research study. A total of 592 fresh specimens belonging to the
Gadiformes genus were obtained from local commercial fisheries. The investigation was
centred on anisakid parasites of 272 specimens of the greater forkbeard (P. blennoides) and
320 of the forkbeard (P. phycis) captured off the Mediterranean coasts of Tunisia (eastern
Mediterranean Sea). As a result, four species of nematodes were identified: Anisakis simplex
s.1., Anisakis physeteris, Hysterothylacium aduncum and Hysterothylacium fabri. (Farjallah
et al., 2006).
Larval forms of the genus Anisakis were reported infecting several fish species from the
North African coasts of central Mediterranean Sea. Polymerase chain reaction-restriction
fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis was used to investigate the occurrence
of larval forms of different Anisakis species in teleost fishes from North African coasts of the
Mediterranean Sea and to establish the geographical and host range of these parasites in this
area. A total of 282 Anisakis larvae were identified by PCR-RFLP from 13 teleost fish species
and one cephalopod species captured at different sites off the Algerian, Tunisian and Libyan
coasts. (Farjallah et al., 2008).
Six species of digeneans (Proctoeces maculatus (Looss, 1901), Helicometra fasciata
(Odhner, 1902), Helicometra pulchella (Odhner, 1902), Macvicaria alacris (Looss, 1901),
Peracreadium genu (Nicoll, 1909) and Zoogonus rubellus (Olson, 1868)) were found for the
first time in labrid fish (Symphodus tinca (Linnaeus, 1758), Labrus merula (Linnaeus, 1758)
and Labrus viridis (Linnaeus, 1758)) from the Bay of Bizerte (Tunisia). Except for P.
maculatus and Z. rubellus, which are limited to the rectum, these helminths colonize the
entire digestive tract. The study of the seasonal prevalence, abundance and mean intensity
shows that three parasites, P. maculatus, H. fasciata and P. genu are present throughout the
year while H. pulchella, M. alacris and Z. rubellus are less frequent and appear only in spring
(H. pulchella and M. alacris) or in spring and summer (Z. rubellus). The levels of infection
and digenean faunal diversity in labrid fish from the Tunisian coasts are generally lower than
those from localities within the western Mediterranean. (Gargouri et al., 2009).
A xenoma-inducing microsporidian species was found to infect the liver of the teleost
fish, peacock wrasse Symphodus (Crenilabrus) tinca. Minimal estimates of the prevalence of
the parasite in fishes caught along Tunisian coasts were as high as 43 % for Bizerte samples
(over 2 yr) and 72% for Monastir samples (over 3 yr). (Mansour et al., 2005).
Fifteen specimens of Pteromylaeus bovinus (Geoffroy St. Hilaire) from the Tunisian
coast were examined for ectoparasites during 1996-1998. Myliocotyle pteromylaei gn. and sp.
n. found on gills of twelve host specimens was described and illustrated. (Neifer et al., 1999).
According to an investigation of metazoan parasites of elasmobranch fishes in the Gulf of
Gabs, Tunisia, 2 new species of diphyllidean cestodes were discovered by Neifer et al., in
2001. Macrobothridium euterpes n. sp. is described from the spiral intestine of Rhinobatos
rhinobatos, and Macrobothridium syrtensis n. sp. from the spiral intestine of Rhinobatos
cemiculus. (Neifer at al., 2001).
Seven Gymnura altavela (Linnaeus, 1758) (Elasmobranchii, Myliobatiformes) caught off
the Tunisian coast were examined for endoparasites during a three-year period (1995-1998).
45
A phyllobothriid cestode new to science was found in the spiral intestine of all host
specimens. The presence of a tetrabothridiate scolex, bothridia lacking an apical sucker,
laciniate strobila, and possession of post-vaginal testes are sufficient to place this species in
the genus Anthobothrium. (Neifer et al., 2002).
A survey of the gill parasites of Epinephelus costae (Teleostei: Serranidae) was
conducted between 2001 and 2005 in the Gulf of Gabs (Tunisia). Five new species of
Diplectanidae (Monogenea) were collected, all belonging to Pseudorhabdosynochus
Yamaguti, 1958: P. bouaini sp. n., P. dolicocolpos sp. n., P. enitsuji sp. n., P. sinediscus sp.
n., and P. sosia sp. n. These five species differ from each other and from all described species
of Pseudorhabdosynochus by the morphology and size of their sclerotized vagina. These
diplectanids (except P. sinediscus) were also collected from the same host off Dakar in 1981
and 1989. These five species are the first diplectanids described from E. costae. (Neifer and
Euzet, 2007).
Six species of the genus Myxobolus (Myxozoa) from the marine environment were
collected from two species of mullet (Mugil cephalus and Liza ramada) in Ichkeul Lake,
Tunisia. Four of these species were described previously (Myxobolus bizerti, Myxobolus
ichkeulensis, Myxobolus spinacurvatura, and Myxobolus episquamalis) and two (Myxobolus
exiguus and Myxobolus muelleri) are redescribed. The small subunit ribosomal (18S rDNA)
sequences of these six myxozoans were obtained and compared to traditional criteria used in
the identification and taxonomy of myxozoan species (such as spore morphology, host
specificity, and tissue tropism). A distance analysis of 1,600-1,700 base pairs of the 18S
rDNA of the six species indicates that they formed a monophyletic group separate from
Myxobolus spp. found as parasites of freshwater fish. (Bahri et al., 2003).
CONCLUSION
One of the development goals of the Tunisian aquaculture master plan is to promote an
economically and environmental reliable aquaculture activity which can contribute to the
economical development of the country. About 50 coastal sites were identified for future
implementation of private aquaculture farms and a national databank of aquaculture
development is available in the Ministry of Agriculture (Direction Gnrale la Pche et
l'Aquaculture, DGPA). Finally, the strategy of the Tunisian fisheries administration is to
establish a full-fledged legal framework for the aquaculture development, covering all aspects
as disease and health control, sanitary regulations, environment impacts, as well as a
monitoring of pollution generated by aquaculture activities. A licensing-system for
aquaculture permits is developed and managed by the DGPA, including all of the above
mentioned aspects. Additional research effort has to be devoted to the pathogenesis of
important etiological agents and the interactions with their hosts to assist the viability of new
fish species farming in the Mediterranean region. Finally, species diversification has been
extensively employed in Mediterranean mariculture industry as a tool to relief the crisis
resulting from market saturation and overproduction of the two main representatives, sea bass
(Dicentrarchus labrax) and gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata).
46
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control measures. Int J Food Microbiol. 62(3), 211-5.
Amos K. and Thomas J. (2002). Disease interactions between wild and cultured fish:
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Aranguren R., Tafalla C., Novoa B., Figueras A. (2002). Experimental transmission of
encephalopathy and retinopathy induced by nodavirus to sea bream, Sparus aurata L.,
using different infection models. J Fish Dis 25,317324.
Bahri S., Andree K.B., Hedrick R.P. (2003). Morphological and phylogenetic studies of
marine Myxobolus spp. from mullet in Ichkeul Lake, Tunisia. J Eukaryot Microbiol.
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Bakhrouf A., Ben ouada H., Oueslati R. (1995). Essai de traitement des vibrioses du loup
Dicentrarchus labrax dans une zone de pisciculture, Monastir, Tunisie = Sea bass
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Ben Hassine O.K., Essafi K., Raibaut A. (1978). Lernaepodidae, copepod parasites of
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Boudaya L., Neifar L., Euzet L. (2006). Plectanocotyle major sp. n. (Monogenea:
Plectanocotylidae), a gill parasite of Chelidonichthys obscurus (Teleostei: Triglidae) from
the Mediterranean Sea. Folia Parasitol (Praha). 53(1), 53-6.
Castric J., Thiry R., Jeffroy J., de Kinkelin P. and Raymond J.C (2001). - Sea bream Sparus
aurata, an asymptomatic contagious fish host for nodavirus. Dis. Aqua. Org., 47, 33-38.
Chrif N., Thiry R., Castric J., Biacchesi S., Brmont M., Thabti F., Limem L., Hammami S.
(2009). Viral encephalopathy and retinopathy of Dicentrarchus labrax and Sparus aurata
farmed in Tunisia. Vet Res Commun. 33(4), 345-53.
Dalla Valle L., Toffolo V., Lamprecht M., Maltese C., Bovo G., Belvedere P., Colombo
L.(2005). Development of a sensitive and quantitative diagnostic assay for fish nervous
necrosis virus based on two-target real-time PCR, Vet. Microbiol. 110, 167179.
Derbel H., Boudaya L., Neifar L. (2007). Pseudodiplectanum syrticum n. sp. (Monogenea:
Diplectanidae), a parasite of Synapturichthys kleinii (Teleostei: Soleidae) from off
Tunisia. Syst Parasitol. 68(3), 225-31.
Farjallah S., Ben Slimane B., Blel H., Amor N., Said K. (2006). Anisakid parasites of two
forkbeards (Phycis blennoides and Phycis phycis) from the eastern Mediterranean coasts
in Tunisia. Parasitol Res. 100(1), 11-17.
Farjallah S., Slimane B.B., Busi M., Paggi L., Amor N., Blel H., Said K., D'Amelio S. (2008).
Occurrence and molecular identification of Anisakis spp. from the North African coasts
of Mediterranean Sea. Parasitol Res. 102(3), 371-9.
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Aquaculture. Science Asia 32, 215-221.
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detection and characterization of nodavirus in several marine fish species from the
northeastern Atlantic. Dis Aquat Org 62(3),181-189.
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Gargouri Ben Abdalah L., Elbohli S., Maamouri F. (2009). Digenean diversity in labrid fish
from the Bay of Bizerte in Tunisia. J Helminthol. 7, 1-7.
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Aquaculture;98, 277-88.
Kahla-Nakbi A.B., Chaieb K., Besbes A., Zmantar T., Bakhrouf A. (2006). Virulence and
enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus PCR of Vibrio alginolyticus strains
isolated from Tunisian cultured gilthead sea bream and sea bass outbreaks. Vet Microbiol.
117(2-4), 321-7.
Khemiss F., Ahmadi S., Massoudi R., Ghoul-Mazgar S., Safta S., Moshtaghie A.A., Sadane
D. (2009). Effect of in vitro exposure to Vibrio vulnificus on hydroelectrolytic transport
and structural changes of sea bream (Sparus aurata L.) intestine. Fish Physiol Biochem.
35(3):541-9.
Mansour L., Prensier G., Jemaa S.B., Hassine O.K., Mtnier G., Vivars C.P., Cornillot E.
(2005). Description of a xenoma-inducing microsporidian, Microgemma tincae n. sp.,
parasite of the teleost fish Symphodus tinca from Tunisian coasts. Dis Aquat Organ.
65(3), 217-26.
Neifar L. and Euzet L. (2007). Five new species of Pseudorhabdosynochus (Monogenea:
Diplectanidae) from the gills of Epinephelus costae (Teleostei: Serranidae). Folia
Parasitol (Praha). 54(2), 117-28.
Neifar L., Euzet L., Ben Hassine O.K. (1999). Myliocotyle pteromylaei gn. and sp. n.
(Monogenea, Monocotylidae) gill parasite of Pteromylaeus bovinus (Euselachii,
Myliobatidae) in Tunisia. Parasite 6(4), 323-7.
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Tetraphyllidea) from the spiny butterfly ray Gymnura altavela (Elasmobranchii:
gymnuridae) in Tunisia. Folia Parasitol (Praha). 49(4), 295-8.
Neifar L., Tyler G.A, Euzet L. (2001). Two new species of Macrobothridium (Cestoda:
Diphyllidea) from rhinobatid elasmobranchs in the Gulf of Gabs, Tunisia, with notes on
the status of the genus. J Parasitol. 87(3), 673-80.
Olivier G. (2002) Disease interactions between wild and cultured fish-perspectives from
the American Northeast (Atlantic Provinces). Bulletin of the European Association of
Fish Pathologists 22,103-9.
Rigos G. and Katharios P. (2009). Pathological obstacles of newly-introduced fish species in
Mediterranean mariculture: a review. Rev Fish Biol Fisheries.
Snoussi M., Noumi E., Cheriaa J., Usai D., Sechi L.A., Zanetti S., Bakhrouf A. (2008).
Adhesive properties of environmental Vibrio alginolyticus strains to biotic and abiotic
surfaces. New Microbiol. 31(4), 489-500.

ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 6
BREEDING THE SILVER POMFRET,

PAMPUS ARGENTEUS (EUPHRASEN), FOR
AQUACULTURE: ACHIEVEMENTS AND CHALLENGES
Mariculture and Fisheries Department
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Salmiya, Kuwait
ABSTRACT
The silver pomfret, Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen), is a prime food fish that has a
high market price and demand in Asian countries. Due to a declining trend in the wild
stocks of this fish in recent years, research efforts are diverted towards developing a
commercially viable aquaculture technology for this species. The Kuwait Institute for
Scientific Research succeeded for the first time in 1998 in larval rearing and grow-out
culture of silver pomfret based on the eggs collected from the wild. The egg collection
trips from the wild enabled to study extensively the spawning frequency, fecundity, type
of spawning and availability of gravid fish in Kuwait waters. Over the years from 1998
till to date research has focused on refinements in hatchery larval rearing and grow-out
production.
For larval rearing conventional live feeds such as Isochrysis, Nannochloropsis and
Chlorella along with rotifers followed by Artemia nauplii were used till they were
weaned to commercially available formulated feeds. The larvae were reared at 27-29oC
using 1-4m3 capacity tanks. Using of mixed species of microalgae maintained at a cell
density of 1x106 cells/ml in the larval rearing media with rotifers at 5/ml showed
significantly higher (P<0.05) survival compared to that of using individual algal species.
Performance of formulated feeds on the growth of juveniles under grow-out tank
culture conditions has been evaluated. Annual growth performance of silver pomfret
show that the growth is fast during the first four months compared to that of the later part
of the culture period. The growth rate also depends on the water temperature showing
decreased growth rate during winter. One year old silver pomfret size ranged from 69.0308.0g with a mean of 172.557.6g, n=150. Wide fluctuations in size occur in the
population due to the small size of the males compared to that of females. After 20
months of grow-out period, the fish size ranged from 86.0-431.0g. During this time the
male size averaged 139.535.9g, n=80, and the female size averaged 254.655.5g, n=53.
50

The results show that it is possible to obtain marketable size fish of over 250g size in 20
months of culture period under Kuwaits environmental conditions.
Spawning of the cultured brood stock of silver pomfret was elusive over the years
and first breakthrough in natural spawning of two years old cultured brood stock was
achieved in 2006, but the eggs were not fertilized. Studies were initiated from August
2007 onwards to induce spawning of the fish using HCG. The results show that
successful ovary development and spawning of the fish is possible using HCG at 10002000 IU/kg body weight. Full ovary development and spawning occurred after 8-9 hours
of first HCG administration or after the second dose given the following day. Although
the females naturally released the eggs in the tanks, eggs were not fertilized and in order
to achieve egg fertilization the females and males were stripped. During 2008 spawning
period, in addition to using HCG, succeeded in induced spawning the fish using LH-RH
(a). During 2009 spawning period, fertilized eggs and hatched out larvae were observed
in the natural spawning of cultured brood stock showing the possibility of obtaining
fertilized eggs from the brood stock holding facility through natural spawning. Further
studies are concentrating on enhancing the egg production, egg fertilization and hatching
rates during the hormonal induction as well as enhancing the milt production in cultured
males. Future prospects and challenges in breeding the silver pomfret for commercial
ventures is discussed.
INTRODUCTION
The silver pomfret, Pampus argenteus (Plate 1), is a benthopelagic marine fish with a
wide geographical distribution from East China Sea to Southeast Asia, Indian Ocean and the
Arabian Gulf (Haedrich, 1967) (Plate 2). In the inshore waters it usually occurs in schools
over muddy bottoms and feeds on ctenophores, scalps, medusa and other zooplankton
organisms (Dadzie et. al., 2000). The northern Arabian Gulf stock of silver pomfret is
exploited by fishermen in Kuwait, Iraq and Iran when it migrates to waters in the northern
Arabian Gulf from March to October. During cooler months from November to March, the
stock is believed to migrate to deeper waters. After winter, as the waters warm up from March
to May, the silver pomfret adults return to spawn in coastal areas at the head of the Arabian
Gulf including Kuwaits waters. The nature and extent of specific nursery grounds in the
northern Arabian Gulf is not fully known (Al-Hussaini, 2003).
The silver pomfret is a highly valued prime food fish to the commercial fishing industry
having worldwide market demand. It is also used in Chinese medicine (Tang, 1987). It is the
most expensive fish in Kuwait and is considered as one of the fishes of highest quality not
only by Kuwaitis but also by other nationals. Table 1 shows the total worldwide catch of
silver pomfret during the period from 1990 to 2000 and percentages of contribution to the
catch by different countries. During the above period, the total world catch averaged
143,197t. The major contributor is China (42.3%) followed by India (28.1%).
In the northern Arabian Gulf, landings of silver pomfret from the Kuwaiti waters
averaged to 715 t/yr in 1972-1979 but decreased to an average of 300 t/yr in 1982-1988 due
to closing of fishing areas in the Kuwaiti and Iranian waters during the Iran-Iraq war.
Table 1. Total Catch of Zobaidy (t) Worldwide and Percentage Contributions of Different Countries from 1990 to 2000
Country
China*
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia
Korea
Kuwait
Malaysia
Pakistan
Philippines
Singapore
Taiwan
Thailand
World (Total)
*
1990
35.4
2.6
28.2
12.1
12.8
0.3
0.0
2.7
1.8
0.0
3.4
0.8
117,353
1991
35.0
2.4
31.5
10.4
12.1
0.4
0.0
2.3
1.6
0.0
3.6
0.8
135,709
1992
30.1
2.8
25.9
13.3
13.6
0.9
0.0
2.1
6.2
0.0
3.7
1.4
121,696
1993
41.4
1.7
31.9
12.4
3.6
0.8
0.0
2.2
1.7
0.1
3.0
1.2
140,660
1994
39.8
1.3
36.2
9.6
2.6
0.6
3.0
1.7
1.2
0.1
2.3
1.5
173,743
Data from China were corrected. Source: FAO Fishstat Plus Version 2.30, 2001.
Year
1995
1996
33.1
40.1
1.5
1.5
36.7
27.3
11.9
14.5
3.0
3.5
0.7
0.6
3.3
3.7
2.6
2.0
1.5
1.7
0.1
0.1
4.4
3.7
1.2
1.2
158,058 137,332
1997
44.7
1.5
27.1
15.1
0.7
0.4
3.8
2.8
0.7
0.1
2.0
1.2
135,591
1998
51.5
1.5
22.7
14.5
0.7
0.3
3.7
2.8
0.9
0.1
1.1
0.3
147,057
1999
54.3
1.0
20.0
13.7
2.2
0.2
2.8
3.0
1.0
0.1
1.6
0.2
155,648
2000
55.6
1.2
20.4
14.5
0.2
2.3
2.6
1.0
0.0
1.9
0.3
152,324
Average
42.3
1.7
28.1
12.9
4.6
0.5
2.1
2.4
1.7
0.1
2.8
0.9
143,197
52
Even though, the catches increased to an average of 1,000 t/yr in1991-1995 when the
restrictions on fishing grounds were lifted in 1991, the silver pomfret landings in Kuwait
declined to only around 120 t/yr in 2000 (Figure 1). Similarly, catches of silver pomfret from
the adjacent Iranian waters in the northern Arabian Gulf also decreased from a peak of 1,689 t
in 1997 to as low as 115 t in 2000 (Al-Hussaini, 2003). The depletion of wild silver pomfret
stock in recent years was attributed to over-fishing and to environmental degradation of the
northern Arabian Gulf. The silver pomfret captured from the Kuwait coastal waters is not
sufficient to sustain the local consumption in Kuwait and the fish has to be imported from
neighboring countries to meet with the market demand. Because of the insufficient catch and
declining wild stock in the Arabian Gulf, the market price has increased from about US$8.5
in 1994 to over US$ 19.5 per kg in recent years (Al-Hussaini et. al. 2006).
Plate 1. Cultured silver pomfret Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen, 1788).
Plate 2. Distribution map of silver pomfret Pampus argenteus (Source: GBIF.ORG).
Breeding the Silver Pomfret, Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen) for Aquaculture
53
Figure 1. Declining trend in silver pomfret catches, locally know as zobaidy, from Kuwaits fisheries
and increasing market price (Source: Al-Hussaini, 2003).
In spite of the decline in the wild stocks and the increase of the worldwide market
demand and price, the research relevant to developing aquaculture technologies for this
species of fish was negligible before 1998. Some attempts in artificial fertilization of eggs and
larval rearing were made in 1982 without achieving to the fry stage production (Oda and
Namba, 1982). Limited attempt was also made to culture the fish in pond using juveniles
collected from the wild (Pati 1984).
The Mariculture and Fisheries Department (MFD) of Kuwait Institute for Scientific
Research (KISR) had initiated and implemented a research project for the first time, during
April 1998 March 2003 (Phase-I) to assess the technical feasibility for raising the fish from
the eggs to marketable size (Almatar et al., 1998). Following a breakthrough, for the first time
in the world, in larval rearing of this fish in the hatchery based on eggs collected from the
wild and successful raising of the fish to maturity under tank culture conditions during PhaseI research period, Phase-II research was initiated in September 2007 and succeeded in
breeding cultured brood stocks of silver pomfret paving the way for possible development of
technology for considering this species as a potential new candidate for commercial ventures.
This chapter reviews the advances made in developing the culture technology for silver
pomfret and the challenges to be resolved to bring out a reliable technology for commercial
farming of silver pomfret as one of the most important and wanted candidate species for
aquaculture.
SPAWNING OF WILD STOCK IN KUWAIT WATERS

Almatar et al. (2004) has described extensively the spawning pattern of silver pomfret in
Kuwait waters, especially relevant to spawning frequency, fecundity, egg weight and type of
spawning based on fishing conducted using gillnets during the period from May 1998 to
54
October 1999 and from May to September 2000. The results showed that the length-weight
relationship differed between sexes whereby females were significantly larger than males.
Females captured with gravid and running-ripe maturity stages during the period of fishing in
1998, 1999 and 2000 indicated that P. argenteus in Kuwait waters spawn from middle of May
and continue until early October. Large females spawned at the beginning of the spawning
season (May-June) while young females spawned during later months (August-September).
Sex ratios at the spawning ground were dominated by males during the entire spawning
period. Average sex ratio for males was about 70.3%. During the spawning season the water
temperature ranged from 26.0 to 32.8 oC and sea water salinity 39.0 . The water depth in
the spawning grounds ranged between 5-12m. Spawning occurred after 13.00h, with peak
spawning between 15.00 and 18.00 h during outgoing tide. Silver pomfret is a multiple batch
spawner with indeterminate fecundity. Spawning frequency was always associated with the
lunar cycle and spawning was concentrated during the first and third quarters of the moon
period, indicating a semi-lunar reproduction cycle. The study observed that a female would
spawn at least six times during the spawning season. Average relative batch fecundity was
176.3 eggs/g somatic weight (SW), corresponding to a relative total fecundity of 1058 eggs/g
SW. Bigger fish produced heavier eggs and the egg weight decreased as the spawning season
progressed.
Maturity Stages in Relation to Day Time

Gonad maturity stages of wild caught females silver pomfret are classified into 8 stages
based on its visual appearance and size of the oocytes. For practical identification, the female
gonad maturity stages are classified as Stage-1 Virgin; Stage-2 Developing -virgin or resting;
Stage-3 Developing; Stage-4 Developed; Stage-5 Gravid; Stage-6 Running-ripe; Stage-7
Partially spent; Stage-8 Recovery (Table 2). Males, however are classified as spawning if milt
was excreted by applying gentle pressure on the abdomen or non-spawning if no milt was
observed.
In the wild catch, matured gravid females with very much enlarged yellowish to red
ovary, defined as stage 5, normally occur between 12:00 and 15:00h. At this stage the eggs
are not released with slight pressure on the abdomen. Whereas in fully ripe gravid females
with hydrated and oozing ovulated eggs, defined as stage 6 the eggs are released with slight
pressure on the abdomen (Plate 4). The stage 6 females are normally caught between 15:00 18:00h coinciding with peak spawning activity of a day. Only spent females were observed
during night hours. The Gonado Somatic Index (GSI) of males averaged 0.160.07% (n=42)
from November to February and averaged 0.440.16% (n=30) in March-April. Running ripe
males appeared in early May when the GSI increased and averaged 0.590.19% (n=42).
Males were found to mature earlier than females; all males captured between June and
October were running ripe and GSI averaged 0.680.21% (n=101).
The monthly GSI of female fish was low during November through March (resting stage)
averaged 0.760.2% (n=35), increasing in April to average 2.00.8% (n=36) (developing
stage). The range of GSI values began to increase during the spawning season because of
individual variation in the timing of gonadal development, i.e. concurrent occurrence of
developed, gravid, running-ripe and partially spent stages.
55
Table 2. Description of gonad maturity for female silver pomfret caught

from the wild in Kuwait (Almatar et al, 2004)
Virgin
Developin
g-virgin or
Resting
Developin
g
Developed
Gravid
Running
ripe
Partially
spent
Recovery
Macroscopic
The gonad is thread-like. Sometime
difficult to sex in small size females.
Ovary small (creamy to pale yellow
colour). Small opaque eggs visible (mean
GSI 0.6 0.2, N = 26). Maximum oocyte
size 0.65mm. Black spots may be seen
scattered on the ovary in resting stage.
Ovaries translucent yellow to creamy
colour with opaque oocytes present. Few
ovarian blood vessels and no sign of
previous spawning (mean GSI 2.0 0.9, N
= 36). Maximum oocyte size 0.70mm
Ovaries large, yellowish in colour, opaque
oocytes visible. Increased ovarian blood
vessels (mean GSI 7.3 2.1, N=75).
Maximum oocyte size 0.9-1.0mm.
Swelling of belly is visible externally
because of large ovaries filling the whole
body cavity. Ovaries yellowish pale or
reddish in colour. Clear hydrated oocytes
visible among opaque oocytes giving a
speckled appearance. No eggs released
with light pressure on abdomen (mean GSI
14.9 3.7, N=96). Maximum oocyte size
1.1-1.2mm.
Ovaries enlarged and jelly-like, oocytes
have been ovulated and freely oozed out
naturally or with light pressure on abdomen
as white transparent eggs. Weight and GSI
range more or less similar to gravid stage.
Ovaries somewhat flaccid just after
spawning, yellow or reddish due to
increase blood vessels. Opaque eggs
visible. This stage will resemble the
developed stage a few days after spawning
(mean GSI 4.0 1.5, N = 41). Maximum
oocyte 0.6-0.7mm
Ovaries flaccid reddish in colour, no
opaque oocytes visible (mean GSI = 4.6
1.5, N = 15). Peak maximum size 0.5mm.
Microscopic
Oocytes less than 100m
Only primary oocytes are present. Some
sample might have a few oocytes in early
yolk vesicle stage. No yolky oocytes, tunica
thick.
Primary and secondary oocytes present. In
some samples a third group with true yolk
granules (tertiary oocytes) was visible. No
hyaline eggs, some atrophy can be
observed.
Three groups of oocytes are present. This
stage resembles partially spent oocytes, and
a recruited batch for FOM can be seen. Old
POF may be found, atrophy of advance
oocytes present.
All stages of oogenesis present. Majority of
the oocytes are tertiary and are in different
stages of FOM. Hyaline oocytes still in
follicle. Very old POF may be present.
Different stages of atrophy also present.
Primary, secondary, tertiary and hyaline

oocytes are present. Ovulation has occurred,
fresh POF present. Tunica very thin.
Three groups, primary, secondary and

tertiary oocytes present. POF of different
ages nearly always present. Tunica very
thin. Residual hyaline oocytes may be
present and undergoing atrophy.
Primary oocytes of perinucleolar stage

present. A loose ovarian tissue with many
spaces between ovigenous folds. Some
bigger yolky oocytes can be seen
undergoing atresia. Old POF can be
encountered.
POF, post-ovulatory follicle; FOM, final oocyte maturation; Primary oocytes, small oocytes, most advance stages are
in perinucleolus stage; Secondary oocytes, oocytes with cortical alveoli; later stages show the start of true vitellogenesis;
Tertiary oocytes, oocytes with true vitellogenesis and yolk granules; in later stages lipid droplets start fusion. FOM, stages
of oocytes showing germinal vesicle migration or breakdown and coalescing of yolk granules and lipid droplets into
homogeneous mass.
56
From May to October the GSI of developed ovaries averaged 7.32.1% (n=75) while
gravid ovaries showed an average GSI of 14.93.7% (n=96). Just prior to ovulation the most
advanced group of eggs take up fluid and increase in volume. These hydrated eggs greatly
increase the ovarian weight. It was difficult to estimate GSI for running ripe females because
eggs oozed out freely as the fish were taken out of water, but the mean values may be
assumed to be between 16.0 and 17.0%. Mean GSI value for partially spent females was 4.0 +
1.5, n=41. Fish in spent stage were few and first appeared in June, while the frequency
increased in October with GSI values averaged 1.70.2 (n=6). Recovering stages started to
appear in August and peaked in September with GSI averaging 4.61.5% (n=15).
INITIATION OF CULTURE THROUGH COLLECTION

OF EGGS FROM WILD SPAWNERS
In order to initiate culture of silver pomfret, several trials were made to collect wild brood
stock from Kuwaits coastal waters and transferred to the cultured tanks. However, the wild
brood stock collected using drifting gill nets were badly injured by the nylon line which dug
into its flesh. The overall survival of wild-caught breeders was very low and not encouraging.
Furthermore, the wild caught fish did not survive due to difficulties in feeding them in
captivity as they did not accept formulated feeds and therefore, it was almost impossible to
keep the wild fish brood stock alive due to the sensitive nature of the fish. It was realized that
the only alternative way to initiate the culture of silver pomfret was to strip the ripe fish to
obtain fertilized eggs from the wild breeders.
Fishing Trips
Towards initiating the culture of silver pomfret, the first successful collection of fertilized
eggs were made by stripping fully-ripe male and female spawners caught by gillnets in
Kuwait waters during June 1997. Larvae hatched from fertilized eggs were reared until 90
days after hatching (DAH) in water temperatures of 27-30 oC. This enabled to observe and
describe the larval and juvenile developmental stages of silver pomfret under laboratory
rearing conditions (Almatar et al., 2000). Following the successful larval rearing of silver
pomfret for the first time in the world, several fishing areas in Kuwaiti waters covering an
area of 40 km2 within latitudes 29o 22 N and 29o 24N to longitudes 48o 00E and 48o 06E
were surveyed from May to October in 1998, 1999 and 2000 as well as from June to August
in 2001 and 2002 (Plate 3). Fishing trips were made from 10:00h to 18:00h. Collection trips
were also made during the night to assess the time of spawning in the wild. During these trips
matured gravid silver pomfret females with oozing eggs and matured males were caught
using 14cm mesh stretch size drifting gill nets and used for stripping to obtain fertilized eggs
for hatchery larval rearing. Such, fishing trips are continued till to date whenever there is a
need for collection of fertilized eggs from wild spawners.
57
Availability of Gravid Fish

The fishing trip surveys carried out in Kuwaiti waters show that fully mature running
males outnumber the females with an average ratio of 3:1. During May to September 1998
spawning period, out of 2,743 fish caught, running-ripe females (Plate 4) with oozing eggs
were maximum during June (38%) followed by July (30%) and August (23%). While it was
running-ripe minimum in May (8%) and September (1%) (Al-Abdul-Elah et al., 2003). Mean
size of gravid and running-ripe females in June (FL 26.63.0 cm, wt 630.3221.4g) was
significantly higher (P<0.01) than the females caught in July (FL 25.12.7 cm, wt
539.1203.6g) or in August (FL 24.82.7 cm, wt 470.2169.2g). During 1999 spawning
season occurrence of gravid and running-ripe females were at the maximum in July (55%)
followed by August (26%), while it was minimum in May (0.05%) and September (2%).
Similar to 1998 spawning period, the mean size of spawning females was high in June (FL
26.92.5cm, wt 677.4180.6g) compared to that of the fish in July (FL 26.22.6cm, wt
594.2174.4g).
For the collection of eggs from wild spawners, fully matured males and females are
brought to the hatchery in thermo cool box with ice within an hour after catching and stripped
into a plastic bowl. After stripping, the eggs and sperms are mixed gently. The fully ripe
female at stage-6 provides a good flow of transparent eggs with gentle abdominal pressure
(Plate 5). The males however have small testes and produce only a few drops of milt after
gentle abdominal pressure.
The fertilized eggs are washed thoroughly with filtered seawater to remove body fluids
and other debris. The collected eggs are quantified using 1-2 liter capacity graduated
cylinders. The floating viable eggs are transferred to hatching nets and the sunken non-viable
eggs are discarded. The fertilized eggs are spherical, transparent and pelagic, with an average
diameter of 1.08mm and having a single pale oil globule of about 0.34mm diameter and a
weakly segmented yolk of 0.85mm in diameter (Plate 6).
Plate 3. Capturing of silver pomfret using 14cm mesh drifting gill net.
58
Plate 4. Running-ripe female at stage-6 caught by drifting gill net.
Plate 5. Stripping of stage-6 female caught from the wild.
The fertilized eggs are incubated in hatching nets of 29cm dia. X 42cm deep (22.5-L
working volume) continuously supplied with 0.5 L/min fresh aerated ambient seawater (Plate
7). The egg incubation temperature was always maintained to the ambient seawater
temperature. The eggs are incubated at a stocking density of 2000 eggs/L.
At ambient seawater temperature of 29-30oC, the eggs hatch out after 15-20h of
incubation. Newly hatched larva has a large, ellipsoidal yolk and an undeveloped mouth; its
size averaged 2.4mm in total length. Experimental studies indicated that better egg hatching
rates occur at incubating temperature of around 29.5oC and at ambient seawater salinities of
35-40 . While under low salinity regimes of 10-30 the hatching rates were significantly
low (Al-Abdul-Elah et al., 2002) compared to that of using ambient seawater salinity of about
40.
Plate 6. Developing stages of silver pomfret egg and newly hatched larva.
Plate 7. Egg incubating nets used in silver pomfret hatchery.
59
60
LARVAL REARING
For mass larval rearing and fry production 1-4m3 capacity round fiberglass tanks are
used. Several experiments have been carried out over the years from 1998 onwards on the
requirements for hatchery larval rearing of silver pomfret (Al-Abdul-Elah et al., 2001, 2002;
Almatar et al., 2003). The results of these experiments over the years show that the optimal
temperature for larval rearing is 27-29oC. The effect of stocking density on the growth and
survival showed that both the growth and survival rates of larvae were not significantly
different among the range of stocking densities of 20, 30 and 40 larvae/L. Better survival of
larvae was achieved in the 4m3 capacity tanks than in the smaller 1m3 capacity tanks. During
the larval rearing period, first peak mortality of the larvae were observed at the ages of 6-9
days after hatching (DAH) followed by second peak at 13-16 DAH and a third peak at 22-32
DAH. The second and third peak mortalities normally coincide with the tendency of larvae to
swallow tiny air bubbles while they feed on live food organisms, especially at the water
surface. Towards addressing the larval mortalities and enhancing the larval survival, several
refinements were made over the years in the hatchery larval rearing procedures.
Effect of Microalgal Species on Larval Survival

Studies carried out on the efficiency of microalgal species such as Chlorella, Isochrysis
and Nannochloropsis for feeding early larval stages indicated that using these algae alone as
the initial feed for silver pomfret larvae without addition of rotifers is not conducive for the
survival of early larvae (Al-Abdul-Elah et al., 2001). At 6 DAH, a maximum survival of 3%
was observed with Isochrysis followed by Nannochloropsis (0.35%) and Chlorella (0.25%).
All the larvae, fed with algae alone, died at 6 DAH. Further investigations using the above
microalgae with rotifers and a mixture of these microalgae with rotifers showed that
significantly higher survival (9.7% at 12 DAH) could be achieved in the mixture of
microalgae maintained at a density of 1x106 cells/ml in the larval rearing media with rotifers
at 5/ml in the culture tanks.
At this feed regime, the -3 fatty acids in rotifers were high (36.320.68, n=2) and the
incidence of feeding on rotifers was enhanced in larvae subjected to this feed regime (AlAbdul-Elah et al., 2001). Studies show that the incidence of feeding on rotifers from 4 DAH
was significantly high (P<0.05) in mixed species of algae (60%) and in tanks having
Isochrysis (55%) compared to that of using Chlorella and Nannochloropsis. The silver
pomfret larvae foraging on rotifers (Plate 8) considerably increased from 8 DAH till they
were weaned to Artemia nauplii at 14 DAH onwards for a week before they were trained to
accept inert feed.
The hatchery larval rearing of silver pomfret lasts for about 40-45 DAH. The larval
mortalities are much reduced and the survival is high from 30-35 DAH when they
metamorphose to juveniles.
Under experimental culture conditions, it was possible to achieve 3.6-4.2% larval
survival with a mean of 3.9% using mixed species of microalgae in the larval rearing tank and
rotifers fed with Isochrysis and treated with nutritional enrichment media, such as
commercially available Selco, Super Selco and DHA Protein Selco (INVE, Belgium).
61
The larvae are easily weaned to commercially available inert larval feeds from 18-20 DAH
onwards. The formulated feeds are offered as paste feed suspended in the water column using
plastic trays. After 45-50 DAH, the juveniles are harvested and can be directly stocked in
grow-out culture tanks (Plate 9).
Plate 8. Silver pomfret larvae foraging on rotifers at 10 DAH.
Plate 9. Silver pomfret juveniles produced in the hatchery.
Larval Mortality and Air Bubble

The silver pomfret larvae have a tendency to ingest air bubble occurring in the larval
rearing tanks due to aeration, especially during the second week of larval rearing period.
Using of surface skimmers to remove the air bubble from the culture system failed to resolve
62
this problem since the larvae ingests tiny air bubble occurring at the water column and at the
water surface (Plate 10). The air bubble ingestion continued till the nursery period even after
terminating use of live food in the larval rearing tanks. Considerable larval mortality occurred
during this period due to bloating of larval stomach with air bubble that makes the larvae to
swim erratically resulting in bellying up of the individuals floating on the water surface and
causing heavy mortality.
Plate 10. A) Ingestion of air bubble at water surface; B) Air bubble ingested larva in the culture tank at
28 DAH.
Several techniques were used to avoid air bubble ingestion by silver pomfret, the rearing
tanks were provided with air-lift pipes (Plate 11) but still, tiny air bubbles occurred. One
method to resolve this problem was using a surface skimmer to skim the water to reduce the
surface tension as well as to remove the air bubble.
Plate 11. Larval rearing tank provided with surface skimmer and air-lift pipes.
Another method was addition of -3 enriched cod liver oil that eliminated the air bubble
at the water surface as well as help in the enrichment of rotifers and Artemia nauplii present
in the larval rearing tanks. The excess oil was removed from the culture system using a
63
surface skimmer (Plate 12). This helps in reduction of the incidence of air bubble ingestion
and related mortalities.
Plate 12. Elimination of air bubble using -3 oil and removal of oil from water.
PERFORMANCE OF FORMULATED FEEDS

ON THE GROWTH OF JUVENILES
Considerable progress has been made on the nutritional requirements for this species
under grow-out culture conditions due to the research studies carried out at MFD, KISR.
Preliminary studies were carried out from April 1998 to March 2003 on the growth
performance and feeding behavior of juveniles under tank culture conditions using several
commercially available fish feeds and locally made formulated paste feed (Cruz et al., 2000).
Studies on the performance and feeding behavior of silver pomfret fingerlings with an
average weight of 15.2g fed with the test diet consisting of Turbot feed, Ecostart 16 by
Biomar, France offered as dry and moist pellets, carried out in six 1m3 capacity tanks, showed
that the survival rate of the fish fed with wet pellets was significantly higher (P<0.03)
compared to that of fish fed with dry pellets (Cruz et al., 2000). These investigations observed
poor performance of commercial sea bream and turbot dry pellets compared to that of using
semi-moist salmon feed and re-pelletized salmon feed mixed with shrimp meat, encapsulated
larval diets, fish oil, vitamin and mineral mix (Cruz et al., 2003). All the commercial feeds
tested till 2003 were not satisfactory relevant to the growth and survival of this species. The
average daily growth rate observed during these early investigations, till 2003 culture period,
for up to 50g size group of this fish was less than 0.34g/fish/d.
Towards determining the optimum growth of silver pomfrets under tank culture
conditions, experiments were carried out during 2004 and 2005 culture period using
commercially available feeds as well as locally formulated feeds and feed additives. Because
crustaceans such as copepods as one of the major food component in the natural diet of silver
pomfret in the wild (Dadzie et al., 2000), commercially available copepods under the brand
64
name Cyclopeeze (Argent Chemical Laboratory, Redmond, WA, USA) and fresh shrimp
meat in the diet were investigated along with other commercial feeds to determine the
efficiency of these feed components in the diet for the growth of the fish (Almatar and James,
2007). Experiments carried out during 2004 investigated the efficiency of using salmon feed
mixed with cyclopeeze, salmon feed mixed with shrimp meat on silver pomfret juveniles of
about 4.0-4.5g initial size. The second experiment evaluated salmon feed alone, and shrimp
meat alone for feeding silver pomfret juveniles of about 28.0-29.0g initial size. The results
showed that inclusion of shrimp meat in the diet either with salmon feed or alone give
significantly high (P<0.01) weight gain and growth rate of up to 1.100.06 g/fish/d and
significantly lower (P<0.001) feed conversion ratio compared to that of feeds without shrimp
meat. The experiments carried out during 2005 investigated the use of commercially available
formulated feeds with feed additives on silver pomfret juveniles of about 12.0-13.0g initial
size. The results showed that feeding with Gemma (SKRETTING) feed with 54.0% crude
protein and 19.0% crude fat or salmon feed with 41.4% crude protein and 23.9% crude fat
give significantly high (P<0.01) growth rates compared to that of pompano feed with 43.0%
crude protein and 6.0% crude fat (Almatar and James, 2007).
Since the knowledge of optimum protein requirement is essential for formulation of well
balanced, low cost and environmentally friendly formulated diets, experiments were carried
out to determine the dietary protein requirement of silver pomfret with an initial body weight
of 12.40.12g (Hossain et al., 2010). Five semi-purified experimental diets were formulated
to contain 35, 40, 45, 50 and 55% protein level with 12% lipid in all the diets. The results
show that the growth of fish fed 45% protein diet was not significantly different (P<0.05)
from that of fish fed 50 or 55% protein in the diet, but the growth was significantly higher
than that of fish fed 35% or 40% protein. Significantly efficient food conversion ratio (FCR)
was observed in diets containing 45, 50 and 55% protein. The FCR ranged between 1.7 and
2.5 in these diets. Fish fed 50% dietary protein showed significantly best apparent net protein
utilization. The study concluded that the optimum dietary protein level for silver pomfret is
49% with a dietary lipid level of 12%.
As a follow on the dietary protein requirement, studies were carried out on the dietary
lipid requirement of silver pomfret. The experimental diets consisted of three treatments with
12%, 16% and 20% dietary lipid in the feed containing 49% protein. Juveniles with 33-35g
initial body weight were used. After four months of culture period, the fish fed with 16%
dietary lipid exhibited significantly higher growth (P<0.05) compared to that of diets
containing 12% and 20% dietary lipid. Although growth is satisfactory under experimental
conditions, a further refinement in feed formulation is required on the juveniles of this
species.
GROW-OUT UNDER TANK CULTURE CONDITIONS

The silver pomfret juveniles used for the grow-out culture studies originated from eggs
collected from the wild spawners during July 2004. After the hatchery larval rearing period,
the juveniles were stocked in round fiberglass tanks of 3m3and 4m3 capacities for grow-out
production. After 11 months of grow-out culture period, the fish were transferred to two 25
m3 capacity circular out-door concrete tanks and after 15 and 20 months of grow-out culture
65
period, potential brood stock fish were stocked in two 125 m3 capacity out-door concrete
tanks. Seawater was flowed through the tanks to maintain a water exchange rate of about 8-10
times a day. Ambient seawater mixed with ground well seawater, with a temperature of 2426oC, were used to maintain the tank water culture below 30oC during summer and above
20oC during winter, since the ambient seawater temperature increase to over 31oC during
summer and declines to less than 17oC during winter in Kuwait. All the tanks were equipped
with central stand pipe and drainage.
The fish were sampled once a month as well as during transferring from the tanks for
growth evaluation. During sampling, all the fish were weighed individually using a digital
sensitive balance (model SBC-61 from Scaltec Instruments, Germany).
Table 3. Feed Composition Used for the Grow-out Culture of Pampus argenteus
Feed ingredients
Salmon feed
Carpmin Forte*
Proburst-A**
Stabilized vitamin C
Fish oil
Binder
%
93.0
1.0
0.2
0.2
5.0
0.6
*Supplied by APC Nutrients Pvt. Ltd., India. Contains minerals (mg/kg diet): Calcium 1500;
Phosphorus 450; Magnesium 11; Manganese 5; Zinc 11; ferrous 5; Copper 2; Cobalt 0.5; Sodium
10; Potassium 10; Sulphur 10; Iodine 1; Selenium 0.002; Molybdenum 0.001.
** Gut conditioner supplied by APC Nutrients Pvt. Ltd., India. Contains probiotics Lactobacillus and
Yeast nutrilities
For handling the fish while sampling as well as during transfer from one tank to another,
3 ppm of the tranquilizer Quinaldine (Argent Chemical Laboratories, USA) was used.
Commercially available salmon feed (Dana Feed A/S, Denmark) mixed with commercially
available feed additives were used. Table 3 shows the feed composition offered for feeding
silver pomfret during the grow-out culture period. Feed was prepared by mixing all the
ingredients along with salmon feed and re-pelletized using a meat grinder. Agar-agar was
used as a binder. The fish were fed daily 3-4 times at libidum. The tank water temperature
was monitored in the morning at 0800 h as well as at noon using an ordinary mercury
thermometer. Dissolved oxygen concentration was monitored, using YSI-model 55, USA,
three times a week.
The initial size of the hatchery produced P. argenteus fingerlings ranged from 1.6-5.2 g
with a mean of 3.70.9 g (n=150) during August 2004. Figure 3 shows the mean weight
observed for the silver pomfret from August 2004 to October 2005 under tank grow-out
culture conditions. The initial growth rate was fast during the first four months compared to
that of the later part of the culture period. The daily fish weight gain significantly increased
(P<0.01) from 0.56 g/fish/d during September (2nd month) to 1.5 g/fish/d during November
(3rd month) at temperatures ranging from 28.5-29.5 oC (Figure 4).
During this time the fish size ranged from 47.5-134.4 g with a mean of 81.912.2 g
(n=150). After four months of culture, during December, the fish size ranged from 50.5-168.2
g with a mean of 91.0122.3g (n=150). However, with the decrease of temperature from
66
28.5oC to 27.0oC, the growth rate declined to 0.69 g/fish/d. The growth rate further declined
to 0.3 g/fish/d during January with the decrease of temperature to 21oC. Further decline in
growth to 0.14 g/fish/d was observed during February and March culture period in which the
water temperature averaged 21oC during February and increased to 23oC during March.
However, no significant difference (P>0.05) in growth was observed between February (mean
115.925.6 g, n=150) and March (mean 120.019.5 g, n=150) culture period. When the water
temperature increased to 26oC during May, a significant increase (P<0.05) in growth was
observed (0.63 g/fish/d). During this period, the fish size ranged from 64-234 g with a mean
of 150.733.4 g (n=150). During August 2005, one year old silver pomfret size ranged from
69-308g with a mean of 172.557.6g (n=150). The growth rate stabilized during the summer
period from May to July and averaged to about 0.6 g/fish/d. With the onset of winter and with
the declining temperature, the growth rate also declined to 0.26/fish/d during October.
Figure 3. Mean growth of Pampus argenteus during the period from August 2004 to October 2005
under tank grow-out culture conditions (males and females combined).
In general, the growth rate of fish in relation to the tank culture water temperature
showed a curvilinear relation in which the fish growth rate declined with decreasing
temperature and increased with the increasing temperature of up to 29.5-30.0 oC prevailed in
the tanks during summer (Figure 5). After 14 months of culture period the fish size ranged
from 74-315 g with a mean of 182.750.5 g (n=150).
67
Figure 4. Mean daily weight gain of Pampus argenteus and the water temperature from August 2004 to
October 2005 (males and females combined).
Figure 5. Growth rate relevant to daily weight gain observed in Pampus argenteus in relation to tank
culture water temperature.
After 20 months of rearing period, the fish size ranged from 86-431 g with a mean of
184.464.6 g (n=150). Male and female size distribution of silver pomfret show that the
males are smaller in size with reference to both individual body weight as well as forked
68
length (Figures 6 and 7). The male individual body weight ranged from 86-259 g with a mean
of 139.535.9 g (n=80) and the female weight ranged from 164-431 g with a mean of
254.655.5 g (n=53). The forked length for male ranged from 14.0-21.5 cm with a mean of
16.41.4 cm (n=80) and the female forked length ranged from 17.0-23.5 cm with a mean of
19.84.5 cm (n=53). The males dominated in the population and it constituted 60 %. The
studies show that silver pomfret growth is fast in the initial period and it grows from 3.7 g
size to an average of 81.9 g size within three months of culture period. The overall growth
shows that the growth rate is significantly high (P<0.05) during summer and early part of
winter when the water temperature is more than 26 oC. After 14 months of culture period fish
weight reached up to 315 g with a mean of 182.7669.4 g (n=150). The growth observed
during the investigation carried out from August 2004 to October 2005 is considerably higher
than the previous observations made on the same age group of silver pomfret, cultured at
MFD from 1998-2003 project period, in which the mean weight per fish ranged 48.3-65.1 g
(Cruz et al. 2000) and the maximum mean size obtained was 129.61 g.
70
18
35%
16
Male
Female
No of obs (Male)
50
14
26%
12
40
10
20%
17%
30
6
20
4
14%
10
6%
6%
0%
0
50
100
2%
0%
150
200
25 0
2%
0%
300
0% 0%
350
0%
400
0%
450
Weight (g)
Figure 6. Male and female body weight observed after 20 months of grow-out culture.
No of obs (Female)
72%
60

14
30
32%
26
26%
29%
26%
Male
Female
24
12
No of obs (Male)
22
10
20
18
16
15%
14
15%
15%
12
11%
11%
10
No of obs (Female)
28
8
7%
4
2
69
2%
2%
2%
1%
0%
0
13
14
0%
15
1%
1%
0%
16
0%
17
18
19
20
2%
21
22
0%
23
0%
24
Length (cm)
Figure 7. Male and female forked length observed after 20 months of grow-out culture.
The considerable increase in the growth rate of silver pomfret in latter investigation,
compared to previous years at MFD, is due to the changes made in the feed with feed
additives (Almatar and James 2007) as well as feed management practices in which the feed
was offered in trays instead of hand feeding as practiced during the earlier investigations.
Wide size variations occur among the cultured silver pomfret, since the males are smaller
in size compared to that of females. The results show that it is possible to obtain marketable
size silver pomfret of over 250 g size after 20 months of culture period (about 1.8 years old).
However, this depends on the sex ratio in the population. In general, the males dominated in
the population constituting over 65% and their weight although reached up to 259 g, averaged
at 139.47 g after 20 months culture duration. Whereas, the female size for the same age group
was up to 424 g and averaged at 254.61 g showing that for commercial ventures it is
important to select the females for grow-out farming. The difference in male and female size
observed is similar to the data gathered on the growth of wild stocks of silver pomfret in
Kuwaiti waters (Al-Hussaini et al. 2006). Furthermore, compared to the estimated age of 2.86
years for the wild silver pomfret to reach a marketable size of about 300 g in Kuwait (AlHussaini et al. 1998), the growth achieved under the tank culture conditions is encouraging
and shows the fast growth of the fish within two years. The growth achieved in the culture
tanks indicates that feed adequacy can support comparable good growth in the culture system.
Temperature dependent growth of silver pomfret shows that there is a possibility to
considerably increase the growth and reduce the growth period if the culture water
temperature prevail 26-30oC throughout the year.
70
PATHOLOGY AND HEALTH MANAGEMENT

Pathology and health management was part of the investigations carried out over the
years to maintain silver pomfret under tank culture conditions. During the early period of
initiation of silver pomfret culture using 65m3 capacity outdoor tanks in 2000, serious
mortalities were encountered. More than 90% of the infected fish in the culture tanks showed
a distinctive swollen belly with skin hemorrhages. A few fish also exhibited slight eye
haemorrhage and corneal opacity. In addition, exophthalmia was occasionally observed but
only in late stages of the infection. Affected fish were lethargic and showed loss of appetite.
Internal organs showed mild changes, including an enlarged liver and congestion in the
kidney and spleen. The stomach and intestines contained a gelatinous or pus-like fluid. The
investigations showed the presence of coccoid bacteria in the tissues. In addition, the high
load of bacteria in the ascetic fluid and the acute pattern of mortality that peaked on day 4
after the initiation of symptoms further indicated an acute infection caused by Streptococcus
agalactiae (Duremdez et al., 2004). The occurrence of this bacteria in cultured sea bream,
Sparus auratus L., and wild mullet, Liza klunzingeri, in Kuwait has been reported previously
by Evans et al. (2002). Duremdez et al., (2004) reported persistent infection of this bacterium
in cultured silver pomfret. To avoid pathogenic bacterial infection of silver pomfret, from
2004 culture period onwards commercially available feed probiotics as well as water
probiotics were used in the culture system. This helped to eradicate the incidence of mass
mortalities of cultured silver pomfret due to pathogenic bacterial infection.
Two species of ciliated protozoans, Cryptocaryon irritans and Uronema sp., were
identified infesting silver pomfret. Cryptocaryon irritans infection was observed in October
1998 among the silver pomfret reared in 4m3 capacity indoor tanks. The parasite was detected
in fish varying in size between 5 and 400g leading to mortalities in the range of 50-60%. The
fish had mild to severe scale loss, pale foci on the skin, and excess mucus on the skin and
gills. Most parasites were found on the gills but some were on the skin. Desalinated water
baths (2ppt for 20 min) once a week were effective against the trophozoite stage of C.
irritans, whereas baths in the combination of copper sulfate-citric acid solution (0.2mg/l) for
seven days successfully controlled the theront stage. The transfer of the treated fish into clean
tanks every three days greatly assisted in controlling the disease outbreak (Al-Marzouk et al.,
2003).
Another major disease problem encountered in the cultured silver pomfret was associated
with scuticociliatosis by Uronema sp. The cultured silver pomfret juveniles and adults
suffered 55-70% mortalities due to this parasitic infestation. Affected fish showed varying
levels of tissue damage including severe epidermal and dermal necrotic lesions (Azad et al.,
2009). The disease occurred with the raise in water temperature from 20 to 22oC during April.
Loss of scales, appearance of bleached spots that coalesced to form brownish patches,
haemorrhagic and severe dermal necrotic lesions were the major clinic-pathological
manifestations. The parasite was found abundantly in the blood, peritoneal fluid and the
cerebrospinal fluid, the skin and the gill wet mounts. Extensive fouling, necrotic degeneration
of the gill epithelium and deep dermal necrosis resulted in mortality of the infected fish. The
parasite was noticed in the lumen of the collecting ducts of the kidney and the alimentary
canal. The parasite was also seen distributed extensively in the entire brain causing
widespread nerve necrosis. Earliest separation of the clinically normal fish from the affected
71
fish resulted in significantly higher survival. The investigations on Uronema were of

significant importance in view of the mariculture potential of this fish. One of the solution
adapted to overcome this problem, was to feed the fish with formalin killed whole cell of
Uronema with an objective of enhancing the immunity against this pathogen. With regular
use of probiotics in the culture system and through nutritional manipulation using feed
additives and tank management procedures, the occurrence of this parasitic disease was
prevented in the silver pomfret grow-out culture since 2006.
DEVELOPMENT OF CULTURED BROOD STOCK

Attempts were made to develop cultured brood stock of silver pomfret from the hatchery
produced juveniles from late 1990s onwards. However, achieving cultured brood stock
spawning in the tank was elusive over the years till 2006. From 1997 and 1998 hatchery
production it was possible to raise 75 fish with an average body weight of 211.7g (ranged
from 99 to 495g). These were kept in 65m3 capacity round fiberglass tanks. During 2000
culture period, the fish reached an average body weight of 370.5g and ranged from 156.6 to
693.5g. During the winter of 1999-2000 culture period, the brood stock were maintained in
warm seawater of 24-25oC by mixing ambient seawater with ground well water. The brood
stock selection and maintenance in brood stock holding tanks were continued without any
spawning incidence till 2006. During these brood stock development period, studies were
continued to observe the gonadal maturation of the fish under tank culture conditions as well
as development of suitable diet to achieve spawning of the cultured fish.
Gonad Development in Cultured Brood Stock

In order to determine gonad development in cultured silver pomfret, histological studies
were carried out on the gonad which indicated that silver pomfret is a gonochoristic species,
in which the male and female sex exist in separate individuals (Al-Ablani and Lone, 2003).
The studies show that the processes of sexual differentiation for the male and female are
completed at the ages of 115 and 135 DAH, respectively.
During these initial stages of brood stock development, gonad maturation in cultured
silver pomfret was observed as it was evidenced by the occurrence of fully ripe male
producing milt at a body weight of 134g and 17cm fork length on July 31, 1999 (age 2 years).
However, female was found with stage 2 gonad only at the size of 222.5g in body weight and
19.5cm in fork length from the same batch of brood stock. Under the tank culture conditions,
the matured males had oozing milt upon slight pressure of the abdomen (Plate 13). Except
such observations in gonad development, spawning of the cultured brood stock was not
achieved. Therefore, further attention was diverted toward developing brood stock diet and
culture tank management practices.
72
Plate 13. Cultured silver pomfret male with oozing milt.
Brood Stock Feed Development

During the early stages of feed development for silver pomfret, from 2000 breeding
season onwards, the brood stocks diet was changed by increasing the fresh shrimp meat
percentage in the diet and reducing the formulated feed percentage in addition to the inclusion
of krill powder, squid meal and cod liver oil. However, no spawning was achieved till 2006
culture period. Since nutritional brood stock diet is mandatory to achieve spawning and good
quality eggs in cultured silver pomfret, much attention was diverted towards developing a
well balanced brood stock feed containing essential fatty acids, vitamin C and E, carotenoid
pigments, micro-nutrients, probiotics and feed attractants. Table 3 shows the ingredients of
brood stock diet used during 2006 spawning season. Considering the importance of essential
fatty acids, especially the highly unsaturated fatty acids (HUFA) such as eicosapentaenoic
acid (20:53, EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (22:63, DHA) squid oil and cod liver oil in
1:1 ratio was used, as their requirements for marine fish were evidenced from 1980s onwards
(Watanabe et al., 1984; Fernandez-Palacocis et al., 1995).
More recently Hossain et. al.(2010) have studied the seasonal variations of fatty acid
composition of wild male and female silver pomfret for a period of one year (November
2007-October 2008). They demonstrated that the most abundant fatty acid in the whole body
of both males and females was C16 followed by C18:1n-9 which account for 31-35% and 2224% respectively. The gonads from both sexes contained more than double the amount of
EPA present in the liver but in the case of DHA it was more than three-fold higher in female
gonad than male gonad indicating the importance of DHA in the development of the gonads
silver pomfret.
Krill was included in the diet since it enhances the feed intake and egg quality (Watanabe
and Kiron, 1995). Astaxanthin was included in the silver pomfret brood stock diet since it
increased the egg buoyancy and survival rate in red sea-bream, increased fertilization and
survival rates of eggs and higher growth rates during the early feeding period of young
salmonids (Sommer et al., 1991; Torrissen and Christiansen, 1995). By using this diet, a
73
breakthrough in natural spawning of two year old cultured brood stock of silver pomfret was
achieved for the first time in 2006 spawning season (James and Almatar, 2007).
Based on the success in spawning the silver pomfret cultured brood stocks, further
improvement in the brood stock diet was made. During 2008 spawning season, in addition to
commercially available salmon feed from Dana, Denmark, other feed additives were used
(Table 4). Commercially available copepod under the name Cyclopeeze from Argent
Chemical Laboratories, USA was included in the feed composition, in addition to tocopherol (Vitamin E) and other feed ingredients. Feed was prepared by mixing all the
ingredients along with formulated feed and re-pelletized using a meat grinder. Agar-agar was
used as a binder.
BREEDING OF CULTURED BROOD STOCKS

The silver pomfret used for breeding originated from eggs collected from the wild
spawners during July 2004. After 15 and 20 months of grow-out culture period, potential
brood stock fish were selected from the grow-out tanks and stocked in two 125 m3 capacity
out-door concrete tanks at a stocking rate of 3 fish/m3. Seawater was flowed through the tanks
to maintain a water exchange rate of about 8-10 times a day. Ambient seawater mixed with
ground well seawater, with a temperature of 24-26oC, were used to maintain the tank water
culture temperature not to reach above 30oC during summer and below 20oC during winter.
For handling the fish while sampling as well as during transfer from one tank to another, 3
ppm of the tranquilizer Quinaldine (Argent Chemical Laboratories, USA) was used. The
fish were fed daily 3 times at labidum.
About two months before the spawning period, the potential broodstocks were measured
and re-distributed in two 125m3 tanks. The sex ratio was about 1:6. More males were
desired in the brood stock holding tanks, since males dominate and constitute about 65% in
the natural wild stocks of silver pomfret during the spawning season (Almatar et al., 2004).
The fish biomass was kept at less than 2 kg/m3 in the brood stock holding tanks. The fish
were fed to satiation with brood stock diet using feed additives to enhance the gonad
maturation (Table 4,5). A conical net with 400m fine mesh was fixed at the tank water
overflow channel in a submerged trough to collect the eggs in the brood stock holding tanks.
Inspection for eggs was carried out between 1900-2000h as well as morning at 0730h. When
eggs present, the collected eggs were washed from the suspended algae and other debris by
using 1000 m plastic mesh. The washed eggs were placed in 1liter capacity graduated
measuring cylinders to quantify the floating (viable) and sunken (non-viable) eggs. The eggs
were also examined under microscope to determine the egg fertilization.
74

Table 4. Feed Composition Used for the Brood Stock of Pampus argenteus
During 2006 Spawning Period
Ingredients
Ingredients
Bio-Optimal
Lansy breed
Breed-S concentrate
Blood worm
Squid oil + Cod liver oil
Krill
40.0
30.0
10.0
10.0
5.0
3.0
Binder
Stabilized vitamin
Astaxanthin (Naturose)
Proburst-A**
Carpmin Forte*
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
1.0
Phosphorus 450; Mangnesium 11; Manganese 5; Zinc 11; ferrous 5; Copper 2; Cobalt 0.5; Sodium
10; Pottassium 10; Suphur 10; Iodine 1; Selenium 0.002; Molybdenum 0.001. ** Gut conditioner
supplied by APC Nutrients Pvt. Ltd., India. Contains probiotics Lactobacillus and Yeast nutrilities.
Table 5. Brood Stock Feed Composition of P. argenteus (Spawning Period of 2008)

Ingredients
Ingredients
Dana
Gemma
Lansy Breed
Blood worm
Krill
Bio-max
Carpmin Forte*
20.00
25.00
30.00
12.00
5.00
0.50
0.10
Proburst-A**
Stabilized vitamin C
Cyclopeeze
Astaxanthin (Naturose)
Super-liv
Vitamin E
Binder
Squid oil + Cod liver oil
1.00
0.20
0.10
0.20
0.30
0.02
0.58
5.00
Phosphorus 450; Mangnesium 11; Manganese 5; Zinc 11; ferrous 5; Copper 2; Cobalt 0.5; Sodium
10; Pottassium 10; Suphur 10; Iodine 1; Selenium 0.002; Molybdenum 0.001. ** Gut conditioner
supplied by APC Nutrients Pvt. Ltd., India. Contains probiotics Lactobacillus and Yeast nutrilities.
Natural Spawning of Cultured Brood Stock

The two years old brood stock size (male and female combined), stocked in two of the
brood stock holding tanks, during May 2006 ranged from 128-457g with a mean of
261.788.55g (n=133). First natural spawning was observed on 15th June 2006, when the tank
water temperature reached 26.5oC. The spawning continued till September and the peak
spawning was observed during August with the increase of tank water temperature to 30oC
(Figures 8, 9).
75
Plate 14. Unfertilized eggs from first natural spawning of cultured brood stocks of silver pomfret in
June 2006.
Figure 8. Incidence of natural spawning of the cultured broodstocks of silver pomfret during 2006 and
2007.
76
Figure 9. Total quantity of eggs collected from the natural spawning of the broodstocks from June untill
October during 2006 and 2007.
During this spawning period, all the collected eggs were unfertilized (Plate 14). The
spawning lasted till 15th of September. During 2007, the combined male and female brood
stock size ranged from 130-675g with a mean of 294.3139.09g (n=51). Natural spawning in
the brood stock holding tanks initiated from 9 June onwards when the tank water temperature
reached 27.5oC and the spawning continued till 5th of October. There was no spawning
occurred during September (Figure 8). The quantity of eggs collected showed a maximum of
180.4ml eggs obtained during August 2006 and a maximum of 184ml eggs obtained during
July 2007 (Figure 9).
Spawning incidence in D-1 and D-2 Tanks during 2006
80
70
31.0
30.5
Eggs
Temp
30.0
Eggs (ml)
29.5
50
29.0
40
28.5
28.0
30
27.5
Temperature (C)
60
20
27.0
10
26.5
26.0
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Period (m onth)
Figure 10. Natural spawning of cultured broodstock in relation to tank water temperature during 2006.
77
Spawning in D-1 and D-2 in relation to temperature in 2007
90
30.5
Eggs
Temp
80
30.0
70
Eggs (ml)
50
29.0
40
28.5
30
Temperature (C)
29.5
60
28.0
20
27.5
10
0
27.0
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Period
Figure 11. Natural spawning of cultured broodstock in relation to tank water temperature during 2007.
The quantity of eggs obtained per day varied from 3ml to 65ml during August 2006 and
varied from 8ml to 78ml during July 2007 (Figure 8). During the 2006 and 2007 spawning
periods the water temperature ranged from 27.5-30.5oC. Peak spawning was mostly
associated with water temperatures of 29.0-30.0oC (Figure 10,11). During this natural
spawning period, all the collected eggs from the brood stock holding tanks were unfertilized.
The natural spawning of cultured brood stock originated from 2004 hatchery produced
juveniles, continued through 2008 with no fertilized eggs. However in June 2009, some
fertilized eggs with embryonic development and egg hatching was observed from the natural
spawning of the cultured brood stock originated from 2005 and 2007 hatchery produced
juveniles kept in a broodstock tank (Plate 15). This shows the possibility of obtaining
fertilized eggs from natural spawning of cultured brood stock of silver pomfret, similar to
other marine fish species.
Hormonal Induction of Cultured Brood Stock

During August 2007, induced spawning of the fish using hormones was initiated. The
selection of females for hormone induction was based on the swelling of belly (Plate 16). For
induced breeding of silver pomfret, lyophilized human chorionic gonadotrophin (HCG) was
used at a dose of 1000-2000 IU/kg body weight of fish. The required HCG was procured
under the brand name Choriomon 5000 IU produced by IBSA Institute of Biochemique SA
6903, Lugano 3, Switzerland. Both female and males were injected in the morning between
0630-0700h (Plate 17).
78
Plate 15. Embryonic development and hatching of silver pomfret eggs obtained from natural spawning
of cultured brood stock in June 2009.
Plate 16. Selection of cultured brood stock for hormonal induction.
79
Plate 17. Administration of HCG in cultured silver pomfret.
The injected fish were kept in two 3m3 capacity indoor hatchery tanks for observation
and spawning. The tanks were provided with egg collection nets (Plate 18).
Plate 18. Egg collection tray with egg collection net fixed in the hatchery tank during hormone
induction trials.
After the first injection a second dose was followed after 24h interval, if there is no egg
development during the first injection. During 2008 spawning season, in addition to using
HCG, the hormone LH-RH(a) procured from Argent Laboratories, USA, was used at 100
and 200g/kg fish body weight. Two trials were carried out with 100g/kg and one trial was
carried out with 200g/kg. Six trials were carried out using HCG. Table 6 shows the results
obtained during the hormone induction trials. During the 2007 and 2008 spawning period, 24
80
females administered HCG at 1 IU/g, completed egg development and the spawning
percentage varied between 11.1% to 66.7%. During August 2008, administration of HCG at
1.5 IU/g in six females resulted in spawning of 50% of fish treated.
Table 6. Induced Spawning of Silver Pomfret during 2007 and 2008
Period
Aug 07
Aug 07
Aug 07
Sep 07
Jul 08
Aug 08
July 08
Aug 08
Aug 08
Treatment
HCG (IU/g)
LH-RH (g/kg)
1.0
2.0
2.0
1.0
1.0
1.5
-
100
100
200
Nos.
Size (g)
3
3
6
6
9
6
6
2
1
437-537
431-534
386-472
369-592
483-749
356-599
466-700
534-742
415- 450
Spawning
No.
2
3
2
3
1
3
2
0
0
66.7
100.0
33.3
50.0
11.1
50.0
33.3
0.0
0.0
One trial using HCG at 2 IU/g August 2007 for three females each in two replicates
resulted in egg development and spawning of two females after the second injection in the
first tank. This was equivalent to 66% spawning. In the second tank three females were
injected with HCG at 2 IU/g resulted in egg development and spawning of all the fish
(100%). The results showed that 66-100% of females receiving HCG at 2 IU/g developed
fully matured ovary and spawned. The ovary development and spawning was significantly
low (P<0.05) in females receiving HCG at 1 IU/g, showing that administration of HCG at 2
IU/g fish body weight is effective in induced spawning of the silver pomfret. Normally the
females after receiving the second injection were having fully developed ovary by 1500h and
running eggs were observed before 1630h (Plate 19). During the trials, the females released
the eggs naturally in the tanks between 1500-1530h without stripping. The eggs were not
fertilized even though the males were present in the tanks at the time of spawning. In order to
obtain fertilized eggs, females with running eggs were stripped as well as the males to obtain
fertilized eggs. Stripping of these spawners during hormone induced breeding enabled to
achieve fertilized eggs and hatching larvae (Plate 20). The results on the induced spawning of
silver pomfret shows that it is possible to obtain fertilized eggs using HCG at 2 IU/g body
weight rather than using it at 1 IU/g body weight for breeding the fish.
81
Plate 19. Female with fully developed ovary after administration of HCG.
Plate 20. Hatching of larvae from hormone induced breeding.
The investigations also show that during induced spawning, females could release the
eggs naturally in the holding tank however the eggs were not fertilized due to the inactive
males. The results showed that stripping the males and females during induced spawning
ensure fertilization of the eggs and hatching of larvae. Further investigations are required to
improve the egg fertilization and hatching rates as well as in enhancing the milt production in
male.
The research carried out over the years till to date on the production and breeding of
silver pomfret has achieved the following:
The research has paved the way in developing hatchery larval rearing techniques for this
economically important new candidate species for aquaculture;
Current hatchery procedures based on egg collection from wild spawners for mass
production of fingerlings;
Present grow-out production and growth studies for this species are based on tank culture
system and it shows the possibility of achieving marketable size fish within 20 months of
culture period under Kuwaits environmental conditions;
82
Temperature dependent growth of silver pomfret shows that there is a possibility to

increase the growth rate and reduce the growth period, if the culture water temperature prevail
25-30oC;
The studies show the possibility to achieve natural spawning of the cultured brood stocks
under tank culture conditions; and
The studies show the possibility of hormone induced breeding of cultured silver pomfret
that shall pave the way for mass production of fertilized eggs.
CHALLENGES TO RESOLVE
The overall objective should be refinements of techniques towards production of large
quantities of fertilized eggs either through natural spawning of the cultured brood stocks or
through hormonal induction that could be applicable for commercial hatchery operation. Mass
production of fertilized eggs to obtain newly hatched larvae is constrained by inadequate milt
production in the cultured males, availability of less number of females in the population for
spawning as well as low fertilization and egg hatching rates. Attention should be diverted to
resolve these issues through enhancement of brood stock feed, ensuring the availability of
DHA and other essential nutrients in the feed to improve the condition factor of the cultured
brood stocks. Further investigations also should focus on cryopreservation of milt for
achieving egg fertilization during spawning. Studies also should focus on evaluating other
commercially available hormones for induced spawning of the fish to achieve optimum egg
production.
The considerable improvement in the growth of cultured silver pomfret is due to the
changes made in the feed with feed additives (Almatar and James 2007) as well as feed
management practices in which the feed was offered in trays instead of hand feeding. Further
refinements in formulated feed is required to enhance the growth rate of juveniles under
grow-out culture conditions. This include application of feed probiotics, immune-stimulants
and growth promoters in the feed.
The grow-out production trials carried out so far was based on land-based tank culture
system for this species. Current studies focus on using recirculation aquaculture systems
(RAS) to overcome the winter effect in Kuwait as well as to achieve maximum production in
unit space and time. Since conventional commercial aquaculture ventures use sea-cages for
the production of desirable species for grow-out production, it is required to study the growth
of this species under such culture conditions.
Considering the high growth of females in the population, further research is required to
assess the possibility of sex reversal in silver pomfret to obtain all females through genetic
manipulation (Mair et al. 1997), environmental stress (Abucay et al. 1999) and hormonal
induction (Nakamura et al. 2003; Bhandari et al. 2005).
83
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Almatar, S. M., Al-Abdul-Elah, K. and Abu-Rezq, T. (2000). Larval developmental stages of
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Almatar, S.M., Lone, K.P., Abu-Rezeq, T. and Yousef, A.A.( 2004). Spawning frequency,
fecundity, egg weight and spawning type of silver pomfret, Pampus argenteus
(Euphrasen) (Stomateidae), in Kuwait waters. Journal of Applied Ichthyology, 20, 176188.
Almatar,S.M. and James, C.M.( 2007). Performance of different types of commercial feeds
On the growth of juvenile silver pomfret, Pampus argenteus, under tank culture
conditions. Journal of the World Aquaculture Society, 38,550-556.
Azad, I.S., Al-Marzouk, A. and Khalid Abdul-Elah, M. (2009). Development and evaluation
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Bhandari, R.K., Alam, M.A., Higa, M., Soyano, K. and Nakamura, M. 2005. Evidence that
estrogen regulates the sex change of honeycomb grouper (Epinephelus merra), a
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303, 497-503.
Cruz, E.M., Almatar, S., Abdul- Elah, K. and Al-Yaqout, A. (2000). Preliminary studies on
the performance and feeding behavior of silver pomfret (Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen)
fingerlings fed with commercial feed and reared in fiberglass tanks. Asian Fisheries
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Cruz, E. M., Almatar, S. M. and Al-Sabbah, I. (2003). Final Report, Culture of Zobaidy,
Pampus argenteus, in Kuwait, Phase I. Volume V: Preliminary Study of the Growth
Performance and Feeding Behavior of Zobaidy Reared in Tanks. Aquaculture, Fisheries
and Marine Environmental Department, Food Resources and Marine Sciences Division,
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait. KISR 6910.
Dadzie, S., Abou-Siedo, F. and Al-Qattan, E.(2000).The food and feeding habits of the silver
pomfret, Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen), in Kuwait waters. Journal of Applied
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Duremdez, R., Al-Marzouk, A., Quasem, J.A., Al-Harbi, A. and Gharabally, H. ( 2004).
Isolation of Streptococcus agalactiae from cultured silver pomfret, Pampus argenteus
(Euphrasen), in Kuwait. Journal of Fish Diseases 27,307-310.
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Durumdez, R., AlMarzouk, A. and Al-Zenki, S. 2002. Characterization of -haemolytic Group B
Streptococcus agalactiae in cultured seabream, Sparus auratus and wild mullet, Liza
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Fernandez-Palacios, H., Izquierdo, M. S., Robaina, L., Valencia, A., Salhi, M. and Vergara, J.
M. 1995. Effects of n 3 HUFA level in broodstock diets on egg quality of gilthead
seabream (Sparus auratus L.). Aquaculture, 132, 325-337.
Haedrich, R. L. (1967). The stromateoid fishes: Systematics and classification. Bulletin of
theMuseum of Comparative Zoology, 135, 31-39.
Hossain, M. A., Almatar, S.M., James, C.M., Al-Yaqout, A. and Yaseen, S.B. (2010).
Seaonal variation in fatty acid composition of silver pomfret, Pampus argenteus
(Euphrasen) in Kuwait waters. Journal of Applied Ichthyology. DOI: 10.1111/J-1439, 17.
85
James, C.M. and Almatar,S.M. (2007). A breakthrough in the spawning of domesticated

Silver pomfret. Aquaculture Asia Pacific, 3 (1), 26-28.
Mair,G.C., Abucay, J.S., Skibinski, D.O.F., Abella, T.A. and Beardmore,J.A. (1997). Genetic
manipulation of sex ratio for the large scale production of all male tilapia Oreochromis
niloticus L. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, 54, 396-404.
Nakamura, M., Ramji, K.B. and Higa, M. (2003). The role of estrogens play on sex ratio in
Oreochromis niloticus L. Aquaculture, 173,219-234.
Oda, T. and Namba, Y. (1982). Attempt to artificial fertilization and rearing of larvae of silver
pomfret, Pampus argenteus. Bulletin of Fisheries Experimental Station, Okayama
Prefecture, 1981, 195-197.
Pati. S. (1984). Possibilities of aquaculture of silver pomfret, Pampus argenteus (Euphrasen)
along the Balasore coast. Proceeding of the Symposium on Coastal Aquaculture, India,
782-786.
Sommer T.R., Potts, W.T. and Morrissy, N.M. (1991). Utilization of microalgal astaxanthin
by rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss). Aquaculture, 94,79-88.
Tang, W.C. (1987). Chinese medicinal materials from the sea. Abstracts of Chinese
Medicine1(4), 571-600.
Torrissen, O.J. and Christiansen, R. (1995). Requirements of carotenoids in fish diets. Journal
of Applied Ichthyology, 11,225-230.
Watanabe T., Arakawa T., Kitajima C. and Fujita S. (1984). Effect of nutritional quality of
broodstock diets on reproduction of red sea bream. Bulletin of Japanese Society of
Scientific Fisheries 50, 495-501.
Watanabe, T. And V. Kiron. (1995). Broodstock management and nutritional approaches for
quality offsprings in the Red Sea Bream. In: Bromage, N.R., Roberts R.J., (Eds.),
Broodstock Management and Egg and Larval Quality. Cambridge University Press,

ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 7
SOME METOCEAN ASPECTS FOR THE SELECTION

OF SUITABLE MARICULTURE SITES
IN THE ARABIAN GULF
S. Neelamani
Coastal and Air Pollution Department, Environment and
Urban Development Division
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research
Safat, Kuwait
ABSTRACT
Selection of suitable sites for marine aquaculture activity is very important. The site
selection is based on many aspects like the wave climate, current intensity, tidal variation,
quality of marine water, possibility for better flushing of the ambiant water, water
temperature and salinity, influence of the discharges from power , desalination and
municipal wastes, ease of accessibility of the aquaculture cage, ease of availability of
suitable manpower, machines, materials, electric power etc. The catch of different types
of wild fishes from the Arabian Gulf water is not sufficient to meet the requirements of
the populations living around the Gulf. Hence, most of the Arabian Gulf countries import
significant percentage of the fish requirements. Developments of Mariculture in the
Arabian Gulf may reduce the dependency of the import of fish varieties. The mariculture
must be economical, efficient and pollution free. It is hence essential to select suitable
sites from different influencing environmental aspects.
This paper describes the main environmental parameters of the Arabian Gulf, the
ways to use the marine power for aeration and other purposes of the aquaculture
activities, techniques for reducing the wave and current induced forces on the cages and
mooring lines which will help in reducing the cost of installation of aquaculture systems.
Phone : +965 2498 9770, Fax : +965 2498 9759, Email : nsubram@kisr.edu.kw
88
S. Neelamani
INTRODUCTION
Aquaculture is nothing but the raising and harvesting of fresh and saltwater plants and
animals. The most economically important form of aquaculture is fish farming, an industry
that accounts for an ever increasing share of world fisheries production. Formerly a business
for small farms, it is now also pursued by large agribusinesses, and by the early 2000s it had
become almost as significant a source of fish as the wild fisheries (Columbia Encyclopedia,
2008). Successful aquaculture takes into consideration the biology of the aquatic species
(feeding, water flow and temperature needs, disease prevention) and engineering design
(water source and water quality study, pond and tank containment systems, water filtration
and aeration) as well as issues pertinent to any business. Common products of aquaculture are
catfish, tilapia (St. Peter's fish), trout, crawfish, oysters, shrimp, and salmon, and tropical fish
for aquariums. Some are raised in huge freshwater tanks or ponds; others require the running
water of rivers or streams. Saltwater species are often raised in saltwater ponds, in enclosed
bays, or in pens placed in coastal or deeper sea waters. There are potential environmental
problems associated with aquaculture.
Most of the fish that are raised are genetically altered or hybridized for quick growth. If
they escape into the wild, they compete against and can crowd out smaller or less voracious
native fish. Confined fish can become a breeding ground for diseases or pests, which can be
transmitted in some cases to wild fish. In addition, the large amounts of water that are used in
aquaculture become laden with fish feces and unconsumed food that, if not removed through
treatment or used as agricultural fertilizer, can add injurious amounts of nitrogen and
phosphorus to a river or stream when the water is returned to it. Development of improved
recirculating-tank technologies, however, may lead to a reduction in such pollution threats, as
well as the spread of aquaculture to areas where large volumes of water are not available in
the environment. The practice of aquaculture dates back to 1000 BC in China. It is growing
worldwide, in part in response to overfishing and the deterioration of the world's fisheries and
concerns about the effects of pollution on seafood.
In the United States, aquaculture is also a response to the increased demand for fish and
shellfish as a result of changes in the nation's eating habits. Cattle require 8-10 pounds (3.64.5 kg) of feed per pound of live weight. Poultry require 3 pounds (1.4 kg) of feed per pound
of live weight. Fish, because they are poikilothermic ("cold-blooded"), only require 2 pounds
(0.9 kg) or less of feed per pound of live weight. No energy is required to maintain body
temperature. This is one of the motivations for increase in aquaculture activity worldwide.
The design and development of effective aquacultural systems for marine and freshwater
facilities is one of the scientific requirements for successful aquacultural activities. A basis
understanding of marine environments is necessary for selection of suitable sites and cost
effective design of aquaculture facilities.
Presence of ranges of magnitudes of waves, currents, winds etc are beneficial as well as
problem for the aquacultural activities. The design of cages in the open sea is mainly
governed by extreme wave activities Neelamani et al. (2007). Many different types of cages
are used for growing fish in the sea but within a control volume (Figures 1 to 3). Most of the
cages have the frame works made out of load bearing members like steel members covered by
porous skins, which are made out of polyethylene or nylon wires woven with suitable pores to
suit the size of the fish planned to be raised inside the cage.
Some Metocean Aspects for the Selection of Suitable Mariculture Sites
89
Figure 1. Dome type cage.
Figure 2. Submerged cone type cage.
The cage themselves experience loads due to the action of waves and currents and
handling loads. The cages are relatively retained in position using systematic mooring
arrangements. Single point mooring (Figure 4) is widely used. However, multipoint moorings
may be required when the size of the cages is becoming larger and the environmental loads
due to waves and currents are higher.
This paper highlights the marine environmental conditions of Arabian Gulf like waves
and currents which influence the aquaculture activities. Also ideas to protect the aquaculture
systems from marine environmental forces and the ways of converting the wave energy into
aeration of aquaculture ponds are provided.
90
S. Neelamani
Figure 3. Exposed circular shaped cage.
Figure 4. Typical single point mooring arrangement of a cage.
91
MARINE ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITION OF ARABIAN GULF

The Arabian Gulf (Figure 5), a marginal sea in a typical arid zone, is an arm of the Indian
Ocean. It lies between the latitude of 24o -30o N. The gulf covers an area of 226,000 square
km. It is 990 km long and its width ranges from 56 to 338 km. It has a total volume of 7000 to
8400 km3 of seawater (Emergy (1956), Pursar and Seibold (1973), El-Gindy and Hegazi
(1996)).
Figure 5. Arabian Gulf (Source: Google Earth).
The entire basin lies upon the continental shelf. The average water depth of the Arabian
Gulf is about 35.0 m. But depths more than 107 m occur in some places. The gulf's water
depth increases in the south east direction. The Gulf is connected to the Gulf of Oman and the
Arabian Sea through the Strait of Hormuz, which is 56 km wide and with an average water
depth of 107 m and allows water exchange between the Arabian Gulf and Arabian Sea.
Further details of the Oceanographic Atlas of Arabian Gulf can be obtained from AlYamani et al. (2004). In the Arabian Gulf, in general the dominant wind direction is
northwesterly (Elshorbagy et al. (2006)).
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S. Neelamani
Figure 6. Locations in the Arabian Gulf waters for extreme wave analysis.
Design, Significant Wave Height and Mean Wave Period for Aquaculture
Cages in the Arabian Gulf
Safe and optimal design of the structure components of aquaculture cages in the Arabian
Gulf need the extreme wave information like extreme significant wave height and the
corresponding mean wave period. The extreme wave analysis is carried out for a total of 38
different locations in the Arabian Gulf as shown in Figure 6. The longitude, latitude and the
water depth of each location is given in Table 1.
Detailed extreme wave analysis is carried out for all these locations (Neelamani et al.
(2007)). The probable extreme significant wave height for different return periods are shown
in Figure7. Also, a plot showing the predicted extreme significant wave height for 100 year
return period in the Arabian Gulf at different locations is given in Figure 8 for quick
reference.

Table 1. Longitude, Latitude and local water depth at 38 different locations
in the Arabian Gulf waters
Location
Longitude
Latitude
Water depth
Remarks/Nearest Country
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
(oE)
49.2
49.1
49.6
53.4
54.9
55.9
54.0
48.7
49.9
50.8
51.8
51.9
52.9
54.4
55.2
55.9
50.9
50.6
50.3
49.3
48.8
49.2
49.7
50.2
50.8
51.5
52.2
53.2
54.4
55.5
52.4
51.6
50.9
50.4
49.9
48.7
52.0
53.4
(oN)
29.9
28.1
27.5
26.7
26.5
26.6
26.4
28.2
26.9
26.4
25.7
24.4
25.2
24.7
25.3
25.9
26.2
25.4
25.9
27.6
29.8
29.2
28.6
27.9
27.3
26.7
26.2
25.8
25.8
26.3
27.2
27.6
28.4
28.9
29.7
29.1
25.3
24.9
(m)
15
15
15
61
11
31
55
9
16
12
19
10
16
10
16
20
9
17
20
9
10
33
45
48
62
39
44
54
59
57
79
22
42
44
24
19
15
20
Iran
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
Iran
Iran
Iran
Iran
Saudi Arabia
Saudi Arabia
Bahrain
Qatar
UAE
UAE
UAE
UAE
UAE
North west of Qatar
South west of Qatar
In between Saudi Arabia and Bahrain
Saudi Arabia
In between Kuwait-Iran
In between Saudi Arabia-Iran
In between Bahrain-Iran
In between Qatar-Iran
In between Qatar-Iran
In between UAE-Iran
In between UAE-Iran
In between UAE-Iran
Iran
Iran
Iran
Iran
Iran
Kuwait
East of Qatar
UAE
93
94
S. Neelamani
Figure 7. Predicted extreme significant wave heights in the Arabian Gulf waters for different return
periods based on Weibull distribution.
Figure 8. Predicted extreme significant wave heights for 100 year return periods in the Arabian Gulf
waters.
95
In general the extreme waves on the territorial waters of Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, Bahrain,
Qatar and UAE are smaller compared to the Iran's territorial waters and in the Arabian Gulf
midway between the longitudinal boundaries of both the sides.
If we consider the whole Arabian Gulf, then the predicted 100 year significant wave
varies from 2.2 m (in the Saudi Arabian territorial waters) to 7.0 m (midway between UAE
and Iran). Even on the longitudinal direction of the Arabian Gulf along its midway, the 100
year return period ways are of the order of 5 m in the Northern part of the Gulf and is about
6.0 to 7.0 m in the southern part of the Gulf.
This could be due to the higher water depths and longer fetch length available for the
southern part of the gulf for the North West winds. Design of aquaculture cages around these
locations need to consider these points for safe and economic designs. The territorial waters
off UAE coast, the 100 year return period significant waves are of the order of 5.0 to 5.5 m.
The complete picture of the predicted extreme waves for different return periods in the
Arabian Gulf can be used for economic and safe design of the cages.
The wave periods are also very essential for the design. This is because, the dynamic
response of the cages depends on the wave periods. It is advisable to design the cages so that
they do not encounter resonance, especially during extreme wave actions. The mean wave
period and the significant wave heights are correlated. A typical plot showing the relationship
between the significant wave height and mean wave period for location 23 is provided in
Figure 9. The best fit polynomial equation and the coefficient of regression is given in the
plot. For all the 38 locations in the Arabian Gulf, similar exercise is carried out to obtain the
mean wave periods for different return periods, viz. 12, 25, 50, 100 and 200 years and the
mean wave period obtained is provided in Figure 10. It can be seen that the mean wave period
range from 4.5 s to 8.1 sec when all the locations and all the return period range of 12 to 200
years are considered together.
Figure 9. Relationship between the mean wave period and significant wave height for location 23 in the
Arabian Gulf.
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S. Neelamani
Figure 10. The predicted mean wave period for significant wave height obtained based on Weibull for
12, 25, 50, 100 and 200 year return periods.
In fact, one can see that for a selected location, the difference between the mean wave
period for 12 year return period and 200 year return period is only of the order of 0.5 sec,
where as the location has very significant effect on change of Mean wave period. For
example, for location 8 (Saudi Arabian territorial waters), the mean wave period is in between
4.5 and 5 sec for return periods in the range of 12 to 200 years, whereas for location 28
(Offshore in between UAE and Iran), the mean wave period is in between 7.5 and 8 sec for
return periods in the range of 12 to 200 years. This aspect is very important in the design of
ocean structures which are very sensitive for wave periods (Like the wave transmission
characteristics of floating breakwater, which is very sensitive for wave period). For clarity
and quick reference, Figure 11 is provided, which shows the mean wave period at different
locations in the Arabian Gulf for 100 year return period event.
Tide Induced Currents in the Arabian Gulf

The magnitude of currents induced by the tidal variations at any location in the Arabian
Gulf is needed in the selection of location for installing the aquaculture cage. High currents
are beneficial for removing the wastes generated by the aquaculture activities like drifting the
residual feeds and excreta of fish and for self cleaning of cage surroundings. However, high
current causes significant forces on the cage and mooring lines. A detailed study by Rakha et
al. (2006) shows the maximum tidal current at different locations in the Arabian Gulf. The
northern part of the Arabian Gulf in Kuwaiti territorial water, north-western part of Qatar, and
the entrance of Arabian Gulf have currents of the magnitude 0.7 m/s and more (Figure 12).
Mooring systems and the porous nets covering the steel members of the cages need to be
designed for such current velocities in these locations.
Figure 11. Mean Wave Period in the Arabian Gulf for 100 Year Return Period.
Figure 12. Maximum Tidal Currents for the Arabian Gulf (Rakha et al., 2006).
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S. Neelamani
Tidal Fluctuations in the Arabian Gulf

Rakha et al. (2006) has carried out a detailed study on the tidal variation in the Arabian
Gulf. The highest tidal variation in the Arabian Gulf occurs at the northern part of the Gulf
(Figure 13). This means that the cage has to move up and down by 3.0 to 4.0 m. Though this
is not an issue in the design of cage itself, but it is necessary for the design of the mooring
arrangements. Enough slack in the mooring line must be provided to take care of the vertical
excursions.
Figure 13. Maximum Range in Water Level for the Arabian Gulf (Rakha et al. 2006).
Protection of Aquaculture Cages against Severe Wave Forces and Aeration using the
Marine Wave Energy
Cages installed at locations, where the design significant wave height is less than say 3.0
m needs no additional protection against wave induced forces. However, locations offshore of
UAE, where the 100 year return period significant wave can exceed 6 to 7 m, it is advisable to
go for structural protection of the cages. These are all floating breakwaters and they have
systems to convert wave energy into pneumatic power. This concept, called mighty whale is
already tried in countries like Japan (Figure 14) and the results are encouraging.
The locally available wave energy is used to aerate the fish ponds and fish cages to
increase the oxygen level in the water and hence creating a healthy environment for the fish
growth. There are many merits in this proposal. Wave power can be used to compress air in
chambers and use them for aeration of fish ponds (Figure 15). Waves of 1.0 m height and 8.0
Sec periods have about 4.4 kW of power per m width of the coast and hence, the power can
be generated and used for various activities of the cage culture.
99
Figure 14. The concept of aeration of fish ponds using array of floating wave power structure, called
Might Whale, the Japanese Concept.
Figure 15. Schematic sectional view of the Floating OWC wave barrier for supply of air for aeration of
fish cage and also for reducing the waves around the cage area.
The floating wave energy caisson also protects the aquaculture cages against severe wave
attacks (Figure 16). The wave transmission of less than 20% can be achieved by proper
design of the floating wave power caisson (See Figure 17).
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S. Neelamani
Figure 17. Transmission coefft. as a function of relative width of caisson.
In Figure 17, 'B' is the width of the floating breakwater, 'L' is wave length and Kt is the
wave transmission coefficient, which is defined as the ratio of transmitted wave height to the
incident wave height. In the Arabian Gulf most of the waves occur with wave length of 30 to
40 m. For Kt of 0.2, the B/L value is about 0.2, and hence width B of about 6 to 8 m of the
floating breakwater will do. Hence for a design wave of 5.0 m, the transmitted wave will be
about 1.0 m and hence significant amount of investments can be saved in the design of the
fish cage and the mooring arrangements.
CONCLUSION
Appropriate selection of locations for installing the cages for marine aquaculture is one of
the important criteria for the success in this business. The extreme wave activity governs the
strength and size of components of the cages and mooring systems. The design physical
marine environmental conditions like extreme waves, high currents and tidal variations in the
Arabian Gulf are revealed in this article. The offshore waters of UAE experience waves more
than 6.0 m for 100 year return period. Hence cages at these locations must be stronger than
that in the Kuwaiti territorial waters, where 100 year return period waves are in the range of 3
to 4 m only. High tidal variations, with tidal fluctuations of up to 4.0 m and above occur in
the northern part of Arabian Gulf and hence mooring arrangements should have enough
slacking in order to take care of the vertical excursions of the cages without causing undue
tensions in the mooring lines. High currents of the order of more than 0.7 m/s are at locations
around the northern part of the Arabian Gulf in Kuwaiti territorial water, northwestern part of
Qatar, and the entrance of Arabian Gulf.
Mooring systems and the porous nets covering the steel members of the cages need to be
designed for such current velocities in these locations. The merits of these high currents for
101
natural drifting the disintegrating residual feeds and excreta of fish and for self cleaning of
cage need to be appreciated though high current causes significant forces on the cages and
mooring lines. The natural wave energy available at different locations can be used for
aeration purposes at the expense of placing floating wave energy breakwaters and the merits
of force and stress reduction on the cage structures need to be recognized. The factual
physical oceanographic information provided in this manuscript will be of use for selection of
suitable locations in the Arabian Gulf for cage culture installations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The author thanks Kuwait Foundation for Advancement of Science for sponsoring the
projects, from where the results of some of the figures are used. The author is thankful for
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Kuwait for providing all the infrastructure facilities
to carry out this work. The author is grateful o his college Dr. Karim Rakha for permitting to
use the results of his studies on tides and currents.
REFERENCES
Al-Yamani, F.Y., Bishop, J., Ramadhan, E., Al-Husaini, M. and Al-Ghadban, A. (2004).
Oceanographic Atlas of Kuwait's Waters, Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research,
Kuwait, 203 pp.
Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth edition, 2008.
El-Gindy, A. and Hegazi, M. (1996). Atlas on Hydrographic Conditions in the Arabian Gulf
and the Upper Layer of the Gulf of Oman, University of Qatar, 170 pp.
Elshorbagy, W., Azam, M.H. and Taguchi, K. (2006). "Hydrodynamic Characterization and
Modeling of the Arabian Gulf", Journal of Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean
Engineering, ASCE, 132 (1), 47-56.
Emery, K.O. (1956). Sediments and Water of the Persian Gulf, Bull. Amer. Ass. Petrol. Geol.,
40 (10), 2354-2383.
Neelamani, S., Al-Salem, K. and Rakha, K. (2006). Extreme Waves for Kuwaiti Territorial
Waters, Ocean Engineering, Pergaman Press, UK, 34 (10), 1496-1504.
Purser, B.H., and Seibold, E. (1973). The Principal Environmental Factors Influencing
Holocene Sedimentation and Diagenesis in the Persian Gulf. In: "Persian Gulf", Purser,
B.H. (ed), Berlin, pp.1-9.
Rakha, K., Al-Salem, K., Neelamani, S., Al-Banaa, K. Al-Nassar, W., Al-Ragum, A., AlGamily, H., and Al-Othman, A. (2006). Interactive coastal information system for
Kuwaits territorial waters, Phase I: Hindcasting of waves, water levels, and currents.
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, EC026C. Final Report KISR 8568.

ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 8
INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVE OF AQUACULTURE

IN THE MIDDLE EAST - STATUS AND ISSUES
C. Regunathan
Project Manager, Al-Oula Marine Consulting Company, Kuwait
ABSTRACT
Aquaculture in the Middle East and North Africa is picking up momentum with
many Government initiatives. Several countries have a subsidy scheme for different
investments in the field of aquaculture. Middle East countries such as Bahrain, Oman,
Saudi Arabia, UAE and Yemen have gained momentum. Iran too has been vigorously
working towards achieving growth in this food sector. Though being a pioneer in the
field of aquaculture research (Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research), Kuwait has
lagged behind in the process of commercialization of the aquaculture production sector,
mostly due to the lack of interest among the private investors. This chapter is aimed at
giving an overview of the aquaculture activity in the Middle East and the industry
perspective of the sector.
INTRODUCTION
Increasing World population has raised the demand for food, including aquatic ones.
Meanwhile, the capture fisheries production, which was the major supplier, has leveled off
globally for some years, now at about 90-100 million metric tons (mmt) and recorded 92 mmt
in 2006 (FAO, 2009). Sustainability issues do not allow further intensification of fishing in
these areas. The problem is further exacerbated by both anthropogenic (overfishing, bycatch,
pollutants, habitat destruction, damming, poaching, piracy) and natural influences (harmful
algal blooms, global warming).
Presently, aquaculture has been found the best alternative to fill the gap between supply
and demand for both food (fishes, crustaceans, molluscs, seaweed) and non-food (ornamental
E-mail: drregu@gmail.com
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C. Regunathan
fish, pearl oyster) aquatic products. In this background, World aquaculture has grown
tremendously during the last fifty years from a production of less than a million metric tons
(mmt) in the early 1950s to 51.7 mmt by 2006. World aquaculture has grown at an average
annual rate of 8.8 % from 1970 to 2004 against 2.8 % of livestock production during the same
period (FAO, 2009).
In 2006, globally, aquaculture contributed 47 % (51.65 mmt) to the total foodfish
production of 110.4 mmt. (FAO, 2009). Aquaculture now accounts for 76 % of global
freshwater finfish production and 65 % of mollusc and diadromous fish production, 42 % of
crustaceans and 70% of shrimps and prawns. It has been predicted that, in order to maintain
the current level of per caput consumption at the minimum, global annual aquaculture
production should touch 65 mmt by 2030, considering the fact that 2 billion people will be
added to world population (FAO, 2009).
In this report, present aquaculture status and needs for future growth of nine Middle East
countries is dealt with. The countries include Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi
Arabia, United Arab Emirates (UAE) and Yemen. Except for Yemen all other countries are
members of RECOFI (Regional Commission for Fisheries) of FAO. Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman,
Qatar, Saudi and UAE are members of Gulf Cooperative Council (GCC).
As the case with many of the fishing regions, Middle East too is facing the fish short
supply crisis attributed to declining marine landings. For example, Kuwait fishery has
declined from 7,752 t in 1994 to 4,373 t in 2008. Similarly, UAE fish landings dropped from
108,600 t to about 74,075 t in the same period. Yemen produced 228,116 t of fish in 2003, but
fell down in 2008 to only 127,132 t of fish (FAO FishStat Plus, 2009).
In Iraq, combinations of factors have led to considerable reduction in marshland fish
catch. The factors include upstream dams in Turkey and Syria, the Iran-Iraq war in the mid1980s and the building of the drainage system in the 1990s that diminished the flow of water
and nutrients into the marshlands (Woiwode, 2005).
The countries that have reported increase or consistency in fish landings over recent years
too report one or many of the following problems either as existing or anticipated. This
includes fluctuation in annual landings, low CPUE (catch per unit effort), touching or
crossing maximum sustainable level, plummeting landings of commercially important
species, destruction of fish breeding grounds and potential future landing reduction etc.
Over 60 % reduction in landings of orange-spotted grouper, Epinephelus coioides in
Bahrain over the last two decades (in 1166 t in 1986 vs 307 t in 2008) and reported Caspian
Sturgeons stock decline (legal catch drop from 22,800 tons in 1984 to 760 tons in 2004)
(Pourkazemi, 2006) and extinction threat to their stocks by 2021 (http://www.sturgeon.de/
News/news_index.html) are enough examples to explain the exigency.
The higher demand outstripping supply, skyrocketing fish prices, dwindling landings of
commercial marine species, export earnings, health benefits associated with seafood
consumption, employment opportunities, food security, poverty alleviation etc. in part or
cohesively has made the countries realize significance of aquaculture and pushed them to
devote attention to the sector.
105
CHARACTERISTICS, BRIEF HISTORY

AND DEVELOPMENT LANDMARKS
Aquaculture development has been relatively a recent event in the Middle East that began
earnest in 1980s and is still in its infancy in most of the countries. Aquatic foods (fishes,
crustaceans and molluscs) are not a staple diet in these countries. However, per capita fish
consumption has been increasing due to increasing population, fish being cheaper protein
than other animal protein sources (poultry, red meat) and awareness of health benefits related
to fishfood consumption etc.
a. Characteristics of the Region

The Middle East region is characterized by extremes of climatic conditions with an air
temperature ranging from about 48C in summer to even 0 C in winter. Seawater
temperature ranges from 35 C in summer to 16 C in winter. Seawater salinity ranges from
39 to 43 ppt. Average annual rainfall is less than 15 cm and with virtually no runoff flow
except in the northern part of Arabian (=Persian) Gulf.
The coastal length in these countries ranges from just 58 kms with Iraq to 2,440 kms with
Iran. These countries also record varying per capita fish consumption with UAE recording the
maximum of 33 kgs and Iraq the least of 1 kg. Seafood is exported and imported by all these
countries with the exception of Iraq where the export quantity was nil in 2007. Selfsufficiency with fisheries sector also differs between countries, for example while it is 100 %
with UAE, it is only 43% in the case of Saudi Arabia in 2005 (Saudi MOA Report, 2006).
The countries together represent a total population of more than 148 million, with Iran,
Saudi and Iraq accounting the maximum with over 65, 28 and 25 million respectively.
Another characteristic of Middle East is the high percentage of expatriate population (except
Iran and Iraq). The expat population is quite high in countries like UAE, Qatar (both > 80 %),
Kuwait (about 50 %), Bahrain (about 32.5 %), Saudi Arabia (about 20%) and Oman (about
17.5 %). The expat population influences fish preferences among population, so market
demand and value. This again influences the economic feasibility of culturing particular
species. Tilapia culture in Kuwait is targeted at meeting local Egyptian consumer demand.
Except for Iran, Iraq, Oman and Saudi Arabia, where freshwater aquaculture is prevalent,
in rest of the countries aquaculture is limited to brackishwater or seawater (mariculture). In
almost all countries the local population has limited fish preferences and so aquaculture is
more focused on these species. However, in some cases it is either to feed the expatriate
population or the export scope that dictates the industry. Both these factors have served as the
major reason for introduction of non-native species also.
b. Brief Aquaculture History

In all of these countries, government took the initiative to investigate the aquaculture
potential by setting up aquaculture research centers and hatcheries, funding research programs
etc. Once the culture potentiality is proven, commercial aquaculture sector started to take
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C. Regunathan
shape with investments flowing in from private sector. Even at that juncture, the support to
sector continued in one or many forms and included easy site leasing, tax relaxation, soft
loans, juvenile supply from own hatcheries, export incentive etc.
b.1. Bahrain
In Bahrain, applied scientific research in mariculture started in 1979 with the
establishment of National Mariculture Center (NMC) by Directorate of Marine Resources
with cooperation of FAO. The center is located at Ras Hayan on the South-Eastern coast and
has been working on the seed production of various finfishes and shrimp in its hatchery
facility. This led to successful mass production of fingerlings of rabbit fish (Siganus
canaliculatus), sobaity seabream (Sparidentex hasta), gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata),
mangrove red snapper (Lutjanus argentimaculatus), grouper (E. coioides), streaked rabbit fish
(Siganus javus) and shrimp (Penaeus semisulcatus). Cage culture trials in 1999 in the shallow
waters (9 m depth at the marine terminal of Bahrain Aluminum Factory) with six, 40 m
circumference cages was stopped after couple of years due to severe fouling, predator
problems and site related issues (Shams, 2009).
b.2. Iran
The first documented report on inland fish breeding in Iran dates back to 1922 (Mehrabi,
2002) at an Ichthyological center near the Caspian Sea. Serious efforts started with attempt to
culture rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) at Karaj, near Tehran in 1959 and with
establishment of carp culture research station in Guilan province in 1970. The Karaj unit
produced 3 million trout fingerlings using eggs imported from Denmark during 1965-1967.
Caspian Sea Salmon (Salmo trutta caspius) fingerlings were first produced in the same unit in
1967. The formation of Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization (IFRO) in
1971, bolstered aquaculture research on finfishes (warm and cold water) and shellfishes.
Between 1979 and 1989, several aquaculture centers capable of breeding trout were built.
Commercial trout farms came into existence only in 1981.
Though first commercial carp culture facility was established in 1969 with the support of
Romanian experts (Salehi, 2004), only since 1985 culture of carps (common carp Cyprinus
carpio, silver carp, Hypothalmichthys molitrix, grass carp Ctenopharyngodon idella and Big
head carp, Hypothalmichthys nobilis) has developed to commercial levels. Fingerlings of
Labeo rohita, an Indian carp, were imported to Guilan in 2004 to enrich the diversity of
cultured fish (http://www.briancoad.com/ Species%20 Accounts/cyprinidae.htm).
Attempts to culture of marketable size sturgeon (3-5 kg) in a pilot facility using
freshwater was initiated in 1990 and cage culture trials in 1992 (IFTRO, 1995). In 2001, a
private company in the north part of Iran started the first culture attempt with beluga sturgeon
(Huso huso) culture using brackish water. Cultivation of this species in earthen ponds in the
central Iranian desert at Bafqh near Yazd has been carried out. After six months at 16C and
11 salinity, the fish weighed 1100 g with a survival rate of 96% (IFRO, 2003). Commercial
sturgeon farming started only post 2005.
Iran has been seriously involved in hatchery production and ranching of number of fish
species either in the Oman Sea or Gulf or Caspian Sea. The candidates included sturgeons (H.
huso, Acipenser persicus, A. gueldenstaedtii, A. nudiventris, A. stellatus), yellowfin seabream
(Acanthopagrus latus), barbel (Barbus sharpeyi), pike-perch (Sander (=Stizostedion)
lucioperca), Caspian salmon (S. trutta caspius), shrimps (Fenneropenaeus indicus and P.
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semisulcatus) etc. Artificial breeding and restocking programs for five sturgeon species had
been ongoing in the southern part of the Caspian Sea since 1970s. According to Rajaby
(2008) over 3 billion of fish juveniles (including 219.8 m of sturgeons) and 130 million
shrimp juveniles have been searanched between 1993 and 2006.
The initial steps to set up shrimp culture in Iran emerged in Bushehr Province in 1976
with site selection activities by France Research Co. However only in 1987, the first shrimp
farm was established in Hormuzgan province. Preliminary studies were conducted on banana
shrimp (F. merguiensis), the green tiger prawn (P. semisulcatus) and the Indian white shrimp
(F. indicus) at Kolahi Fisheries Station and later in National Shrimp Culture Development
Center in south of Iran (Faizbakhsh and Arnason, 2004).Commercial shrimp (F. indicus)
culture activity has a short history only since 1991. Disease issues with native species culture
led to issuance of license to import exotic whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei)
broodstock since mid 2006.
Giant freshwater prawn (Macrobrachium rosenbergii) has been farmed in Iran for years.
Prawn larvae were caught from the Anzali Wetland and the Aras Dam reservoir and were
grown in nurseries before being transferred into grow-out ponds. The Sefid-Rud Fisheries
Research Site in Astaneh Ashrafiyeh near Rasht, as a pioneer of the industry, has set a 1,825
kilograms per hectare production record in 2006 (http://www.thefishsite.com/
fishnews/3216/freshwater-prawn-farming-gains-ground-in-northern-iran). Pilot scale pearl
oyster farming was initiated in Berkeh Khalaf Village, Qeshm Island in August 2001
(http://sgp.undp.org/web/projects/6643/aquaculture_of_pearl_by_the_local_community_of_b
erkeh_khalaf_village_qeshm_ island_ pearls_of_persian_.html). Early research with marine
cage culture was done in 1990 by Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organisation
(IFRTO) with some small experimental cages for rearing wild caught fish juveniles.
Understanding between the Iran Fisheries Organization (IFO) and a Norwegian company
(Refa Holding AS) led to establishment of a pilot cage farm in Qeshm island in 2005
(Shakouri, 2009). They consisted of six circular, 16 m diameter polyethylene floating cages
each with 1600 m3 volume. The farm has a production capacity of 180 t per annum. The farm
was used to rear local marine species like Sobaity seabream (S. hasta) and exotic gilthead
seabream (S. aurata). A second pilot farm was planned to be established in Bushehr province.
b.3. Iraq
Iraqs Fisheries Department started pilot-scale fish farms in 1965 to test culture systems
and suitable species (White, 1988). Commercial activities started only in late70s and early
80s, recording 3800 t of production in 1983. Common carp (C. carpio) dominated the
production, others being grass carp (C. idella) and silver carp (H. molitrix). In the 80s both
State Board of Fisheries (Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation), and the Iskandaria
Agricultural Company, promoted development of small-scale fish farming in the farms
located within the Tigris and Euphrates river basins. Fish farming was encouraged by leasing
of suitable culture area by the government.
By 1997, 1727 farms were operational covering a total area of 3200 ha, and produced
3400 t of carps. The farms ranged in size from 0.25 ha to 2.5 ha in area. Productivity per unit
area was low in most fish farms, ranging from 1.4 to 2 tons/ha. This low productivity was
attributed mainly to the shortage of adequate fish feeds. The mean annual production for
1986-1997 was 4000 t.
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C. Regunathan
Other than commercial purpose, hatcheries produced fish fingerlings for restocking,
which contributed greatly to the inland fisheries catch. Since late 1980s the country's fish
farming industry has been in decline due to conflicts, reduced purchasing power, quality
issues, juveniles and feed shortage and less investment from the government in aquaculture
sector. The economic sanctions (1990-2003) further hampered development. The cumulative
effect is clear from the fact that production in 2001 was only 2000 t, compared to 3400 t in
1997. Similarly, out of the total 2000 farms operational before 2003, only 500 were
operational in 2008.
b.4. Kuwait
Aquaculture research started in 1970s by Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research (KISR)
with feasibility of culturing introduced Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). The other initial
research projects were on determination of spawning season and reproductive potential of
different tilapia species like seawater tilapia (O. spilurus), blue tilapia (O. aureus) and Nile
tilapia.
KISRs efforts on hatchery propagation of orange spotted grouper (E. coioides, earlier
misidentified as E. tauvina) began in 1975. Natural spawning in captivity achieved with this
species accelerated research on larval rearing methods (Hussain et al. 1975; Hussain and
Higuchi, 1980) and led to future success with broodstock management and larval rearing
techniques. Farming related research work also was carried out (Ahmed et al. 1999, 2000).
Research on Sobaity seabream (S. hasta) culture started in early 1979 when captive
broodstock spawned spontaneously in concrete tanks (Hussain et al. 1981). This led to
successful larval rearing studies (Teng et al. 1984, 1999) and four-year research project
(1982-1986) to develop viable commercial culture technology (Teng, 1987).
KISR succeeded first in 1997 with larval rearing and fry production of Silver pomfret
(Pampus argenteus) under hatchery conditions using wild-stripped eggs leading to a five-year
project on larval rearing was initiated in April 1998. Studies also covered larval development
(Almatar et al. 2000), feeding (Cruz et al. 2000, Almatar and James, 2007), overwintering
(Cruz et al. 2003) and grow-out aspects (James and Al Matar, 2008). In 2006, a breakthrough
was achieved by spawning of two year old Pomfret from domesticated broodstock developed
from hatchery reared juvenile (James and Al Matar, 2007).
Commercial aquaculture activities gained importance in late 1980 through the concerted
efforts of the Public Authority for Agriculture Affairs and Fish Resources (PAAFR). Tilapia
farming was first reported at private farms in the Al-Wafra and Al-Abdali agriculture areas in
1986. In 1992, the Bubiyan Fisheries Company began commercial production of gilthead
seabream (S. aurata) and sobaity (S. hasta) in floating cages located in Kuwait Bay. Shrimp
culture of P. semisulcatus has been widely researched in Kuwait since 1979 (Farmer, 1981;
Al Hajj et al. 1983, Kneale et al. 1985, Al-Ameeri et al. 2006), but is still in experimental
stage.
b.5. Oman
Omans aquaculture research started with the establishment of Marine Sciences and
Fisheries Center (MSFC, under Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, MAF) in 1986 and
hastened further by Aquaculture lab under it in 1992. The research unit carried out studies on
site availability for aquaculture and on the culture potential of local shrimp (F. indicus),
oyster (Saccostrea cucullata), abalone (Haliotis mariae) and fishes (sobaity seabream).
109
Viability of culturing gilthead seabream and sobaity in cages was carried out by MSFC in
1997 at Bandar Khyran area in Muscat Governorate. Four small cages (14 m diameter) were
used in the project with juveniles imported from Greece and Bahrain. Research with abalone
larval rearing started with the help of JICA in 1993 and production of juveniles was achieved
in 1996. The aquaculture center under the MFW was established in September 2006.
The first commercial cage farms were established in Quriat (capacity 2000 t / annum) and
Bander Khyran (200 t/year) with Greek technology (Nireus Chios Aquaculture) in 2001
culturing variety of species viz., gilthead seabream (S. aurata), European seabass
(Dicentrarchus labrax), thinlip mullet (Liza ramada), grouper (E. coioides), sobaity (S. hasta)
and yellowfin seabream (Acanthopagrus latus). The cages used included both of 40m and 60
m perimeter and were imported from Norway (Polarcirkel). Yellowfin tuna (Thunnus
albacares) fattening project was initiated in 2003 by the same company in Bandar Khiran
using 50 m diameter cages targeting Japans sashimi market. Research studies on trial culture
of tilapia (O. niloticus) including a recently imported Thai strain in agricultural fields along
the crop fields were carried out in 2004, using ground water (0 to 20 ppt). Encouraging results
have been reported with Thai strain reaching 300-400 g in five months (Goddard et al. 2004).
The first commercial shrimp project was established in Sur in 1984 for farming Penaeus
monodon. However the project was closed down later. The Oman International Shrimp Co
was established in 2001 at Al Duqm, 600 km south of Muscat in the Al-Wusta region. The
planned large-scale shrimp farm after pilot crops had to be shutdown in October 2003 as
government took back the land for establishing port. Commercial shrimp farming is active
again from 2007 with startup of a shrimp farm (Bentoot Shrimp farm) located close to Duqm.
b.6. Qatar
Qatars aquaculture research began with establishment of Doha Aquaculture Center in
1988 in cooperation with JICA. Research studies were carried out in this center, mainly on
hatchery production and farming potential of economically important rabbitfish (S.
canaliculatus), yellowfin seabream (A. latus), sobaity (S. hasta), grouper (E. tauvina), mullet
(Velamugil seheli), golden travelly (Gnathanodon speciosus), tilapia (O. niloticus) and shrimp
(P. semisulcatus). University of Qatar too is involved in research related to culture potential
of commercial species like grouper and rabbitfish.
b.7. Saudi Arabia
In Saudi Arabia, the Fish farming center (FFC) established in 1982 at North Obhur, near
Jeddah with the cooperation of FAO, experimented on establishing the captive breeding and
culture technique for farming marine finfishes and shrimps. The finfishes included seawater
tilapia (O. spilurus), rabbit fish (S. rivulatus), groupers (E. tauvina, E. coioides, E.
malabaricus, E. polyphekedion, and E. fuscoguttatus), Asian seabass (Lates calcarifer),
snapper (L. argentimaculatus) and flat head mullet (Mugil cephalus). The shrimps included
the indigenous shrimps F. indicus, P. monodon and P. semisulcatus. Through its marine fish
program the centre has succeeded in domesticating several species of commercially important
fish species and maintains healthy broodstock of several grouper species, rabbit fish, mullet,
seabream and seabass. The current research focuses on mass fish larval/fingerling production
and reduction of hatchery operation costs. The Centre also succeeded in culturing the Sabaki
tilapia (O. spilurus) in full strength seawater. Other research programs focus on live feed
organisms, feed formulation and fish diseases.
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C. Regunathan
Once the technical and economic viability of commercial farming was proven for tilapia
and shrimp (F. indicus), commercial projects started to come up. The first commercial Tilapia
farm was established in 1983 at Qassim and for shrimp on the Southern Red Sea coast of
Saudi Arabia (Huraidha-Assir) 160 kilometer north of Jazan (Saudi Fisheries Co., SFC). SFC
with an annual capacity of 1500 tons started operations in 1997 with F. indicus as primary
culture candidate. P. monodon was produced initially but discontinued due to acute wild
broodstock shortage. The success story with SFC lured more investors to enter the shrimp
culture field.
For freshwater aquaculture, research projects were started in 1980 by The King
Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST, earlier Saudi Arabian National Center
for Science and Technology), Riyadh, at their research centers in Dirab and Qassim. The
R&D project was executed with the support of Taiwan Fisheries Research Institute (TFRI)
and covered various aspects of culturing the freshwater fishes viz., Nile tilapia, common carp,
grass carp, silver carp, bighead carp (H. nobilis), African walking catfish, (Clarius
gariepinus) and giant freshwater prawn, M. rosenbergii. Later, TFRI team with other
aquaculture experts from Taiwan in cooperation with Saudi personnel conducted research,
evaluated more than 50 locations and 60,000 hectares for aquaculture development, and
developed a national aquaculture plan. Sturgeon farming attempt was started in 2003 by a
Dammam based private firm (Growfish, 2003)
b.8. UAE
In UAE, Marine Resources Research Center (MRRC), Umm Al Qaiwain established in
1978 with the technical co-operation from Japan (JICA) spearheaded research works since
1984 on potential aquaculture species. This started with fingerling production of marine fish
species viz. rabbit fish (S. canaliculatus, S. javus), grouper (E. coioides) from 1985 to 1996.
Gold-lined Sea bream (Rhabdosargus sarba), yellowfin bream (A. latus), sobaity (S. hasta)
and mullet (Liza macrolepis) were produced during 1997-2003. MRRC also produced
postlarvae of shrimps P. semisulcatus and F. indicus since 1985 and weaned them to adult
size. The shrimp culture studies were temporarily halted in 2001. Major share of fish
fingerlings produced were released into sea as a part of restocking program.
First commercial aquaculture project was the cage culture project started in 1999 by the
International Fish Farming Company (ASMAK) in technical partnership with Greece based
Nireus group.
The farm with 20 circular cages was located in the coastal waters off the coast of Ras AlKhaimah was then moved to Dibba on the east coast in 2001. Finfish species cultured were
the sobaity bream (S. hasta), the gilthead seabream (S.aurata), European seabass (D. labrax),
grouper (E. coioides). Eventually, local fishermen also started to keep in locally made cages
located in the lagoon area of Umm Al Quiwain to stock commercially important juvenile
bycatch fish.
Freshwater aquaculture of Tilapia (O. niloticus) in UAE is confined to a few irrigation
channels, ponds and tanks adjacent to agriculture farms. The private fish and shrimp farming
project based in Abu Al Abyad island (situated 125 km west of Abu Dhabi city) has been
carrying out aquaculture research and has conducted farming experiments with tilapia (O.
niloticus), shrimp (F. indicus) and rabbit fish (S. canaliculatus) (Yousif et al. 2003a, Yousif,
2004, Yousif et al. 2005). The project also reported successful breeding and fingerling
111
production of Sobaity (Yousif et al. 2003b) and experimental farming of native Cobia
(Rachycentron canadum) (Yousif et al. 2009).
b.9. Yemen
The Yemeni government in 1977 requested the Japanese company Nichiro Gyogyo Ltd.
to investigate the feasibility of shrimp culture (P. semisulcatus) in the country. Later the
Aquaculture Research Center was established in Al-Buraika district, Aden, which began
operations in April 1988. The center has been involved in research activities related to
production of shrimps (F. indicus and P. semisulcatus) and a finfish (goldlined seabream
Rhabdosargus sarba). The first commercial shrimp hatchery and pilot-scale farm for F.
indicus was established only in 1997 in Al Sheher village (near Mukalla, Hadramout
province) with investment from Saudi. The farm and hatchery had to be closed down after
couple of crops due to administrative issues. The first full-scale commercial shrimp farm was
set up by Hodeidah based Musallam group, in Lohayya along the Red sea and started
production in 2005.
PRESENT STATUS OF AQUACULTURE AND DEVELOPMENT

a. Regional Overview
In general, aquaculture in these countries has registered remarkable growth in the recent
times, increasing production from just 2,235 tons in 1994 to 198,562 tons in 2008. The
aquaculture contribution to total fisheries increased markedly from 4.5 % in 1994 to 18.2 %
in 2008. Development of commercial aquaculture involved number of foreign consultants and
agencies either for technical transfer or for funding. It is worth mentioning here that Yemen
joined the group of commercial producers only in 2005 and Bahrain and Qatar are yet to have
a large-scale commercial aquaculture activity.
All these countries are putting their best efforts to augment commercial aquaculture
production. Individually, while some of them like Iran and Saudi have achieved substantial
increase in aquaculture production, others are either in their infancy or at research trial levels
(Bahrain, Qatar). Target to achieve reduction in imports by increasing domestic fisheries
production, higher export earnings, employment opportunity, food security, poverty
alleviation etc. acted as fillip to the growth of aquaculture sector.
Commercially aquacultured species in these countries do not include aquatic plants and
mollusks and is restricted to fishes and crustaceans. Aquaculture production of non-food
aquatic species is only a minor sector of aquaculture in the region, and principally includes
ornamental fishes. While production quantity is dominated by finfish species in most of the
countries with Saudi and Yemen, it was by shrimp. The recent production figures show that
few fishes like tilapia, carps, rainbow trout, European seabream, sobaity seabream and rabbit
fish dominate finfish production (FAO FishStat Plus, 2009). Sea ranching of both shrimps
and finfish juveniles has been practiced regularly in countries like Bahrain, Iran, Kuwait and
UAE mostly by the government institutions.
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C. Regunathan
The fish species cultured include both domestic and exotic ones, and the latter include
both freshwater and marine shrimp (whiteleg shrimp) and fishes (carps, trout, sturgeon,
European seabream, tilapia etc). Though inland aquaculture contributes to 99% of total
production, all have identified the enormous potential for mariculture. Iran, Kuwait, Oman,
Saudi and UAE already have marine cage farms in operation. The industry has been striving
towards attaining international standards related to food safety and environmental protection.
Table 1. Fisheries production trend (1998-2008) and increased contribution

of aquaculture in total fish production
Country
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi
Arabia
UAE
Yemen
Aquaculture (t)
Capture (t)
1998
1
33237
7500
220
13
< 0.5
2007
1
158789
15810
348
175
36
1998
9849
367212
22574
7798
106171
5279
2007
15012
403635
57779
4373
151744
15190
Aquaculture share (%) in total

fish production
1998
2007
0.01
0.01
8.30
28.23
24.94
21.48
2.74
7.37
0.01
0.12
0.01
0.24
7099
20453
51291
70000
12.16
22.61
< 2.0
0
570
300
114739
127620
87000
179916
0.00
0.00
0.65
0.17
b. Countrywise Status and Production Overview

b.1.Bahrain
Aquaculture is still in its incipient stage in the Kingdom of Bahrain and there is no major
commercial farming activity. With limited freshwater resources, growth potential is mainly in
mariculture. The National Mariculture Center is currently the leading producer of juveniles in
the region for a wide range of commercially important fishes like European seabream,
grouper, sobaity and rabbit fish. Other than exporting to cage farms in UAE, Oman and Iran,
juveniles are released into sea, as part of its stock enhancement programs. In 2008, a total
hatchery production of 4,956,470 juveniles of three species of fish was recorded. This
included 507,035 juveniles of Sobaity (S. hasta), 193,659 of the brown spotted grouper (E.
coioides) and 4,255,776 of sea bream (S. aurata).
Rabbit fish (S. canaliculatus) is the other species bred. The 2008 production from
farming comprised of around 1.0 t of sobaity and 1.0 ton of grouper (FAO, 2010). Awal
Fishing Company (associate of ASMAK, Dubai) is the only private aquaculture company that
has a technical cooperation with Directorate of Marine Resources and is involved in marine
finfish juvenile production.
Centers restocking program releases fishes like rabbit fish, sobaity and grouper in to sea
and protected areas. Many scattered small farms presently produce Tilapia in small scale for
113
local consumption. The aquaculture production in the country since 1998 is presented Table 2
depicting a decreasing production trend since 2005.
b.2. Iran
Iran, with 2700 km of coastal area in the southern (1850 kms along Oman Sea and Gulf)
and northern Iran (900 km along Caspian Sea), 1,900 natural, seminatural and artificial waterbodies and 150 earth dams, 235 barrage dams and 1,500 irrigation reservoirs holds huge
potential for aquaculture and culture based fisheries activities. Total aquaculture production
has gone up from 4935 t in 1978 to 154,979 t in 2008 (FAO Fishstat plus, 2010) constituting
27.5 % of total fish production (562,821t).
Table 2. Annual aquaculture production (1998-2008) in tons (FAO Fishstat plus, 2010
Country
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
Bahrain
<0.5
12
0.3
2.3
1.3
Iran
30279
33237
31800
40550
62550
76817
91714
104330
112001
129708
158789
Iraq
3,400
7,500
2,183
1,745
2,000
2,000
2,000
13,947
17,941
14,867
15,810
Kuwait
204
220
264
376
195
195
366
375
327
568
348
Oman
13
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
<0.5
352
503
173
89
90
Qatar
0.3
0.3
0.3
1.3
0.6
0.6
0.6
11.6
36.6
36
Saudi
2696.6
3835.6
4690.6
5101
5620
6004
8218
6744
11824
11172
14375
UAE
1.2
1.2
1.5
1.5
1.5
1.5
2301.5
570
570
570
570
380
350
350
Ye-men
Aquaculture in this country could be classified as 1) Warm water fish culture 2) Warm
water shrimp culture, 3) Cold water fish culture and 4) Culture based fisheries and juvenile
production for restocking programs. Warm water fish culture includes the culture of carps
namely the common carp and Chinese carps (silver, grass and big head). In small scale, the
fishes are reared in ponds and open waters following semi-intensive and extensive type of
technology respectively. The provinces of Khuzestan, Guilan, Mazandaran and Golestan are
the main geographical areas where warmwater fish farms are located. Extensive farming is
carried out mainly in lakes, dams and reservoirs. Aras Dam in Azerbaijan province, Hamun
lake in Sistan-Baluchistan province, reservoirs viz. Hoor-al-Shadegan and Howr-al-Hovizah
in Khuzestan province are the major waterbodies where stocking is done to facilitate
subsequent harvest by inland fishermen.
In the ponds, carp fingerlings are stocked in March-April at a density of 2000-6000 per
hectare and harvested between November and February and the production averages 3.5
tons/ha. Capital-intensive and professionally-engineered and constructed farms managed on a
full time basis also exist. Supplementary diets include a variety of grains (100-6000 kg/ha/yr)
114
C. Regunathan
or, for intensive monoculture of common carp, high protein pellets (30-40%). Polyculture of
common carp with Chinese carps is also practiced. The general combination is 15-20% of
common carp, 5-10% of grass carp, 60-70% of silver carp and 5-10% of bighead carp.
Polyculture using species like carp bream Abramis brama has also been reported (IFTRO,
1995).
Farming of giant river prawn (M. rosenbergii), freshwater bream (A.brama), milkfish
(Chanos chanos), barbel (B. sharpeyi) and pike-perch (S. lucioperca) are being promoted to
farmers as a way of diversifying production, increasing income and providing increased
marketing flexibility. Barbel is grown with carps especially in Khuzestan province.
The total area of warm water fishponds in Iran is estimated at approximately 29,836 ha,
producing some 77,463 tons of fish in 2006 or 52 % of total aquaculture production. Both
government and private sector are involved in hatchery production of fingerlings. Integrated
farming systems are not common and involve a combination of duck, rice and fish and
contribute only 2 % of total production.
Coldwater fish culture mainly means culture of Rainbow trout in tanks, reservoir dams
and raceway farms located in mountainous areas characterized by cool summers and cold
winters (central, north-west and western parts of the country). Though majority of farming
system is simple raceway made of concrete, production is also carried out in cages, pens,
earthen ponds and agricultural reservoirs. The trout production has increased from 440 tons in
1989 to more than 58,761 tons in 2007. At present there are 60 private sector hatcheries
including both licensed and unlicensed facilities, working in 13 provinces. Although the
market demand for trout weighing more than 500 grams is good, the average market weight
of fish is around 250 grams, and fish need at least 15 months to reach this size. Production of
gilthead and sobaity sebream in Qeshm seacages (in 2007) has been reported (Maygoli, Pers.
Commun.). Presently, the cages have been rented to a private company, however the cages
have not been stocked yet. The Commercial marine shrimp culture industry grew quite faster
with the government assistance, recording a production of 8,903 t from 310 farms in 2004
against 5 t per year production from 2 farms in 1992. However, disease problems since early
2000 crippled the industry growth and production. In 2008, only 219 farms (2481 ha) were
operational producing 4,372 t of shrimp (IFO, 2009).
Shrimp culture mostly at modified extensive to semi-intensive level is practiced in coastal
provinces viz. Khuzestan, Bushehr, Hormozgan and Sistan-Baluchistan. Till 2003, more than
97% of production was of the endemic F. indicus, rest consisted of P. semisulcatus (Bushehr
and Khuzestan provinces) and F. merguiensis (Hormozgan province). In 2006 L. vannamei
broodstock import from Hawaii was allowed as an alternative to F. indicus which was faced
with whitespot viral disease problems. In 2009 out of the four provinces only two cultured
shrimp, while Hormozgan province (which has not faced disease problem yet) farmed F.
indicus, Bushehr farmed L. vannamei. Commercial freshwater prawn production has gained
interest recently registering hike in production from 23 tons in 2001 to 278 tons in 2008
(FAO FishStat Plus, 2010).
Other than juvenile production for restocking purposes, recent interest has been on
culture of Surgeon towards production of meat and caviar. The aquaculture candidates are
Persian (A. persicus), stellate (A. stellatus) and great (H. huso) ones. Commercial Sturgeon
farms have been set up in the northern provinces (Golestan, Mazandran and Guilan). In 20052006, there were 11 sturgeon farms operational (private and 5 governmental) mainly for
sturgeon meat production (20 tons per annum) and 10 more were about to start (Bronzi,
115
2007). At present there are 15 commercial sturgeon farms operational and several under
construction (Pourkazemi, Pers. Communication, Dec. 2009). The total annual aquaculture
production (warm water and cold water fishes and shrimps, excluding capture based) in Iran
since 1998 is shown in Table 1, indicating a continuous upward production trend.
b.3. Iraq
The Tigris and Euphrates rivers and their branches are the main sources of inland
freshwater in Iraq. The inland freshwater bodies cover between 600, 000 and 700, 000 ha,
made up of natural lakes (39%), dams and reservoirs (13.3%), rivers and their branches
(3.7%) and marshes (44%). Despite diverse water resources, both aquaculture and capture
fishery productions from inland water resources drastically declined from 1994 to 2003 owing
to various political and economic reasons.
Economic sanctions imposed on Iraq since 1991 have restricted the availability of
imported feed, medications, machinery and other supplies and equipment for aquaculture,
thereby restricting the potential for expansion of the sector. Now, apparently, there are only
around 500 operational farms (against 2000 before the war in year 2003), using earthen
ponds, and averaging around 8000 m2 of water surface. Central Iraq boasts 70% of the
country's fish farms.
The fish farms raise freshwater carps like grass carp, silver carp, common carp, mullets
and barbel sp. in small quantities. As in 90s the fish farmers still adopt an extensive type
culture technology with limited feed supplementation, no artificial aeration etc. The farmers
also lack proper facilities and operate much below their capacity. Even with the produce the
facilities for storage and transportation are not of any quality standard. Currently, only four
hatcheries are operating in Iraq, three of them privately owned. Fish feed production do not
meet even minimal international standards and feed is common to all the species, with
unknown formulations and quality. The quality and nutrients vary, as they are prepared using
imported ingredients available in the country at the time of manufacture. There is also serious
lack of trained biologists, specialists and consultants for project conception, design and
operation.
In 2008, with 19,246 t, aquaculture contributed 35.8 % to total fisheries production (FAO
FishStat Plus, 2010). Kurdistan region produces annually 6700 tons of fish per annum with
247 farms (http://www.aknews.com/en/aknews/2/64426/).
The production figures (Table 2) show sharp increase in production from 2004. This is
mainly due to efforts by various international organisations like FAO, USAID and Nature
Iraq along with Iraqs Ministry of Agriculture. The projects implemented by these agencies
aim at reactivating non-operational aquaculture facilities and even developing new ones.
The construction of pumping station of nations largest fish farm, Euphrates Fish Farm
Hatchery project in Babil province at a cost of $600,000 is one such project. The project
executed by Soldiers from the 4th Brigade Combat Team, 3rd Inf. Div., with USAIDs Inma
Agribusiness will support hundreds of local fish farms and will create employment to the
level of 5000 people (http://www.blackanthem.com/News/iraqi-freedom/Fish-farmingrebounds-in-MND-C16591.shtml). In 2008, Nature Iraq had set up its pilot floating fish cage
farm near the town of Abu Subat on the banks of Euphrates river (http://www.natureiraq.org/
Eng/proj_current.html).
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C. Regunathan
b.4. Kuwait
Kuwaits aquaculture activity includes culture of tilapia in concrete tanks using low
saline underground water and marine cage farming. As such there is no commercial shrimp
farming activity despite a pre-feasibility study by Stirling aquaculture, U.K. in 1998.
Tilapia farms are based on limited low salinity underground water (2 -10 ppt) from 15 to
20 m deep wells with a temperature of 26 C round the year. The farms are located in AIWafra, AI-Abdaly and AI-Sulaibiya areas. The main species cultured include Nile tilapia (O.
niloticus) and salt-tolerant Sabaki tilapia (O. spilurus). Concrete tanks with 1-2 m depth are
used for culture with fingerling stocking rates of 10 and 50 /m2. Fish attain a marketable size
of 350-400 g within six to eight months. Based on stocking density, the farms record a
production of 10 to 15 kg/m3. Semi-recycling integrated system is adopted in agriculture areas
where the discharge water is used to grow plants like alfalfa, tomato, onion etc. in the
morning and in the night effluent water is recycled.
Tilapia farms have increased in numbers from 3 in 1986 to 65 in 2006 producing 557 t
(Ministry of Interior Report, 2007). However, the production came down to 300 t in 2008
(FAO FishStat Plus, 2010). Tilapia farms get an annual feed subsidy from the government to
encourage productivity. Subsidized feed meets 50% of the farmers' needs. The PAAFR has
established a new hatchery at AI-Wafra, which supplies tilapia fingerlings to the farmers.
The fish culture cage farm is located in the Ras Kathmoh Marine Area near Doha Port in
Kuwait Bay, where the water depth is approximately 11 m. Culture candidates include native
sobaity seabream (S. hasta,) and gilthead seabream (S. aurata). The company owns 73
floating cages (15 m diameter each, total volume of 116340 m3), however only five of them
were in operation in 2007. The feeds are imported from KSA, Netherland or from France.
Juveniles are imported from France or Greece or from local hatchery using eggs imported
from these countries.
Commercial finfish hatchery production was started by Gulf International Aquaculture
Company (GIAC) in 2000 by renting the facility of KISR. Till 2008, the hatchery had
produced nearly 6 million juveniles, which included gilthead seabream, European seabass,
yellowfin seabream, sobaity and grouper. The juveniles produced were consumed locally or
exported to UAE or Oman. The commercial hatchery is no more operational.
Kuwaits aquaculture production (Table 2) over the years shows fluctuation in quantity
produced.
b.5. Oman
Commercial aquaculture activities in Oman currently include cage culture of finfishes,
pond culture of tilapia and shrimp farming. Cage culture of finfishes was started by the Quriat
Aquaculture Co. in 2001, at two different sites viz. Bandar Khiran and Quriat. At present
there is only one farm active (in Quriat) as the private company shifted the cages from Bander
Khyran area. The farm mainly produces gilthead seabream with eight cages in operation. In
2004, fattening of yellowfin tuna (T. albacares) caught from Gulf of Oman was carried out in
a 50 meter diameter cage in Bander Khiran. Presently, these cages also have been relocated in
Quriyat. In 2004, 460 tons of European seabream, 27 tons of European seabass, 13 tons of
yellowfin seabream and 14 tons of yellowfin tuna were produced. Since 2004, production of
marine fishes has come down recording only 173 and 89 t in 2005 and 2006 respectively. In
2008 only 34 tons of gilthead seabream was produced. (RAIS, 2009).
117
Tilapia, which is an exotic species in Oman has been experimented as culture species in
2004 (Goddard et al. 2004). Initial farming research with Nile tilapia in selected farms carried
out showed promising results. Each farm operates on pumped groundwater (salinity range 020 ppt). Presently research is under way to examine the integration of tilapia production with
traditional crops and trials have demonstrated excellent growth of the Thai strain. The bestperforming fish averaged 300-400 g after five months at water temperatures ranging 25-33C.
In 2004 and 2005, 1.4 and 5 tons of tilapia was produced respectively, after this no production
has been recorded (FAO, 2009, RAIS, 2009).
After the shutdown of Oman International Shrimp Co in 2003, shrimp culture has again
picked up in Oman recently with the establishment of a shrimp farm by private sector. The
shrimp farm (Bentoot Shrimp farm) is located 500 km south of Muscat and is 100 Km away
from Mahoot town. While 16 hectare area has been developed another 70 hectare area is
under construction. Future plan includes expansion to 700 ha producing 3000 tons per annum.
In 2007 and 2008 around 85 tons each of shrimps (F. indicus) were produced by the farm
(RAIS, 2009).
Another species of aquaculture interest is the Omani abalone (Haliotis mariae) and is a
high value species with a great potential for culture. Studies at Mirbat Aquaculture Facility,
Fisheries Research Center in Salalah showed some significant findings on the feasibility of
propagating Omani abalone H. mariae under captivity. The MAF has also launched a project
in association with a Japanese company to undertake aquaculture of culture candidates like
sea urchin, octopus and abalone (Kamoonpuri, 2007). Ongoing research include developing
breeding techniques for grouper E. areolatus and Red seabream Cheimerius nufar at Al Hail
and Marbat facilities. Other species of interest is sea cucumber (Holothuria scabra) for which
breeding and seed production will be tried and the seeds searanched. Research is also being
carried out with breeding of clown fish.
Omans production figures (Table 2) indicate an increment from 2003 due to the
contribution from marine finfishes, however the increase was short timed one as production
came down in 2005. Less than 0.5 t production in table indicate production of white shrimp
by pilot scale farm.
b.6. Qatar
Aquaculture in Qatar is in its embryonic stages. Though significant efforts to develop the
sector have been made since 1988, commercial culture activity is yet to be undertaken. The
aquaculture center started working with the rabbitfish (S. canaliculatus), a popular fish in
Qatar. The wild fingerlings collected from the sea were reared in an open system for 6-8
months until they reached marketable size of 200 g. Imported artificial feed was used during
the rearing period. The Department of Fisheries is planning new experimental projects for the
growth of the aquaculture industries as a profitable venture.
Research studies have also covered mullet (L. macrolepis) and freshwater prawn (El
Sayed, 1994, Kardousha, 2003). Since 2004, small scale semi-intensive culture of Nile tilapia
is practiced by the private sector in earthen ponds (10 x 20 x 1 m) and in concrete tanks (3 x
10 x 1 m). In 2008, 36 tons each of tilapia fish were produced (Table 2).
The Qatar Company for meat and livestock trading company (Mawashi) announced its
plans to diversify into foodstuffs and fish and shrimp farming in 2008. In cooperation with
the Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, Mawashi has entered into a contract with
a global consultancy company to assess initial feasibility of a mega project, which
118
C. Regunathan
might be located near Al Areesh, a fishing village in northwest Qatar (http://www.

thepeninsulaqatar.com/Display_news.asp?section=Local_Newsandsubsection=Qatar+Newsan
dmonth=April2008 andfile=Local_News20080410293.xml).
b.7. Saudi Arabia

Proven culture feasibility of candidates by Fish Farming Center, near Jeddah and by The
King Abdulaziz City for Science and Technology (KACST), Riyadh attracted private
investments and paved the way for establishing an indigenous aquaculture industry.
Currently, Saudi aquaculture production includes both freshwater and marine based
farming. While the freshwater aquaculture is concentrated on the regions around Riyadh,
marine fish and shrimp farming activity is along the Red Sea. The freshwater aquaculture
production includes Tilapia (O. niloticus, O. aureus, O. niloticus x O. aureus hybrids, and
Taiwanese red tilapia O. mosambicus x O. niloticus), carp (C. carpio), African catfish (C.
gariepinus) and ornamental fishes. Mariculture includes commercial or pilot-scale production
of grouper (E. coioides), sea bream (S. aurata), Asian seabass (L. calcarifer), rabbit fish (S.
canaliculatus) and mullet (L. macrolepis).
Tilapia farming is mostly intensive practiced in concrete and fiberglass tanks with 100%
artificial feed input and usually with a target production of 10-15 kg fish.m3. Under these
intensive conditions, the tanks are aerated, and 20 to 100% of water is exchanged daily,
depending on the stocking density of the fish (Siddiqui and Al Najada, 1992). Recently, many
of the tilapia farms (8 out of 12) in Saudis Eastern Province are closed down owing to
number of technical and economic issues. Major reason being influx of cheaper frozen
tilapia from South East Asian countries (http://www.zawya.com/story.cfm/sidZAWYA
20040809135424/Fish%20Farming%20in%20Easter%20Province:%20New%20Investment%
20Possibilities)
Commercial shrimp mariculture at present is restricted to native F. indicus. Number of
commercial shrimp farms are now operational along the Red Sea, mega ones being Saudi
Fisheries Co, Arabian Shrimp Co., Jazan Agricultural Development Company (Jazadco) etc.
However, the biggest is that of National Prawn Co. (NPC) located 15 km south of Al Leith
township, and around 180 km south of Jeddah. Projects phase 1 completed in 2004, includes
more than 2500 ha waterspread area farm, over one billion postlarvae per annum hatchery
capacity, 50,000 t per year feed mill and a processing plant capable of handling 80 tons per
day of head-on shrimp. The project is targeted to produce more than 15,000 t of shrimp per
year. Phase 2 of this project will add another 3600 hectare area and would take total
production to more than 30,000 t per year (NPC web site - www.robian.com.sa). Once
completed this will be the largest integrated desert shrimp farm in the World. Saudi Fisheries
Company produces annually 1600 tons of shrimp.
Aquaculture production is growing rapidly with shrimp (F. indicus) production that
increasing from just 20 t in 1995 to 17,912 t in 2008. Total aquaculture production has
jumped from 2,235 t in 1996 to 22,253 t in 2008 representing around 25% of total fish
production in the Kingdom (Table 2). Tilapia production has been nearly constant over the
recent years (2006-2008) averaging about 3800 t per annum.
Only Cage farm was started by Jazadcos Tabuk Fisheries company with the support of
Greek company (Selonda aquaculture SA). The farm is located in Northern Red Sea near
Tabuk area and cultures gilthead seabream (RECOFI, 2009).
119
NPC has initiated efforts on culturing indigenous Greater Amberjack (Seriola dumerili)
on land as pilot scale, using a recirculation technology hatchery facility imported from
Norway (www.akvasmart.com). Based on success with initial 5000 t target the future
expansion will aim production of 35,000 to 50,000 tons per annum. NPC is also involved
presently in hatchery production of sea cucumber (H. scabra) juveniles and plans to grow
them in ponds.
The first caviar-producing project in the entire region, was started by Dammam based
Abdallah Al Faris Group. This project started with ambitious plan to produce sturgeon
(A.gueldenstaedtii, A. baerii) meat and caviar. The company website (www.caviarcourt.com)
advertises the availability of various grade Osetra caviar and sturgeon meat products. Initial
production target is 5 tons per annum Osetra caviar and 200 tons of sturgeon meat.
b.8. UAE
The focal point of aquaculture in the UAE is the Marine Resources Research Center
(MRRC) of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries based in Umm Al Qaiwain. In MRRCs
facility larvae are produced either through natural spawning or by induced spawning, as the
case is and reared to fmgerling size in 100 m3 tanks and later transferred to grow-out ponds.
As a routine practice of implementing government policy, fingerlings or juvenile stage fishes
are released to the sea also every year and includes fishes like sobaity (S. hasta), rabbit fish
(S. canaliculatus and mullet (L. macrolepis). MRRC produced Sobaity juveniles are supplied
to cages farms too.
During the recent period, only commercial cage farm was of International Fish Farming
Co (Asmak, located in Fujairah. The juveniles were imported from Greece, France, Kuwait or
Bahrain and feeds from Greece, France and Saudi Arabia. The Fujairah site (1.5 km off
Dibba) with 60 circular cages (19 m dia x 12 m depth each) produced 815 metric ton fish of
gilthead, and 80 tons of sobaity in 2007. The red tide phenomenon in 2008 August September wiped out the entire fish stock in the cages and led to the closure of farm leading
to lower production record (Table 2). The harmful algae associated with fishkill were
identified as dinoflagellate Cochlodinium polykrikoides. The traditional cages used by
fishermen measure 2.5x2.5x2 m in size and are constructed locally and there is no official
record of number of cages.
Tilapia (O. aureus and O. spilurus) and grass carp culture is carried out in small scale,
recording a yearly production of 6 tons (from 2001 2006). Al Jaraf Fisheries LLC based in
Abu Dhabi is also involved in Tilapia farming. The company commenced its fish breeding
operations in Al Ajban by 2006, A fishing company (Mubarak Fisheries) has recently signed
an agreement with Ministry of Environment and Water and will venture into hatchery
production of fingerlings (European seabream, Sobaity) and cage farming and has already
taken up part of the MRRC hatchery facility (http://worldfishing.net/ new_horizons / new_
horizon.ehtml?o=2672).
Currently commercial shrimp farming is carried out only by Abu Dhabi based Al Jaraf
Fisheries (AJF), farming both F. indicus and P. monodon. The farm with lined ponds located
in Barmid island started production in 2006. The shrimp feeds are imported from India and
Saudi Arabia and final products are sold in the local market. AJF is planning cage farming of
groupers also (www.palgroup.com). Recent aquaculture research activity in Abu Al-abyad
Island includes breeding and fingerlings production of Cobia. The juveniles are released to
sea as a part of restocking program.
120
C. Regunathan
Aquaculture production reached its peak in 2003 with peak production from offshore
cage farm facilities (Table 1). Since then production stabilized at 570 tons till 2007 which
included seabass, seabream and sobaity. In 2008 the production shot up to 1206 t (Table 2).
Bin Salem GTE and United Food Technologies, its German partner, have already
initiated construction of 38 million Euros investment project for Sturgeon culture in Abu
Dhabi. This land based project (AquaOrbis UAE) plans producing 32 tons of caviar and 693
tons of sturgeon meat per annum (www.uftag.de). The plant is presently under construction in
Abu Dhabi over a plot of around 60,000 m2, and will start operations in second half of 2010.
The Siberian sturgeon (A. baerii) will be the species cultured (www.caviarist.com). This
Ossetra sturgeon is smaller than the famous Beluga (H. huso) and it is said to produce a more
intense, nuttier-tasting roe.
Recently, UAEs Ministry of Water and Environment signed a MOU with Japans
Kinki University to farm Pacific bluefin tuna (Thunnus orientalis) in the country
(http://www.thefishsite.com/ fishnews/9779/uae-japan-unite-on-bluefin-farming).
b.9. Yemen
The Aquaculture research center in Aden produces about a ton of shrimp on experimental
basis. The shrimp farm (Musallam aquatic farms) located in Lohayya, near Hodeidah
(Musallam aquatic farms) on the Red Sea coast is the only commercial facility presently
operating in Yemen. The farm mainly cultures native F. indicus and P. monodon with the
latter on trial basis. For P. monodon, wild juveniles of 30 to 50 gram size are pond-reared to
100 grams later to be used as broodstock for hatchery larval production. The farm with 500
tons per annum capacity produces about 350 tons per annum since 2005. The feeds are
imported from Malaysia, Taiwan and China. The hatchery has a designed production capacity
of 50 million postlarvae per annum. Many new shrimp farms are coming up along the Yemeni
red coast including foreign investment ventures.
Table 3 provides the details on various culture species presently cultured or in
experimental stage with hatchery or farm level. When total aquaculture production in 2008
from all these countries is considered, finfish dominated in quantity contributing 88.4 % of
total, remaining 11.6 % being shrimp. The major finfish species produced in terms of quantity
included carps (102,042 t), rainbow trout (62,630 t), mullet (4893 t), tilapias (4,114 t) and
gilthead seabream (1560 t). The fishes like catfish, rabbit fish, grouper, Asian seabass and
sturgeon were produced in minimal quantities.
The Indian white prawn (F. indicus) was the major crustacean species cultured, other
shrimps being P. monodon , P. semisulcatus and exotic L. vannamei. Total shrimp production
from the four countries (Iran, Oman, Saudi and Yemen) in 2008 was 23,008 t. In Iran, where
exotic L. vannamei has been introduced has overtaken native F. indicus in terms of
production quantity, with former contributing to 59 % of brackishwater shrimp produced.
The production of carps and rainbow trout in 2008 represented 93.8 % of the total finfish
production from these countries. Interestingly, major share of carps (86%) and total trout
production came from Iran. Major share of shrimps came from Saudi Arabia (78 %) and Iran
(20 %). At present all species farmed in the region is conventional; there are no Genetically
Modified Organisms (GMO). SPF (specific pathogen free) status programs have been
restricted only to shrimps, namely F. indicus and L. vannamei.
121
c. Culture Species, Production Quantity

Species cultured and other details are presented in table 3.
Table 3. Countrywise list of aquacultured fishes
Country
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
Fish Common name

Sobaity bream
Whitespotted Rabbit fish
Streaked Rabbitfish
Mangrove snapper
Gilthead seabream Orangespotted
Grouper
Giant river prawn
Rainbow trout
Common carp
Silver carp
Grass carp
Big head carp
Rohu carp
Freshwater bream Milkfish
Barbel
Pike-perch
Great (beluga) sturgeon
Persian sturgeon
Stellate sturgeon
Russian sturgeon
Fringebarbel sturgeon
Caspian Salmon
Kutum
Caspian roach
Yellowfin seabream
Grouper
Gilthead seabream
Sobaity seabream
Silver pomfret
Indian white shrimp
Banana shrimp
Green tiger shrimp
Giant freshwater prawn
Pearl oyster
Seaweeds
Common carp
Silver carp,
Grass carp
Mullets
Barbs
Nile tilapia
Sabaki tilapia
Sobaity seabream
Grouper
Gilthead seabream
European seabass
Picnic seabream
Yellowfin seabream
Silver pomfret
Green tiger prawn
Scientific name
Sparidentex hasta
Siganus canaliculatus
Siganus javus
Lutjanus argentimaculatus
Sparus aurata
Epinephelus coioides
Macrobrachium rosenbergii
Oncorynchus mykiss
Cyprinus carpio,
Hypothalmichthys molitrix
Ctenopharyngodon idella
Hypothalmichthys nobilis
Labeo rohita
Abramis brama
Chanos chanos
Barbus sharpeyi
Sander lucioperca
Huso huso
Acipenser persicus
A. stellatus
A. gueldenstaedtii
A, nudiventris
Salmo trutta caspius
Rutilus frisii kutum
Rutilus rutilus
Acanthopargus latus
Sparus aurata
Sparidentex hasta
Pampus argenteus
Fenneropenaeus indicus
Fenneropenaeus merguiensis
Penaeus semisulcatus
Pinctada margaritifera
Gracillaria sp.
Cyprinus carpio
Hypothalmichthys molitrix
Liza sp.
Barbus sp.
Oreochromis niloticus
Oreochromis spilurus
Sapridentex hasta
Sparus aurata
Dicentrarchus labrax
Acanthopagrus berda
Acanthopagrus latus
Pampus argenteus
Status of production
H,PF
H,PF
H
H
H,PF
H
E
C
C
C
C
C
C
E
E
H
H
C
C
H
H
H
H
H
H
PF
PF
C
C
E
C
E
E
E
E
E
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
E
C
C
C
C
E
E
122
C. Regunathan
Table 3. (Continued)
Country
Oman
Qatar
Saudi
Arabia
UAE
Yemen
Fish Common name
Scientific name
Tilapia
Areolated Grouper
Gilthead seabream
European seabass
Yellowfin seabream
Yellowfin tuna
Thinlip mullet
Indian white shrimp
Abalone
Sea cucumber
Oyster
Red seabream
Nile tilapia
Rabbit fish
Largescale Mullet
Nile Tilapia
Blue tilapia
Taiwanese red tilapia
Common Carp
African catfish
Brownspotted grouper
Gilthead seabream
Gold-lined Sea bream
Asian seabass
Rabbit fish
Largescale Mullet
Greater amberjack
Russian sturgeon
Siberian sturgeon
Indian white shrimp
Giant tiger prawn
Sea cucumber (sand fish)
Epinephelus areolatus
Sparus aurata
Acanthopagrus latus
Thunnus albacares
Liza ramada
Fenneroenaeus indicus
Haliotis mariae
Holothuria scabra
Saccostrea cucullata
Cheimerius nufar
Liza macrolepis
Oreochromis niloticus,
Oreochromis aureus,
O. mosambicus x O. niloticus
Cyprinus carpio
Clarius gariepinus
Sparus aurata
Rhabdosargus sarba
Lates calcarifer
Liza macrolepis
Seriola dumerili
Acipenser gueldenstaedtii
Acipenser baerii
Penaeus monodon
Holothuria scabra
Rabbit fish
Streaked rabbit fish
Brown spotted grouper
Yellowfin bream
Sobaity
Gilthead seabream
European seabass
Largescale Mullet
Cobia
Nile tilapia
Green tiger shrimp
Indian white shimp
Giant tiger prawn
Green tiger shrimp
Indian white shimp
Siganus javus
Rhabdosargus sarba
Acanthopagrus latus
Sapridentex hasta
Sparus aurata
Liza macrolepis
Rachycentron canadum
Penaeus monodon
Rhabdosargus sarba
Status of
production
E
E
C
C
C
CF
C
C
E
E
E
E
C
E
E
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
E
C
C
C
PF
C
C
C
C
PF
C
C
C
E
C
C
C
C
C
E
C
E
C
C
E
E
C
C- Commercial farming, E- Experimental stage, H Hatchery production stage, PF Pilot scale

farming.
Table 4. Countrywise Production of fishes during the year 2000-2007 (FAO, 2010)
Country
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
Oman
2000
ssb (12)
bhc (1500)
cc (7000)
gc (2000)
sc (17000)
rbt (9000)
iws 4050)cc (1745)
gsb (83)
gss (150)
ta (30)
gr (6)
ssb (107)
-
2001
ssb (<0.5)
bhc (2415)
cc (9915)
gc (4135)
sc (26285)
rbt (12170)
fwp (23)
iws (7607)
cc (2000)
gsb (43)
gss (78)
ta (16)
gr (3)
ssb (55)
-
2002
ssb (3)
bhc (3288)
cc (13700)
gc (3836)
sc (33977)
rbt (16026)
fwp (30)
iws (5960)
cc (2000)
gsb (43)
gss (78)
ta (16)
gr (3)
ssb (55)
-
2003
ssb (3)
rf (1)
bhc (3665)
cc (15271)
gc (4276)
sc (37872)
rbt (23138)
fwp (30)
iws (7462)
cc (2000)
ta (202)
ssb (164)
gsb (331)
esb (13)
mlt (8)
-
2004
mrs (1)
rf (1)
ssb (6)
bhc (3270)
cc (16350)
gc (9810)
sc (35970)
rbt (30000)
fwp (27)
iws (8903)
cc (8712)
gc (1306)
sc (2178)
mlt (1751)
ta (275)
ssb (100)
esb (40)
gsb (460)
esb (27)
yfs (13)
gr (0.222)
2005
rf (1)
ssb (2)
bhc (3670)
cc (18349)
gc (11009)
sc (40368)
rbt (34760)
fwp (268)
iws (3577)
cc (8350)
gc (1760)
sc (2760)
mlt (5071)
gsb (142)
ta 185)
esb (142)
gsb (135)
esb (28)
-
2006
rf (1)
gsb (<0.5)
ssb (1)
bhc (3873)
cc (19366)
gc (11619)
sc (42605)
rbt (46275)
fwp (270)
iws (5700)
cc (11176)
gc (1010)
sc (1010)
mlt (1671)
gsb (11)
ta (557)
esb (11.21)
gsb (82)
-
2007
gsb (<0.5)
ssb (1)
bhc (4863)
cc (24316)
gc (14589)
sc (53494)
rbt (58761)
fwp (258)
iws (2508)
cc (12000)
gc (1010)
sc (1100)
mlt (1700)
gsb (55)
ta (293)
esb (12.73)
gsb (80)
-
Table 4. (Continued)
Country
Qatar
Saudi
Arabia
UAE
Yemen
2000
rf (<0.5)
ta (3968)
cf (33)
rf (42)
iws (1961)
gls (<0.5)
gr (<0.5)
rf (<0.5)
bts (<0.5)
iws (<0.5)
-
2001
rf (1)
yfs (<0.5)
mlt (35)
ta (3981)
cf (25)
rf (27)
iws (4150)
gls (<0.5)
gr (<0.5)
rf (<0.5)
bts (<0.5)
iws (<0.5)
-
2002
rf (<0.5)
yfs (<0.5)
mlt (20)
ta (2019)
cf (30)
rf (25)
iws (4650)
gls (<0.5)
gr (<0.5)
rf (<0.5)
bts (<0.5)
iws (<0.5)
-
2003
rf (<0.5)
yfs (<0.5)
mlt (22)
ta (2580)
cf (35)
rf (27)
iws (9160)
gsb (750)
esb (750)
gls (<0.5)
gr (<0.5)
ssb (800)
rf (<0.5)
bts (<0.5)
iws (<0.5)
-
2004
yft (3)
rf (<0.5)
yfs (<0.5)
mlt (18)
ta (2396)
cf (30)
rf (23)
iws (8705)
gsb (190)
esb (190)
ssb (190)
-
2005
yft (5)
ta (5)
ta (11)
rf (<0.5)
yfs (<0.5)
mlt (10)
cr (27)
ta (2987)
cf (32)
rf (10)
gr (50)
iws 11259)
gsb (190)
esb (190)
ssb (190)
iws (380)
2006
yft (7)
ta (36)
rf (<0.5)
yfs (<0.5)
mlt (30)
cr (35)
ta (3781)
cf (25)
rf (45)
gr (55)
iws 11615)
gsb (190)
esb (190)
ssb (190)
iws (350)
2007
yft (10)
iws (85)
ta (36)
mlt (12)
cr (5)
ta (3804)
cf (46)
rf (15)
gr (<0.5)
iws 14528)
gsb (190)
esb (190)
ssb (190)
iws (350)
Bhc: Bighead carp; bts: Black tiger shrimp; cc: Common carp; cf: Catfish; cr: Croaker / Drums; esb: European seabass; fwp: Freshwater prawn; gc: Grass
carp; gls: Goldlined seabream; gr: Grouper; gsb: Gilthead seabream; gss: Golksilk seabream; iws: Indian white shrimp; mlt: Mullets; rbt: Rainbow trout; rf:
Rabbit fish; ssb: Sobaity seabream ; ta:Tilapia; yft: Yellowfin tuna; yfs: Yellowfin seabream.
125
III.d. Non-Food Aquatic Species

Non-food aquatic species are a minor part of aquaculture production in these countries
and includes ornamental fishes, seaweeds and pearl oyster. With ornamental fishes, there is an
increased interest in domestic production in order to trim down the reliance on imports. Iran
and Saudi, both present importers of ornamental fishes are the major producers of ornamental
fish. Irans ornamental fish industry involves over 800 people and the turnover is to the tune
of US$ 15 million with 85 species of them locally bred (www.iranexportsmagazine.com). The
major production cities are Kashan, Tehran, Arak and Guilan. The target is to double
employment and turn over by 2010.
In Saudi Arabia, freshwater ornamental fishes are bred and exported by a private
entrepreneur (Rashied Al Balla Est. www.maram.com) and claims to be the only breeder and
exporters of live aquarium fishes in Saudi Arabia.. Currently, small-scale ornamental fish
production is destined for development.
Middle East ornament fish industry is valued at $11.4 million with the UAE as the largest
importer of exotic fishes. UAEs ornamental fish imports in 2008 crossed USD 1.14 million
and have a substantial potential to emerge as regions hub of export and re-export. The
demand for exotic fishes in UAE is expected to grow by 5 to 7 % annually (http:// www.
ameinfo. com/ 185005.html).
Irans pilot projects have demonstrated the feasibility of farming seaweed (Gracilaria
spp.), pearl oyster (Pinctada radiate and P. margaritifera) and Artemia. The pilot project
(2003-2007) in Qeshm has achieved culturing the oysters and developed bank of broodstock
for both species (http://sgp.undp.org/web/projects/6643/aquaculture_of_pearl_by_the_local_
community_of_berkeh_khalaf_village_qeshm_island_pearls_of_persian_.html).
Biotechnology center in Qeshm is presently involved with research on culture of seaweeds
and pearl oyster.
e. The Non-Indigenous Species Introduction

Except Yemen, all the countries have introduced exotic culture candidates. The list of
commercially bred or cultured exotic species in each of the countries is given below (Table
5). Table 5 shows the details of exotic species introduced for aquaculture purposes in the
middle east.
f. Culture Environments
Among three culture environments (fresh, brackish and marine), nearly 87% was
contributed by freshwater. Marine and brackishwater sector contributing only 10% and 3% of
aquaculture production in 2008. Freshwater production was dominated by carp and trout from
Iran, carp and mullet from Iraq and tilapia from Saudi Arabia. Marine water production
comprised of shrimp from Saudi Arabia and fishes from cage farm. Brackishwater share came
from Tilapia (Saudi and Kuwait) and shrimp from Iran and Oman.
126
C. Regunathan
Table 5. List of foreign species introduced for aquaculture purpose
Name of
Country
Species introduced
Common name
Introduced from
Bahrain
Sparus aurata,
Gilthead seabream
France
Lates calcarifer,
Asian seabass
Grass carp
Cyprinus carpio
Hypolthalmichthys molitrix
Common carp
Silver carp
Bighead carp
Oncorynchus mykiss
Sparus aurata
Litopenaeus vannamei
Penaeus monodon
Cyprinus carpio
Cyprinus carpio
Oreochromis aureus
Sparus aurata
Penaeus monodon
Oreochromis aureus
Sparus aurata
Liza ramada
Oreochromis mosambicus
Oreochromiurolepis
Tilapia zillii
Lates calcarifer
Clarius gariepinus
Cyprinus carpio
Labeo rohita
Rainbow trout
Gilthead seabream
Freshwater prawn
Pacific shrimp
Black tiger shrimp
Common carp
Grass carp
Silver carp
Bighead carp
Common carp
Nile Tilapia
Blue Tilapia
Sabaki Tilapia
Gilthead seabream
European seabass
Black tiger shrimp
Nile Tilapia
Blue Tilapia
Gilthead seabream
European seabass
Thinlip grey mullet
Nile Tilapia
Malaysia
USSR,
Romania,China
China
Romania,
China
Unknown
Italy, Norway, U.K.
Bahrain
Bengladesh, Thailand
USA (Hawaii)
Unknown
Unknown
Japan
Unknown
Unknown
Hungary
Taiwan
USA (Florida)
Kenya
France, Greece
France, Greece
Singapore, Thailand
Egypt, Thailand
UAE
France, Greece
France, Greece
Greece
Unknown
1990-99
1966
1968
1968
1968
1994
1966
Unknown
2007/8
1994
2006
1992 - 93
1955
1968,85
1966-69
1966-69
2009
Unknown
1979
1990-95
1998
1999/2000
1987/88
Unknown
1985
2001
2001
2001
Unknown
Barbus apoensis
Sparus aurata
Acipenser gueldenstaedtii
Acipenser baerii
Barb fish
Gilthead seabream
Persian sturgeon
Siberian sturgeon
Kenya
Taiwan
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Singapore
Egypt
Taiwan
Unknown
Unknown
India
Taiwan
Hawaii
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Russia
1977,82
1980
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
1998
Late 90s
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
Unknown
1992
Unknown
2007/08
2002/03
2002/03
Oreochromis aureus
Sparus aurata
Sabaki Tilapia
Blue tilapia
Grass carp
Gilthead seabream
European seabass
Kuwait
Kuwait
Hong kong
Greece
Greece, France
1985
1985
1968
1999
2002-2004
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi
Arabia
UAE
Sabaki Tilapia
Mozambique Tilapia
Rufigi Tilapia
Nile Tilapia
Redbelly Tilapia
Asian seabass
African catfish
Common carp
Grass carp
Silver carp
Rohu
Freshwater prawn
Introduced
Year
2005
127
AQUACULTURE MARKET, TRADE AND LAWS

a. Aquaculture Sales, Export, Impact on the Economy
Except for the shrimps and European fishes cultured, the aquaculture products are mostly
sold in the domestic market. While shrimp produced by these countries is exported mostly to
EU, USA, Japan, Egypt, and UAE, European origin exotic finfishes are exported to target EU
market. However, Kuwait sold all exotic fishes produced in cages in the local market, unlike
Oman and UAE. Major quantity of other cultured finfishes (tilapia, rainbowtrout, carps) is
sold in the local market.
In all of these countries aquaculture generally makes minimal contribution to national
economies, when assessed by percentage of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Differentiation
of aquaculture product in their trade statistics has been initiated by few very recently, and thus
for most countries the specific contribution of the aquaculture sector to GDP and Gross
National Product (GNP) cannot be assessed. According to FAO statistics, the percentage
contribution of fisheries (capture fishery and aquaculture combined) to GDP is 0.11 % for
Bahrain and Iran, and <0.1 %, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, UAE and Yemen.
a.1.Bahrain
Bahrain's aquaculture industry is still in its infancy; currently the fish harvested from the
National mariculture center is sold in the local market. The center also exports European
seabream and sobaity fry to nearby fish farming countries like Iran, Kuwait, Saudi and UAE.
a.2.Iran
Fish is not a popular part of the Iranian diet, especially in its central cities, which possess
main proportion of the population. Per capita consumption was 1 kg/year in 1980 and reached
7.35 kg by 2007. This figure is quite low compared to some 23.1 kg of beef and lamb and
11.8 kg of poultry consumed by them each year. Marketing campaigns by the IFO and MOH
has also helped to enhance fish consumption in the country especially for trout. IFO now
targets a consumption of 10 kg/person in 2009, contributing 4.5 g /day of animal protein
consumed.
While the aquaculture produced trout and carps are sold to domestic market, shrimp
exported to Europe is the major export earner. The role of fisheries (culture and capture) as a
contributor to the Iranian economy (only 0.23 % in 2002) and its share of the agricultural
sector are very low (2.2 %). But with potential for increased aquaculture production,
contribution to the country's economy is poised to shoot up.
a.3.Iraq
With Iraq, there is a clear demand for fish that outstrips supply; fish is often unavailable
in the markets. Current per capita fish consumption in Iraq is only 1.4 kg per year against 2.5
kg in 1990 (before the economic embargo). It is estimated that an additional market demand
for farmed fish is around 25,000 to 50,000 tons. Actual fish demand seems currently inhibited
by excessive retail price for fish - 3.500 IQD/kg ($2.33/kg) often the same level as poultry.
Preliminary studies indicate the possibility to produce farmed fish at a competitive price -
128
C. Regunathan
perhaps at a retail price 15% lower than poultry and 70% below red meat. Estmates say, Iraq
if returns to its pre-embargo per capita fish consumption level, then the fish import
requirement will be above 58,000 tons, worth 104 million USD considering the domestic
production of 12,000 tons.
a.4.Kuwait
Tilapia farmers in Kuwait sell their fish on-site or to small shops. Fish from cage farm is
also sold locally. Farm-produced high quality fresh tilapia is sold for a price ranging from
$4.5 to 6.0 (Ridha. 2006).
Fish fry produced by the GIAC is exported to the UAE and Oman cage farms. But since
2008, the hatchery is not operational. When compared to the oil industry in Kuwait, the
economic contribution of the fishery industry is very limited. However, as a traditional sector,
Kuwait offers investment opportunities for private sector. The PAAFR has been encouraging
aquaculture activities as a matter of priority and production is expected to meet future local
demand for fish.
a.5.Oman
Although half of the Omani population depends on agricultural farming and fishing,
agriculture contribution to GDP is very minimal. The majority of aquaculture production is
exported as whole fish products to the UAE with only very minor quantities being sold
locally. The reasons being, relatively high price of aquaculture products and less consumerpreference for them compared to wild marine fish. Recent data from FAO showed that fish
consumption in Oman is about 27.2 Kg/year/capita.
The 2004 price of exported gilthead seabream was 4.5 US$/kg, and for European seabass
was 5 US$/kg. Tuna from the tuna-fattening project was exported directly to Japan. The
shrimps produced (about 80 tons each in 2007 and 2008) are sold locally. Exported tuna
fetched a price of around 20 US$/kg, while tilapia fetches about 2.57 US$/kg on the domestic
market.
a.6.Qatar
Qatar's aquaculture production is very meager and its income is not contributing to the
national economy. At present, there is no export of aquaculture products from Qatar.
a.7.Saudi Arabia
The shrimps produced along the Red sea is the prime export commodity. Shrimps are
exported to Japan, Australia, USA, Egypt and EU. Saudi is also major producer of ornamental
fishes mostly supplying the local market. The private ornamental fish breeding company
(Rashied Al Balla Est.) exports freshwater ornamental fishes to Germany, Belgium, Italy,
France, U.K., Qatar, UAE, Jordan, Kuwait and Bahrain. All the tilapia produced is sold in
local markets.
a.8.UAE
In UAE fish harvested from the cages in Dibba coast are mainly exported to the EU,
Canada and USA. The exported products are whole fish (fresh/frozen), gutted fish
129
(fresh/frozen) and fillets. The shrimps produced in commercial farm, fishes produced in the
traditional cage farm and from land based tilapia farms are sold in domestic market.
a.9. Yemen
Yemens fish export revenues have been falling since recent years, increasing
contribution of aquaculture to fisheries exports. Fisheries revenue fell during the first quarter
of 2009 in Yemen by 13 % from $56.5 million in the same period last year to $49.5 million.
The shrimps produced in Hodeidah region are exported to EU and is the only aquaculture
product exported at present.
b. Laws, Permits, Certification and Agreements

Laws related to aquaculture activities, regulations, permits, certification, aquacultured
fish export, export and import of fish eggs, juveniles and broodstock are in place in most of
the countries. However, countries like Bahrain, Iraq, Qatar, UAE and Yemen have less
comprehensive regulations in place. Regulations related to shellfish are found in fewer
countries than those affecting finfish. However, within the shellfish producing countries, there
are regulations in place for export of market size product and seed.
b.1. Bahrain
In Bahrain, rules and regulations relating to aquaculture are set by the Government viz.
The Royal Decree on Exploitation and Utilization of the Marine Resources, issued in 2002.
This law has provisions for controlling the culture of organisms such as licensing and quality
issues. According to the law, a company may not undertake any aquaculture activity without
permission from the authorized government body (General Directorate for the protection of
Marine Resources). It also controls the collection of seed from the wild. There are no other
specific laws or regulations related to fish farming.
b.2.Iran
The Iranian Fisheries Organization (IFO, Shilat in Persian) affiliated to the Ministry of
Jihad Agriculture is responsible for the provision of related regulations and codes of practice
for aquaculture management and development. The legal framework for fisheries and
aquaculture activities in Iran is based on the provisions of the Law of Protection and
Exploitation of Fisheries Resources of the Islamic Republic of Iran (1995 Law).
The General Guidelines for Aquaculture and Fisheries (adopted in 1999 and amended in
2007), provides the legal framework for aquaculture activities. The guidelines include
activities of following related organizations:
a) Iranian Fisheries Research Organisation (IFRO) and Iran Fisheries Organization
(IFO) are responsible for technical issues such as the location of production units,
breeding, nutrition, harvesting, handling and distribution, and refinement of rules and
regulations for aquaculture
b) the Environment Conservation Organization (ECO) of Iran has introduced some
regulations to prevent certain activities having a negative impact on the environment
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c) Iranian Veterinary Organization (IVO) contributes to this program by preparing
sanitary and welfare rules and regulations. Animal diseases, hormones and drugs are
dealt by them.
d) Organisations such as the ECO and related research centers are involved in drafting
rules pertaining to pollution and the environment and environment-friendly organic
farming activities
e) the Forestry Organization is involved because destruction of forests for pond
construction is prohibited
The duties of each agency in the licensing procedure are clearly defined by the parliament
and Council of Ministers. According to guidelines, a formal licence is required for activities
such as fish farming in water bodies where aquaculture is not the major activity, for example
irrigation canals and reservoirs, but they do not need to follow all the formal procedures,
farmers usually obtain a letter of approval from the nearest Fisheries Department. Feed
industry regulation is done by IFO, IVO, and the Ministry of Industries.
b.3. Iraq
Iraqs law no. 48 for 1976 regulates the whole activities of fisheries. The Ministry of
Agriculture issues regulations under this Law, according to the need and includes licensing
for aquaculture firms too. Resolution No. 995 of 1985 linked to the establishment of
pisciculture farms also details leasing of land by the Ministry of Agriculture and Agrarian
Reform for the purpose of establishing pisciculture farms. However, enforcement of
regulations is weak, particularly after the change of Government in 2003.
b.4.Kuwait
In Kuwait, PAAFR administers the basic national legislation in Kuwait, which is
contained in law No. 46 of 1980. Aquaculture activities are administered and promoted by the
Aquaculture division of PAAFRs Fisheries Department. PAAFR also regulates aquaculture
activities and adopts rules and regulations for aquaculture development. In 2005, government
adopted resolution no.293 regarding issuance of aquaculture licences especially for the landbased farms. The resolution specifies farming area, source of water to be used, introduction of
exotic species, drug use and disease control.
b.5.Oman
There is specific regulation for aquaculture in Oman namely the law on Aquaculture and
Quality Control of cultured fish regulation (Ministerial decision No.36/2004). This executive
bylaw encompasses various aspects of aquaculture like licensing requirements, quarantine
requirement, related procedures, exotic species introduction and quality issues. The bylaw
also states the role of the aquaculture committee and the follow up of applications from
private sector. For environment protection, Ministry of Regional Municipalities and Water
Resources (member of aquaculture committee) requires a study of Environmental Impact
Assessments (EIA) for any aquaculture project before issuing its approval for the project. The
law also deals with the quality of the product and the hygiene issues of the farms.
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b.6. Qatar
The government body responsible for aquaculture development and control is the
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture, Qatar. At present, there are no specific laws or
regulations for aquaculture in Qatar.
b.7. Saudi Arabia
In Saudi, the Deputy Ministry for Fisheries Affairs, was established under the Saudi
Ministry of Agriculture and Water in 1992 to oversee national fisheries development policy.
Simultaneously, a Department of Aquaculture (DoA) was established by the Ministry to
execute and facilitate the activities related to aquaculture development. The activity includes,
evaluation and enhancement of aquaculture activities, supervision of aquaculture farms,
following up research activities, conducting feasibility studies, extending technical and
extension services to farmers etc. The department also facilitates area allotment to farmers,
loan sanctioning from banks and speedy approval from the aquaculture authorities to fish
farmers for their short and long-term aquaculture projects.
The law regulating fishing, investment and protection of living aquatic fisheries resources
in the Kingdom was issued as the Royal Decree No. M/9 in 27/3/1408, entrusting the
Ministry of Agriculture with the responsibility of supervising and developing this economic
sector. The Ministry supervises this industry through the Deputy Ministry of Fisheries Affairs
by establishing general policies, planning and designing short- and long-term developmental
programs. The Deputy Ministry issues resolutions and regulating by-laws, and supervises
three separate departments: 1) the Department of Aquaculture, 2) the Department of Fisheries
and 3) the Department of Aquatic Environment. It also supervises the activities of a number
of research canters and the regional fishery offices located on both coasts.
b.8. UAE
In UAE, the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries introduced Federal Law No.23 in
1999, regarding the exploitation, protection and development of the living aquatic resources
in the waters of UAE. This is a comprehensive regulation governing many areas concerning
fisheries, fishing activities, coastal zone management, marine resource and environmental
protection, conservation of endangered marine species and coral reef areas etc. Aquaculture
activities also come under the purview of the law (Articles 33 to 38 under chapter Protection
and Development). The articles deal with issues like licence for establishment, introduction of
exotic species and environmental protection.
b.9. Yemen
Yemens Ministry of Fish Wealth (MFW) is responsible for the aquaculture activities.
Part 3 of Law No. 2 of 2006, in articles 32 to 35 speaks on control and development of
aquaculture. The MFW is responsible to control, supervise and develop aquaculture activities,
establishment of farms and encouragement of investment in the sector. It also manages a)
import, culture and production of new aquaculture species, including aquarium fish species,
b) stock enhancement programs, c) leasing of land or coastal area for aquaculture purpose and
c) conducting aquaculture research and training.
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c. Aquatic Animal Health, Food Safety and Transboundary Issues

All these nine countries are members of the World Organization for Animal Health
(Office international des epizooties, OIE), while six of the nine countries are members of the
WTO (the exceptions being the Iran, Iraq and Yemen which have observer status). All the
nine countries reviewed are members of Codex Alimentarius, ISO (Yemen correspondent
member) and AIDMO (Arab Industrial Development and Mining Organization) etc. The
membership of countries in OIE and WTO provides them with a common, agreed-upon
formal methodology and structure (as outlined in the OIE Code and Manual) for conducting
trade in live aquatic animals and which can be used in developing national and regional
aquatic animal health programs. In addition to other monthly and annual reporting
responsibilities to the OIE, the National Veterinary Services of OIE member countries are
obligated to immediately (within 24 hours) report disease outbreak.
Among countries, relevant aquatic animal health legislation varies from nonexistent
(Qatar), through to numerous laws and regulations scattered in various legal documents
(Bahrain, Oman, Saudi Arabia), to some which are specific to veterinary or aquaculture law
(Iran, Oman, Saudi Arabia, UAE, Yemen).
Regard to food safety, GCC countries does have regulatory harmonization with number
of GCC standardization Organization (GSO) draft standards; however discrepancies do exist
between countries. The Gulf Standards Organization (GSO) is comprised of senior standards
officials from the six GCC member countries and is responsible for developing food and other
standards in the GCC. Presently GCC member countries do have a joint panel called Food
Safety Committee, which discusses the issues. Currently these countries are close to adopting
a common food safety law. The uniform law once implemented will make food import and
safety rules uniform in all member countries. GSO established under the umbrella of GCC
and based in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia is working towards the same.
c.1. Bahrain
In Bahrain, the Public Health Directorates Food and Water Control Section (FWC),
Ministry of Health is responsible for enforcing food safety regulations. The Food Safety
Committee (FSC), an interagency committee composed of representatives from MOH, the
Directorate of Standards and Metrology, Ministry of Commerce, Directorate of Agriculture,
Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Agriculture (MMAA), decides all food safety and control
issues, including ban imposition.
c.2. Iran
Iranian Veterinary Organization (IVO) and Ministry of Health and Medical Education
cooperate closely in monitoring the supply of fish and fish products to the markets. IVO
controls the safety of fish and fish products from production in the aquaculture facilities to the
markets. The Office for Aquatic Health and Disease of the IVO, together with IFO, is
responsible for aquatic animal health and diseases. The responsibility for establishing an
aquatic animal disease surveillance system lies with the IVO as state-run body. Codes of
conduct for food safety have been adopted.
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c.3.Iraq
Iraqs health Ministry with Food Control Laboratory under Nutrition Research Institute
(NRI) shoulders the responsibilities of food control. The 2003 war disrupted food inspection
services, however a risk-based food safety system was implemented in 2004. The present
food safety system is a multi agency system and efforts are on by various International
agencies to improve the Food Safety situation and even to develop a Food Safety Authority.
At present though food laws and regulations exist they are not updated and not enforced. The
Laboratories need to be modernized and staff trained on performing advanced tests.
c.4. Kuwait
Number of departments in Kuwait is involved in food safety monitoring and regulation.
This includes the Municipal Services Systems Department, Imported Foods Department and
Food inspection Department. Services system department sets systems, regulations, studies
and laws for all procedures related to Food health and safety. While imported foods
department deals with monitoring imported goods and Food Inspection Department carries
out evaluation of food quality. PAAFR and Public Authority for Industries also play a vital
role in food safety regulations.
c.5. Oman
Omans Law of Fishing and Protection of living aquatic resources (issued in 1982 and
amended in 1993) states that the Directorate General of Fisheries is the competent authority
responsible for managing the aquaculture sector. Within the framework of this law there are
various executive bylaws which include bylaw on fish quality control (Ministerial decision
No.136/1998) and bylaw on aquaculture and quality control of cultured organisms
(Ministerial decision No.36/2004).
c.6. Qatar
Qatars Public Health Affairs Department under Ministry of Municipal Affairs and Urban
Planning is responsible for food safety.
c.7. Saudi Arabia
Food safety is ensured by Ministry of Municipal and Rural Affairs. The Saudi Food and
Drug Authority (SFDA) established under the Council of Ministers resolution no (1) dated
07/01/1424 H (10 March 2003), as an independent body includes food safety also in its
objectives. Recent reports suggest that SFDA is giving the final touches to a food safety draft
law. If passed by the Cabinet, the law will help to ensure that all imported and indigenous
foodstuff are in conformity with local specifications and internationally recognized standards.
(http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regconandcontentID=2008072512
649)
c.8. UAE
The UAE General Secretariat of Municipalities (GSM) establishes food safety regulations
based on recommendations made by the National Food Safety Committee (NFSC) on food
related matters. The Emirates Authority for Standardization and Metrology (ESMA) is
responsible for developing or adopting all standards. Emirate of Abu Dhabi has Abu Dhabi
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Food Control Authority (www.adfca.ae) to take care of food safety issues and is a member of
official committees in UAE. In Dubai and Sharjah, food control department of Municipality is
the supervising body. Presently a committee comprising members from the Ministry of
Health, municipalities and the economic departments has been set up to working towards
forming an independent federal body to determine and administer safety standards for Food
and pharmaceutical products. Once setup, UAE will be second country after Saudi (its SFDA)
to form an independent body for food safety control (http://www.khaleejtimes.
com/DisplayArticle08.asp?xfile=data/theuae/2009/November/theuae_November421.xmlands
ection=theuae.).
c.9. Yemen
The Law No (2) of 2006 authorizes Yemens Ministry of Fish Wealth to be responsible
for fish quality issues. The Quality Control division of the Ministry is involved in quality
conformation of exported and domestic fish products. European Commission is involved in
project related to various aspects of fish quality assurance including HACCP implementation.
The Standards and Trade Development Facility (STDF, http://www.standardsfacility.org/) is
currently providing assistance to Yemeni Seafood Exporters Association (YSEA) established
in 2005 to improve quality and safety of Yemeni seafood products. The project was
developed from an STDF project preparations grant and is to be completed by end of 2009.
d. Markets for Aquaculture Produce and Challenges to Farmers

The aquaculture produce varies from country to country and also the domestic demand.
In some cases the aquaculture industry is export based, for e.g. shrimps, European fishes.
Better prices from foreign buyers also dictate the industry. Presently major quantities of
cultured finfishes are meant for local consumption. Diseases, increased production costs,
decreased profitability due to lesser market prices or low productivity etc are the common
challenges faced by the farmers.
In Iran, shrimp production has been hit seriously by the disease problem especially the F.
indicus farmers. The present shift to L. vannamei has brought down the intensity of the
predicament in some of the areas. However, majority of them are not operational now. As the
domestic demand is limited due to low per capita shrimp consumption, major quantity of
production needs to be exported.
Iran exports small quantity of carps to Middle East countries like Qatar, Iraq and Bahrain
and trout to its neighbours like Iraq. According to Poursaeed and Falahatkar (2007) the
increasing demand for quality fish will ensure trout culture to be economically feasible for the
near future. However, lack of broodstock management programs, genetic problems are
emerging among hatchery-produced fry, which is likely to result in a decline in production
rate and productivity. This is against the backdrop of increasing demand for fry. To date,
different lines of broodstock have been imported as eyed eggs have been cross-bred, resulting
in a loss of genetic diversity, reduced production rate and increased food conversion ratio in
farms. Other issues that affect the future of the industry include shortage as well as varying
quality of fish feed, widespread diseases and lack of technical training. Carp farming has also
been profitable, but the cost-benefit ratio and profitability varied between regions (Salehi,
2004). The carp farmers earn less profit due to low productivity which is again blamed on
135
lack of knowledge and equipments. Improving farming and hatchery techniques and training
are the major issues facing the carp industry.
In Iraq, shortage for juveniles and feeds are the major issues and is being dealt by
International Agencies to augment production. Moreover, market linkages are insufficient,
leading to disruptions in supply and occasional periods of general or localized oversupply.
Fish storage and transportation facilities are not sufficient and even existing ones are not of
International standard resulting in quality problems. Unpredictability of supply has a
deleterious effect on potential demand for the product.
Currently, Kuwaits tilapia from land farms and fishes from cage farm are sold in
domestic market. Tilapia industry is struggling with low production and profitability. High
production cost, slow growth rate, high FCR, high feed cost, lack of trained manpower,
impaired coordination among the farmers in marketing exist and competition from imported
and frozen tilapia are the major constraints to farmers (Ridha, 2006).
Oman the finfishes produced in cages and shrimp produced in ponds are the major
aquaculture products and belongs to private companies. The need to import fish juveniles (as
Oman does not have a commercial hatchery) and feed for both fish and shrimp are the major
constraints. The Ministry has insisted on moving towards cage farming of indigenous species
and such move needs a through economic analysis.
In Saudi, major quantity of farm produced shrimp is exported. With tilapia industry, since
the beginning of this decade, has been beset with various issues. All farms operated at less
than profit-maximising scale and most operate at less than minimum efficient scale. The
reasons attributed included low quality fry, low levels of management expertise in culturing
tilapia and the secondary nature of tilapia farming. Added to these issues, imported frozen
tilapia was cheaper than locally produced costly fresh tilapia, and dominated the market.
While the local production cost Tilapia is about 9 Saudi Rials (1 SR=0.26 US$), the imported
products are sold with a price tag of 5 SR. This has resulted even in closure of some of the
farms. Other issues faced include shortage fish feed mills and limited technical guidance from
Ministry. Offering of land by government in very remote areas with poor infrastructure, for
future projects has further brought down the interest in new investment. Lack of water is
likely to limit future expansion of tilapia farming in Saudi (Elhendy and Alzoom, 2001).
Importing of fish juveniles (done till recently), feed and equipments are the major factors
affecting UAEs cage finfish farm and shrimp culture industry. In Yemen, importation of
feed, machineries and low domestic demand are the issues facing the farmer.
e. Market Price of Wild Fish Compared to Culture Produce

Comparing the market price for wild and cultured it varies from country to country.
While in Iran there are no clear price differentials between wild and cultured fish species,
cultured ones are slightly costlier in Iraq, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi and UAE.
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FOOD SECURITY AND AQUACULTURE

a. Food Security
Aquaculture contributes to food security (especially to the food insecure rural
populations), rural employment and income generation. According to FAO (2009), 32 % of
Yemens population was undernourished (2004-2006). Similarly, Irans 4 % population is
under nourished (WFP, 2009). In 2005, the World Food Programme (WFP) estimated that
more than four million Iraqi families were food insecure, with a further eight million at risk.
Aquaculture projects implementation in viable areas could help to tackle the nutrition
deficiency issue and would be an income generator to the vulnerable population.
b. Per Capita Fish Consumption

The per capita fish consumption varies from country to country reflecting different eating
habits and traditions, availability of fish and other foods, prices, socio-economic levels, and
seasons. The annual per capita fish consumption is high (>20 kg/person/year) in Oman, UAE
and Yemen (27, 33 and 30 kg, respectively), moderate (10-20 kgs) in Bahrain (17 kgs), and
Qatar (14.2 kgs), and low (<10 kg/person/year) in Iran (7.35 kgs), Kuwait (6 kgs), and Saudi
Arabia (8 kgs). Iraq records the lowest value of 1.4 kg /person/year. The contribution of
aquaculture to fisheries production also varies between countries.
c. Fish v/s Other Protein Sources

In relative terms, consumption of fish is lower than that of red meat and poultry across
these countries. The relative contribution of fish to the total animal protein varies greatly from
country to country; it is 1525 % of total protein in Oman and Yemen, between 515 % in
Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. In Iraq per
capita consumption of fish has dropped down due to the long periods of unrest and sanctions
and also to the decrease in the purchasing power and lack of initiatives to increase national
fish production.
137
Table 6. Per capita Fish vs Poultry and Total Meat Consumption in the countries
Fish consumption
2003
Fish consumption
2007
Poultry
consumption
2005*
Meat
consumption
2002^
Bahrain
16.7
17.0
35.0
70.7
Iran
6.1
7.4
15.2
23.1
Iraq
1.0
1.4
8.5
Kuwait
5.5
6.0
57.1
60.2
Oman
25.8
27.0
15.4
49.8
Qatar
12.0
14.2
28.7
90.5
Saudi Arabia
7.9
8.0
38.5
44.6
UAE
33.0
33.0
42.1
74.4
Yemen
30.0
30.0
9.2
14.7
Country
RESOURCE USE AND THE ENVIRONMENT

a. Water and Land Use in Aquaculture
In Bahrain, aquaculture activities are carried out only by the National Mariculture Center,
occupying an area of 24 ha. Shrimp farms in Iran are both brackishwater and direct seawater
based. In 2007, while 208 shrimp farms covered a total area of 1207 ha, the coldwater and
warm water fish farms covered more than 22,000 ha.
Marine shrimp culture in Oman is carried out in 16 ha waterspread area. About 4.6 ha of
irrigation ponds are used as for extensive farming of tilapia in Qatar. In the UAE, Marine
Resources Research Canter (MRRC), occupying an area of about 12.7 ha on the western side
of the Entrance channel of Umm AI Qaiwain lagoon, carries out mariculture activities. In
Kuwait , all 65 farms culturing Tilapia are located in Wafra agricultural area located about
100 km south of Kuwait City and in the AlAbdali area north of Kuwait City. UAEs Al Jaraf
fisheries operates with 55 ha area for shrimp and 10 ha area for fish farming. In Yemen the
marine shrimp farm near Hodeidah covers an area of 100 ha.
b. Feed and Seed Resources

There are no commercial fish / shrimp feed mills in Bahrain, Iraq, Oman and Qatar. Saudi
Arabia has few commercial fish feed mills and is the largest regional producer of fish feeds
(more than 20,000 tonnes / year) in the GCC region. Saudi Arabia exports annually to the
United Arab Emirates about 500 tonnes of fish feed and an additional 200 tonnes to other
GCC countries. National Prawn Company of Saudi Arabia itself has the capacity to produce
50,000 tons of shrimp feed per year. In Iraq, feedstuff producers do not meet even minimal
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international standards: Feed composition is standardized rather than modified for the needs
of individual species. Often the feed employed was originally developed for poultry and then
adapted to fish farming. The exact formulations are often unknown, and may vary depending
on the availability of imported raw materials in the country at any given moment. Usual
proximate composition includes 30 % protein and costs 0.2$/kg and with carps yields a feed
conversion ratio of 2.3 (USAID, 2006).
In Iran, six feed producers with a capacity of more than 20,000 tons produced 10,000 tons
of feed in 2003 and more than 1,000 tons were also imported from Taiwan. In 2004, feed
production increased to almost 11,000 tons, but 3,000 tons were also imported from Taiwan
and China. Since 2009, Iran exports shrimp feed to Oman. In Kuwait fish feeds are mostly
imported from France (Biomar) and Saudi Arabia (ARASCO). More recently, fish feeds are
manufactured on a small-scale by two Kuwaiti-based companies (Sultan Feed Company and
Kuwait Animal Feed Factory) from which Bubiyan Fishing Company is getting fish feed in
limited scale. There is one partially operating fish feed mill in the UAE. However, the
requirement is met by importing feeds from Saudi Arabia and Europe (for marine fishes) and
from Saudi and India (for shrimps). Yemen shrimp farm imports feed from Malaysia, China,
Taiwan and Saudi Arabia.
Related to seed production, all the countries do have hatchery facility for shrimp seed
production. However, purely commercial finfish hatcheries exist only in Iran, Iraq, Kuwait,
Saudi Arabia and UAE. In the case of Kuwait the marine fish hatchery which belongs to
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research was rented out to a private company earlier and at
present the hatchery is not operational. The marine cage farms need to import juveniles from
Bahrain or from European countries like France or Greece. Bahrain hatchery which belongs
to the Ministry produces fish juveniles (Table) and supplies GCC countries or releases them
into sea as a part of restocking program. In Iran, hatcheries do exist for freshwater fishes
(both cold and warm water) and for freshwater ornamental fishes. In 2004, more than 95 % of
the juveniles were produced by private sector. However for marine fishes only modified
shrimp hatcheries are used mainly to execute the larval rearing and nursery part of juvenile
production.
Currently in Iraq, only a few carp hatcheries are operational, four in the Baghdad region,
none in the north apparently, where fish consumption is the lowest in the Iraq, and one is
reported to be operating in Basrah.
The renovated Euphrates Fish Farm Hatchery project produced 12 million fingerlings in
2008 against just 2 million in 2007 (https://www.inma-iraq.com/?pname=openandf=
doc100242_010_activity_ 250px. jpgandid=242andtype=htmland).
In Saudi, Fish Farming Center supplies farms along the Red Sea coast with juveniles of
grouper, Asian seabass, rabbit fish etc. Commercial hatchery for tilapia, catfish and
ornamental fishes exist along the Eastern province. With UAE, the government hatchery sells
the juveniles or uses it for research purposes or for restocking programs. Production of
juveniles for exotic species like gilthead seabream or European seabass is usually associated
with import of eggs or just- hatched larvae from France or Greece.
Commercial-scale marine shrimp hatcheries exist in all the countries that farm shrimps
(Iran, Oman, Saudi Arabia, UAE and Yemen). In the case of Iran, broodstock of L. vannamei
has been imported from Hawaii and with UAE, the broodstock of P. monodon from Tanzania.
National Prawn Company of Saudi Arabia boasts of the shrimp hatchery with an annual
capacity to produce over one billion postlarvae. Use of domesticated broodstock for hatchery
139
production has been reported with F. indicus in Saudi Arabia, Yemen and Iran. In other cases
the domestication program is either in the initial stages or entirely dependent on wild
broodstock. In the case of marine fishes, Kuwait reports the use of domesticated grouper (E.
coioides) and sobaity (S. hasta) for juvenile production.
c. Environmental Management Issues

The General Directorate for the protection of Marine Resources in Bahrain issues
licences for mariculture activities, operational regulations, export licenses for marine products
and permits for any fish catch and processing business. However, there are no other specific
laws or regulations for fish farming; there are no guidelines for EIA studies or for any
environmental monitoring programs for mariculture.
The Environment Conservation Organization of Iran has introduced some regulations to
prevent certain activities having a negative impact on the environment (recommends
recirculation of waste waters, filtration of waste, environmental impact assessment, etc.).
Organisations such as the Environment Organization (EO) and related research centres are
involved in drafting rules pertaining to pollution, environment and organic farming activities.
The EO and the Energy (Water) Organization are involved in issues surrounding water supply
for marine and inland aquaculture, respectively.
In Oman, the Ministry of Environment and Climate Affairs (MECA) was established
(Royal Decree No.90/2007) as the governmental authority responsible for the protection of
environment. The law on Conservation of the Environment and Prevention of Pollution is the
main one and provides the framework for environmental protection in Oman. The law was
issued by the government in 1982, and subsequently amended by the Royal Decree No.
114/2001 on 14/11/2001. The Ministerial decision 187/2001 details the necessary
requirements and the approval system for EIA studies. Aquaculture projects require an EIA
study. However, it is opined that the guidelines of MECA are general and there is a need to
develop specific requirements and guidelines for aquaculture EIA studies. The bylaw for
aquaculture and quality control of aquaculture products issued in 2004 by the Ministry of
Fisheries specifies that farm sites should not conflict with the activities of local fishermen and
be located away from environmentally-sensitive areas such as mangrove swamps, coral reef
and turtles nesting sites. The selection process is overseen by a specific aquaculture
committee headed by the Ministry of Fisheries and includes members of other relevant
governmental authorities.
Presently, there are no specific laws or regulations for aquaculture in Qatar. With Saudi
Arabia, the General Environmental Law and Rules for Implementation (Royal degree M/34
dated 16 Oct, 2001), details the environmental protection standards to be followed including
EIA and disaster management requirements. The same assigned general responsibility of
environment protection to MEPA, now called Presidency of Meteorology and Environment
Protection (PME).
In UAE, Federal Law No. 23 (1999) of Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries is a
comprehensive regulation governing many areas concerning fisheries, coastal zone
management, marine resource and environmental protection, conservation of endangered
marine species etc. Aquaculture activities including pollution control and regulation on
introduction of alien species also come under the purview of the law (Articles 34 to 38).
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LEGAL, INSTITUTIONAL AND MANAGEMENT ASPECTS

a. Aquaculture Sector Management, National Support and Policy
a.1. Bahrain
In Bahrain, the Directorate of Marine Resources (DMR) within the General Directorate
for the Protection of Marine Resources is the leading government agency responsible for
management and development of aquaculture sector in the Kingdom.
DMR also liaises with other government bodies on issues relating to aquaculture
development and quality control. The DMR in Bahrain is working on a master that will
comprise strategy for the aquaculture sector development and will deal with related issues
like legislation, environmental monitoring, aquatic health, sustainability etc. The plan will
also specify the role of different government authorities as well as the private sector in the
management process of this sector.
a.2. Iran
In Iran, the Government through IFO and IFRO has been involved in various levels to
support the industry. This support includes running of hatcheries, technical assistance to feed
companies, financial assistance to new projects, research studies subsidies etc. Numerous
schemes are on place to increase both brackish and marine aquaculture and fish production
from cages as well as in ponds, lakes, reservoirs and rivers. The private sector has emerged as
the major player in aquaculture investment, particularly in shrimp and warm water farming.
Seafood exports are now recognised as a major source of export earnings. The processing
facilities have to comply with EU standards. The Iranian Fisheries Organisation, in line with
the government has already developed its fourth 5-year plan for fisheries (2005-2010). The
plan deals with objectives like increased food security through increased domestic production,
aquaculture productivity improvement, increasing fish consumption, increasing exports etc.
Recently, Shilat has decided to involve in sturgeon farming with the support of German
Company UTE (Iran Daily, June 16, 2009). It is estimated that 50 tons of caviar and 1000 t of
sturgeon meat could be produced by aquaculture in Iran by 2011-2016 (Bronzi, 2007).
a.3. Iraq
In Iraq, various projects have been implemented post-2003 by International bodies like
FAO, UNESCO, UNEP, USAID and locally General Board of Fish Research and
Development (GBFRD) of Ministry of Agriculture to revive the industry. These projects aim
to increase national fish production and enhance food security and livelihoods of fishermen,
farmers and associated rural communities by utilizing unutilised inland saline water bodies in
a sustainable manner with community participation. USAIDs Inma plans importing top
quality fish broodstock from Hungary this year, which, upon passing Ministry of Agriculture
quarantine, will be cross bred with heat resistant Iraqi stock to significantly improve the
growth rate. From April to June 2010, the crossbred offspring will be distributed to hatcheries
and fish farms throughout Iraq, estimated at 25 million fingerlings (USAID, 2009).
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a.4. Kuwait
Both establishment of tilapia hatchery unit at Al-Wafra and support to cage farming
industry in finding an alternate site, stand as proof to governments interest. New site has
been identified at the southern coast of Kuwait whereby the Bubiyan Fishing Company and
other companies are likely to establish the cages for marine fish production in large scale. The
aquaculture industry is presently getting supported by government in the form of feed
subsidies for the tilapia farms and financial subsidy for the cage farm. The aquaculture
production is expected to flourish with the concerted support of Government and fulfill the
future demand for fish supply in Kuwait.
a.5. Oman
With Oman, establishment of Mariculture Center by Ministry of Fisheries Wealth with its
advanced facilities will enable the country to cope with an expected expansion in the
aquaculture sector. A Master Plan has also been prepared by the Aquaculture Laboratory for
the future development of the aquaculture sector. The Plan covers areas such as legislation,
environmental and disease monitoring, exotic species introduction, guidelines related to role
of government and private sector in management of sector and best management practices
towards sustainable management and development. The country currently concentrates on
standardizing culture techniques for highly viable species like grouper (E. areolatus) and
abalone (H. mariae).
a.6. Qatar
The construction of new hatchery in 2001 at the Doha Aquaculture Center helped to
initiate series of research programs on finfish culture. The Government of Qatar is
establishing a marine aquaculture center in Ras Matbakh which will be the keystone for the
development of aquaculture in the country. Furthermore, the Agricultural Development
Department has signed an agreement with the Industrial Bank by which long-term loans (25
years at 1.5 percent interest rate) are given to encourage farmer to establish fish farm. The
aim of this policy is for the country to become self-sufficient with regards to its domestic
demand for fish and particularly freshwater fish.
a.7. Saudi Arabia
Governments Fish farming Center is currently involved in egg and juvenile production
of fishes like rabbit fish (Siganus rivulatus), mullet (Velamugil seheli), seabass (L. calcarifer)
and tilapia (O. niloticus). Other than researching on the aquaculture potential and
standardizing culture protocol, the centre also supplies juveniles to private farmers and thus
promotes the industry.
The Department of Aquaculture, under Deputy Minister for Fisheries Affairs extends
support with regards to the identification suitable sites where aquaculture operations can be
established. The Department also conducts market analysis for aquaculture products which
are made available to the private sector.
a.8. UAE
In UAE, government has been attracting investors in to aquaculture. The recent success
with commercial cage farm and shrimp farming will pave the way for more such ventures.
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Freshwater aquaculture is limited to a few irrigation channels, ponds and tanks adjacent to
agriculture farms. Expansion is likely in the future as people are becoming aware of the dual
benefits of rearing fish such as tilapia in such facilities which will not only produce fish but
also fertilize the irrigation water. Marine Resources Research Centre has been contributing its
share to aquaculture growth by providing fingerlings and imparting technical information to
interested citizens. Governments interest to farm bluefin tuna and other fish species is also an
encouraging sign.
a.9. Yemen
Government is seriously involved with the projects dealing with quality and safety of
Yemeni seafood products. As the project also involves application of latest standards in
fish handling and processing would also be applicable to aquaculture products. Yemen
Fish Company with government backing is planning to enter Tuna aquaculture sector
(www.sabanews. net/ en/ word178162.htm).
b. Private Sector Participation

Commercial aquaculture in all the above countries is carried out by private sector. The
private sector is supported by government in various forms and includes tax holidays, reduced
taxes and land rentals, low-interest loans, supply of subsidized electricity, feed, juveniles,
equipments, purchase of end product from farmers when problems are faced with exporting,
purchase of juveniles from hatcheries for ranching purposes etc.
c. Education, Research and Training Present Status

University courses in aquaculture, at the undergraduate and/or graduate levels, are
currently offered by universities in Iran, Kuwait, Oman and Saudi Arabia. Courses are offered
in general topics as aquatic science, fisheries science, hydrobiology, marine biology, and
oceanography, and specific topics such as aquaculture, aquaculture hygiene, disease, feeding,
fish husbandry, food hygiene, genetics, and production. In countries other than Iran, more
limited aquaculture related training is available.
Several institutes, universities and organizations have been involved in applied
aquaculture research (Table 7).
Iran, Oman and Saudi Arabia provide comprehensive government-supported research,
extension and support services, such as pilot farms, hatcheries, and laboratories, and these
services may be offered free or for a nominal fee. A key role of such centers is the provision
of field and basic training in all aspects of aquaculture operation, and extension services
such as regular meetings, and dissemination of information. Qatar is setting up an
Aquatic and FisheriesResearch Center at Ras Matbakh in Al-Khor that will include a
fishfarminglaboratory (http://www.ashghal.gov.qa/English/PublishingImages /Magazine
Area/ Ashghal Plan_E.pdf).
In Iraq, USAIDs aquaculture training program will establish training centers in the Babil
area, propagating techniques that distinctly increase the production, quality and growth rate of
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commercially bred fish. Two grants for aquaculture training centers have been announced,
one each in North and South Babil (USAID, 2009).
Table 7. List of main research institutions involved in aquaculture research
in different countries
Country
Bahrain
Iran
Iraq
Kuwait
Oman
Qatar
Saudi
Arabia
UAE
Yemen
Main Research Institutions

National Mariculture Centre, Ras Hayan
Bahrain Centre for Studies and Research
University of Bahrain, Manama
Iranian Fisheries Research and Training Organization
Includes,
a) Shrimp research centre, Bushehr
b) Cold water Fishes Research Cenre, Mazandran
c) Artemia Research Centre, Urmia
d) International Sturgeon Research Institute, Rasht
The Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation
Persian Gulf Biotechnology Research Centre, Qeshm
Universities : Islamic Azad University (Tonekabon); Tarbiat Modarres Univ.
(Tehran); Tehran Univ. (Tehran); Islamic Azad Univ (Tehran), University of
Marine Science and Technology (Khorramshahr); Shahid Chamran Univ.
(Ahwaz); Urmia Univ. (Urmia), Isfahan Univ of Tech (Isfahan)
Fish Research Center (Zeafaraniyah, Baghdad); Marine
Science Center (Basra); Agriculture Research Center;
Central Hatchery at Swairah; Fisheries and Marine
Resources Department in College of Agriculture (Basra)
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, Ras Salmiya;
Public Authority of Agriculture Affairs and Fish
Resources;
University of Kuwait, Shuwaikh.
Aquaculture Centre, Ministry of Fisheries Wealth, Muscat; Sultan Qaboos
University , Al Khod; Fishermen Training Institute, Al-khaboura.
Aquaculture Centre, Doha; University of Qatar, Doha
Fish Farming Centre , Jeddah; King Abdul Aziz City for
Science and Technology, Riyadh; Eastern province fisheries
research centre ; Red sea Fisheries Research Cnetre
Marine Resources Research Centre, Umm al Qaiwain;
United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain
Aquaculture Research Centre, Aden.
d. Aquafarmers associations, cooperatives

There are currently no aquaculture associations / cooperatives in Bahrain, Oman, Qatar,
UAE and Yemen. In Iran, there are three cooperative unions, one each for coldwater, warm
water, and shrimp production; the unions have been formed to lead aquaculture development,
to collaborate in decision making and to support farmers. In Iraq fish farmers association is
being formed by the efforts of USAIDs programmes.
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C. Regunathan
In Saudi Arabia, currently no producers associations exist, however, the General

Directorate of Aquaculture, Ministry of Agriculture has undertaken a study to establish an
aquaculture society that would work as National Information Center.
SOCIAL IMPACTS, EMPLOYMENT AND POVERTY REDUCTION

The data on aquaculture employment for 2005 FAOs National Aquaculture Sector
Overview indicate maximum employment by Iran with more than 17,000 were involved in
aquaculture either in private or government facilities. A recent report from IFO puts the figure
at around 24,000 (Shariab, Shilat website). This is followed by Saudi Arabia and Kuwait with
nearly 3,500 and 162 people respectively. Rest of the countries report a figure of less than
hundred people with Qatar recording the lowest of 10. However recent report by USAID says
more than 100 farms and local fish associations in Babil alone received fish juveniles from
Euphrates fish hatchery (USAID, 2009). This means the manpower associated with
aquaculture will be very well more than 162 thus taking Iraq to third position. In future with
an estimated potential of 50,000 tons, the fish farming industry in Iraq could probably create
at least 5,000 direct jobs, plus a considerable amount of related jobs (USAID,2006).
Because of being an industry still in the technology and knowledge-intensive start-up
phase aquaculture industry employs more technically trained people. However in many cases
the employment includes illiterate labourers to the level of 80% workforce. Involvement of
women in aquaculture has been reported with Iran, Saudi and Yemen. A study in the west of
Iran (5 provinces ; Hamedan , Kerman shah, Lorestan, Eilam) shows that women and children
are involved in 36 % of 298 fish units , including fish farm , double purpose fish ponds and
raceways (Royan Engineering Consultancy, 2002). Women were also involved in non
production activities such as research, extension, consulting and support services in
government or non government aquaculture sectors and had higher education.
Aquaculture has been recognized to be industry that can support poor families by
providing employment, income and nutritionally-healthy, cheap protein. In countries like
Iran, Iraq and Yemen, aquaculture produce is a vital source of food security in areas with poor
infrastructure. For the rest of the countries, aquaculture industry would help to reduce the
unemployment problem and earn foreign exchange.
RECENT TRENDS AND PRIORITY ISSUES

The recent trend has been towards diversification of species, intensification, integration
and importation of foreign species. Research institutes have been working with potential new
species for culture (silver pomfret, grouper, cobia, abalone). Intensification is done
considering the economic viability and limited availability for land and water. Number of
non-native species has been introduced in countries (European bream and bass, sturgeon,
Pacific white shrimp) targeting the export market. The recent interest by International
Sturgeon Research Institute (www.sturgeon .ir) to import paddlefish Polyodon spathula
confirms that the trend is there to go on. Integration of agriculture and aquaculture has been
practiced in Iran, Kuwait, Oman, Saudi and UAE and is strongly recommended and
supported.
145
Culture of non-food species also has received greater interest recently in countries like
Iran, Oman and Saudi Arabia and includes ornamental fishes, pearl oyster and seaweeds.
Efforts to venture into organic aquaculture are yet to take place in these countries. Similarly,
commercial SPF broodstock facilities and recirculation aquaculture systems do not exist in
these countries. Inland culture of fishes like grouper and European seabass have also been
planned by companies (Innovation Norway, 2009)
The priority issues in Middle East aquaculture sector include the following:
1) Limited availability of suitable sites for culture. Limited availability of sites affects
growth of the industry and also influence the technology adopted. In country like Kuwait,
land-based mariculture activity is not feasible due to highly limited site availability close to
sea. So, inshore or offshore culture is the only option available. In all the countries, even if
suitable sites exist, they face conflict with concomitant users like tourism, conservation,
fishermen, human settlement etc. Even the operating inshore, offshore sites face potential
pollution problems.
2) Culture technology. Absence of local hatchery facility or inadequate production from
existing ones compels farmers to import juveniles and an erratic supply affects farms
production planning and economics. The long transportation hours also results in quality
compromise of imported eggs / larvae / juveniles. Much research has to go into culture of
endemic species, their domestication, larval rearing techniques, nutrition, farming technology,
disease control protocol etc. Absence of local feed industry (except Iran and Saudi) leads to
importation of feed resulting in high feed costs and so unit production cost. Present culture
technology also needs to be modified to make it more environment-friendly and its products
safe to consumers.
3) Marketing of products. In all these countries, per capita consumption of red meat and
poultry meat is considerably higher than fish as the latter is not a traditional diet. Even with
fish eating population the demand is for limited number of species. Countries have realized
the potential of domestic market and country like Iran has taken steps to popularize seafood
among its population quoting its health benefits. Increased domestic demand would help the
farmers to escape out of fluctuating international demand and prices. This again requires
comprehensive production and marketing strategies such that the products of required size
and presentation are produced at a competitive price and are available at the time of peak
demand and include variety of items to meet the demand of various segments of population.
4) Diseases, aquatic animal health monitoring, drug usage. Diseases have been a major
issue leading to severe economic loss. Many of these countries (except Bahrain and Qatar) do
have a policy effective enough to prevent entry and spread of pathogens. Yet, all the related
issues are not covered except in Iran, Kuwait and Saudi Arabia. The inadequate disease
monitoring program is a pressing issue in these countries. Such programs have been reported
to be adequate only with Iran and Iraq. Disease monitoring programmes are currently planned
for countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman and Qatar; but not yet for UAE or Yemen (RECOFI,
2008). Other key regional deficiencies in disease awareness and management are difficulties
in accessing information, an absence of specialists, and a scarcity of suitably qualified
diagnostic laboratories, quarantine procedures and inadequate facilities in some instances. In
a number of countries there is no regulation or legislation pertaining to chemicals and drugs
approved for use in aquaculture. Much needs to be done in the form of regulations to ensure
food safety.
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C. Regunathan
5) Government support, Complex administrative procedures. Although all the countries

have realized the significance of aquaculture, there is a lack of broader aquaculture
development strategy. There is also lack of legal framework and even with prevailing laws
they are not strictly enforced in some cases. Action discontinuity due to change of department
heads also been a problem.
Across the region there are circumstances where policies were or are absent, obscure, or
complicated, thus hindering aquaculture growth? Obstacles include numerous agencies
needing to be consulted for addressing single or limited issues, time consuming bureaucratic
procedures, contradictory laws, rigid policies, lack of co-ordination among agencies and a lag
between the speed of development of the administrative framework and the faster speed of
development of the aquaculture industry itself.
6) Scarce financial assistance from banks or government. Repeated disease, product
contamination, drug residue detection related shipment rejection and environment related
issues have led to banks being too cautious to support for aquaculture. In many of the
countries the governments have been playing a more proactive role in aquaculture
development in the form of subsidies, low rentals, writing off bad debt from affected farmers,
supply of juveniles etc.
7) Inadequate manpower, training and research. Shortage of trained personnel has been
an obstacle to aquaculture development in many of the countries. Extension planning and labto-land programs are still lacking in all these countries. Lack of funding has been a major
reason behind poor aquaculture related RandD work. RandD studies related to culture of local
species, genetic improvement, environment-friendly management, integration of aquaculture
with agriculture, polyculture, organic farming, low-cost feed formulation etc are need of the
hour. Issues like harmful Algal blooms, biotoxins, episodic pollutants, global warming related
issues etc also deserve much attention.
BAHRAIN
1. Larval Rearing facility in National Mariculture Center (NMC), Bahrain (Courtesy: RAIS).
2. Concrete raceways in NMC, Bahrain (Courtesy: RAIS).
3. Outdoor broodstock facility in NMC, Bahrain (Courtesy: RAIS).
IRAN
4. Sturgeon one of the recent commercial culture candidates in Iran.
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C. Regunathan
5. Birds eye view of a trout farm, Iran.
6. Close view of trout farm in operation.
7. A Sturgeon hatchery facility in Iran (Courtesy: RAIS).
149
8. Cage farm in Qeshm island, Iran.
CONCLUSION
Technically, all these countries have high growth potential for commercial aquaculture.
However, the aquaculture sector needs to operate under sound macro-economic, institutional
and legal frameworks and is lacking in many. One of the prerequisites enabling aquaculture to
make a contribution to sustainable development lies with a governments commitment to
provide appropriate support to the sector.
Relevant to policies, legal frameworks and institutions a multi-faceted approach is needed
for aquaculture development including development of a comprehensive management plan.
The government must ensure participation by producers in the decision-making and
regulation processes to make policies more effective.
Regular dissemination of information by the sector to the regulatory agencies would help
to promote a unified understanding of the needs of sector, Conducting regular meetings
between different regulatory agencies would help to achieve exchange of information and
improved coordination, harmonization of and possible amendments to laws relating to
aquaculture and promotion of active inter-regional coordination of national policies as far as
is practicable. It is also important that the farmers are updated on the latest developments
related to quality, food safety, traceability etc.
Health issues are of increasing importance due to intensification of aquaculture, and
increasing movement of aquatic organisms within and between nations. The most pressing
problem is inadequate disease monitoring and surveillance programmes. In order to address
these deficiencies, training in correct sample collection and preparation, distribution and
effective use of manuals for identification of etiological agents, establishment of a regional
code of conduct and adherence, implementation of a regional alert/notification system for
disease outbreaks, and adoption of effective biosecurity practices, needs to be implemented.
Overriding all, there is an urgent need to establish a comprehensive regional center of
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C. Regunathan
expertise in fish health. It is imperative that each country has the lab facility to confirm the
presence or absence of pathogens.
Legislations need to be implemented controlling the movement of exotic species, use of
drugs and chemicals in aquaculture. Import risk assessment (IRA) is becoming increasingly a
standard tool for ensuring responsible movement and introduction of species and strains for
aquaculture.
Research and technology transfer between countries, are seen as key solutions to
developing suitable new technologies that can be adopted for use in the remaining available
sites, particularly those in the marine environment. Much research attention is wanting with
relevance to developing technology suited to their conditions or local culture candidate,
infrastructure development, research funding etc.
To address environmental concerns, undertaking Environmental Impact Assessments for
aquaculture projects, and promoting farming systems that make rational use of water, and
assist environmental rehabilitation or pollutant mitigation (e.g. integrated agriculture
aquaculture projects) is recommended. Certification in aquaculture can have positive effects
by spurring new competitive advantages and investments. Enforcement of certification
standards, best management practices and food safety regulations is imperative for export.
Effective regulation is only possible with an effective information system, demanding
improved quality of aquaculture information and statistics.
Presently, there is a rush to invest in food sector outside the country by Arab nations to
ensure food security for its population (gulfnews.com/.../uae-seeks-east-asia-food-securitylinks-1.515948). At this juncture it will be worth mentioning that they best utilize their
aquaculture (especially mariculture) potential and ensure fishfood security for its people.
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ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 9
AQUACULTURE IN ISRAEL:
CURRENT STATUS AND INNOVATIVE APPROACHES
W. M. Koven1, S. Harpaz2, J. Van Rijn3 and N. Mozes4
ABSTRACT
In 2007 Israelis consumed about 72,000 MT of fish, which is about equal to 10 kg
per capita. About 65% of demand was from frozen imports while approximately 35% of
consumption came from locally produced freshwater and marine fish or 24,866 MT.
Fresh water aquaculture represented 19,168 MT while mariculture's share was only 2,251
MT.
New advances in m1ariculture research included the dietary manipulation of the
stress response in fish larvae, determining the environmental and nutritional factors
affecting juvenile deformities in gilthead sea bream as well as the quantification of the
daily energy and protein requirement for the gilthead sea bream, European sea bass and
white grouper during grow-out. The use of the mesocosm approach was implemented for
the larviculture of grouper and studies were conducted to increase the female/male sex
ratio in the European sea bass through temperature manipulation during larval rearing. In
freshwater aquaculture a vaccine against a virus (CyHV3) that devastated carp and Koi
culture was developed and hybrid tilapia was organically grown in polyculture as well as
in the desert using underground saline and geothermal water.
By 2000 Israel was 10th in the world in revenue from ornamental fish. In 2007, the
exports of cold water ornamental fish, mainly the ornamental carp (Koi), were around
$12,000,000 annually. Tropical warm water ornamental fish production exceeds
$250,000 annually while marine ornamental fish production revolves mainly around 5
species of clown fish (Amphiprion spp.), the major one being A. ocellaris with a monthly
production of 7,000-10,000 fish.
1
Israel Oceanographic and Limnological Research, The National Center for Mariculture (NCM), Eilat 88112, Israel
Institute of Animal Science, Agricultural Research Organization (ARO), The Volcani Center, P. O. Box 6, BetDagan 50250, Israel
3
The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, P.O.
Box 12, Rehovot 76100, Israel
4
Fish and Aquaculture Dept., Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development, P.O.Box 30, Bet-Dagan 50250,
Israel.
2
156
W. M. Koven, S. Harpaz, J. Van Rijn et al.

An effective approach to the water treatment of in-land fish farm effluent through
biofiltration has become the cornerstone of the integrative pond approach in Israel.
Organisms involved in biofiltration can be bacteria which convert waste carbon and
nitrogen into gasses while microalgae, macroalgae and suspension feeders assimilate
nutrients from the effluent into their biomass.
In Israel, water and land scarcity as well as potential environmental damage
associated from marine fish cage culture have been the driving forces behind the
development of recirculating systems. A low-head recirculating concept was developed
to produce the Mega-Flow system. This approach is based on providing water circulation
and water aeration by means of airlifts. Alternatively, other research has mainly dealt
with the development of a zero-discharge recirculating system based on the combined
aerobic/anoxic treatment of the culture water.
INTRODUCTION
Israeli aquaculture began in the mid 1930's with the introduction of the common carp
which was grown employing traditional European methods. In the 1960s tilapia species and
hybrids were introduced where the major part of production was carried out in extensive fish
ponds with annual average yields of less than 5 MT/ha. Since then this industry has expanded
greatly and today is concentrated in three main regions in Israel. The fresh water culture of
tilapia, mullet, carp, trout, striped bass and silver carp is centered in the northern part of the
country while the Lake Kinneret (Sea of Galilee) has been stocked with a range of species
that have been cultured (S. galilaeus, silver carp) or caught (muglids) in the sea. The focus,
until recently, on the mariculture of the main species; the gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata)
and to a lesser extent the European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax), has been in the Gulf of
Aqaba near the city of Eilat, Israel. In the last few years, marine teleost production has
increased along the Mediterranean coast. In fact, a fourth focus has developed over the last
decade in the Arava valley in the south of Israel where a number of ornamental fish farms are
producing mainly for markets in Europe. In order to find new markets and/or reduce the
commercial and sport fishing pressure on populations that are endangered, new species such
as the white grouper and blue fin tuna are currently being investigated. In addition, species
such as the grey mullet, rainbow trout, hybrid bass, red drum and Australian silver perch are
being grown, as well, to expand the industry.
Apart from the growing demand for farmed fish, there are two problems that are
becoming more acute in the region which have stimulated the Israeli aquaculture sector to be
particularly innovative. The first is the chronic water shortage plaguing Israel and its
surrounding neighbors while the second is the conflict between aquaculture activity and its
resulting effluent on tourism, environmental resources and fish welfare. This was brought into
sharp focus in recent years where commercial sea cages near Eilat, primarily raising gilthead
sea bream, were removed after a lengthy legal process due to concern of their alleged effect
on near-by (8 km) coral reefs. This has lead to a keen awareness in the industry to reduce
water use (freshwater and marine recirculating aquaculture systems) and to significantly
remove nitrogen based compounds (biological and/or mechanical filtration) in the effluent
from commercial operations.
Aquaculture in Israel
157
THE PRESENT STATUS OF AQUACULTURE

The most recently published report by the Israeli Ministry of Agriculture and Rural
Development, Fisheries and Aquaculture 2007 (Shapiro 2007) reported that Israelis consumed
about 72,000 MT of fish, which is about equal to 10 kg per capita, a slight decline from
previous years (Table 1). About 65% of demand was from frozen imports or about 47,000
MT while approximately 35% of consumption came from local resources or about 25,000
MT. The latter was comprised mostly of freshwater and marine fresh fish representing 28%
and 7%, respectively, of all fish consumption (Fig. 1).
Of the imported products frozen fillet dominated at 56.6%, followed by frozen fish
(35.3%) while small percentages of fresh fish (4.5%), crustaceans (1.8%), shellfish (1.3%)
and fresh fillet (0.5%) were also imported (Figure 2). It is worth noting that 2007 showed an
increasing trend of buying more frozen fish from Asia of species grown in Israel, such as
tilapia (3,800 MT of frozen filet), which ultimately lowers the profitability of the Israeli
aquaculture sector.
Table 1. Fish consumption in Israel 2004-2007
Source
Marine
Lake Kinneret
Aquaculture
Mariculture
Total domestic
production
Import
Grand total
Landed weight
(MT)
2,607
840
19,168
2,251
2007
Consumption per
capita in product (kg)
0.4
0.1
2.6
0.3
Average 2004-2006
Landed
Consumption per
weight (MT)
capita in product (kg)
2,835
0.5
1,310
0.2
12,720
2.8
2,183
0.5
24,866
3.4
19,048
4.0
47,224
72,090
6.5
9.9
42,517
61,565
6.1
10.1
Modified from Shapiro 1997.
Table 2. Sources of the Israeli Fishery 2004-2007

2007
Source
Average 2004-2006
Catch
(MT)
%
catch
Marine
2,607
Lake
Kinneret
value
NIS
x$1000
10.5
101,200
24,114
2,393
9.3
19,505
8.94
23.63
840
3.4
4,844
1,041
1,137
4.4
1,321
-26.12
-21.20
Aquaculture
19,168
77.1
252,475
61,458
18,949
73.6
50,519
1.16
21.65
Mariculture
2,251
9.1
67,720
16,484
3,275
12.7
18,495
-31.27
-10.87
70,006
17,041
496,245
120,138
Total
24,866
100
Value
x$1000
Change
of
Gross
income
%$
Catch
(MT)
Ornamental
fish
%
catch
Change
of
catch
%
13,526
25,754
100
103,366
25.99
-3.45
16.2
158
28%
Freshwater
Marine
Import
7%
65%
From Shapiro 2007.
Figure 1. Fish consumption by production sources.
1.80%
0.50% 1.30%
Fresh fillet
35.30%
Crustaceans
Shellfish
Frozen fish
56.60%
Fresh fish
Frozen fillet
From Shapiro 2007.
4.50%
Figure 2. Percent (%) imports by products 2007.
The sources of the Israeli fishery from 2004-2007 and the catch values in the decade from
1998-2007 are shown in Tables 2 and 3, respectively. Of the total Israeli catch from all
sources (24,866 MT) in 2007, aquaculture represented 77.1% or 19,168 MT while
mariculture's share was only 9.1% or 2,251 MT. The relatively minor marine and Lake
Kinneret sources contributed 2,607 MT (10.5%) and 840 MT (3.4%), respectively, to the total
fishery. The annual catch values for aquaculture and mariculture over the decade of 19982007 increased somewhat while prices per kg decreased moderately (Table 3).
Table 4 lists the yields of the main aquaculture species over the decade 1998-2007. The
two fresh water species representing the highest production in 2007 are tilapia (7,973 MT)
and carp (6,737 MT), which are 42% and 35% of overall production, respectively. This is
followed by mugilids (1,983 MT) and Chinese carp (1,135 MT) while there were modest
amounts of trout (431 MT), striped bass (147 MT), barramundi (100 MT) and sea bream (17
MT).
The aquaculture production and gross income in the 1998-2007 decade demonstrated a
general increase from 16,654 MT to 19,168 MT (Table 4) due mostly to increases in tilapia,
mugilids, Chinese carp and other species.
On the other hand, gross income fluctuated during this decade falling from $62, 780,000
in 2003 to $57,224,000 in 2004 before increasing over the remaining years to $62, 224,000 in
2007 (Fig. 3).
159
20000
65000
60000
18000
50000
14000
45000
MT
16000
40000
12000
35000
10000
30000
1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008
Year
Value of yield
Yield in MT
From Shapiro 2007.

Figure 3. Aquaculture production and gross income in the last decade.
20000
4000
18000
3500
16000
Yield (MT)
14000
2500
12000
10000
2000
8000
1500
6000
1000
4000
500
2000
0
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
year
Total yield
From Shapiro 2007.

Figure 4. Mariculture yield and value in last decade.
$ yield value
2005
2006
2007
Yield value ($x1000)
3000
$x1000
55000
Table 3. Annual catch values and average prices per kg ($US) for the last decade
Med. Trawl
Inshore
Marine Fishery
Kinneret
X
$1000
$/kg
X$1000
$/kg
X
$1000
$/kg
X
$1000
$/kg
X
$1000
1998
7207
5.11
9964
6.48
2911
2.45
20,077
4.68
1999
6612
4.32
9255
6.28
1527
2.07
17,394
2000
7263
4.94
13547
8.44
753
2.28
2001
8308
4.79
14833
8.99
589
2002
7036
4.43
10793
6.99
2003
6756
4.84
10084
2004
7091
5.08
2005
12702
2006
2007
Year
Aquaculture
Mariculture
Total
Average
$/kg
X
$1000
$/kg
X
$1000
$/kg
X
$1000
$/kg
3,359
1.55
55,106
3.31
15,016
7.90
93,558
3.76
4.23
3,168
1.48
45,492
2.78
19,001
7.89
85,055
3.45
21,563
5.22
1,666
0.90
54,685
3.18
21,704
7.45
99,618
3.93
1.67
23,730
5.15
1,615
1.26
57,944
3.19
21,405
6.77
104,694
4.26
519
1.52
18,347
4.31
1,096
0.70
45,480
2.37
18,551
6.07
83,474
3.34
8.82
781
1.73
17,621
5.13
984
0.92
42,725
2.42
19,289
6.20
80,620
3.64
8063
7.05
607
1.34
15,761
4.49
999
0.88
43,357
2.29
18,525
5.52
78,641
3.35
9.62
11283
8.08
1215
3.40
25,200
7.03
1,642
1.18
55,491
2.89
18,464
5.78
117,519
4.43
10530
7.98
5597
8.08
892
1.97
17,019
6.01
1,938
1.21
55,028
2.84
17,833
6.55
91,817
4.05
13,500
10.28
8815
11.59
1799
4.57
24,114
8.80
1,041
1.24
61,458
3.21
16,484
7.32
103,897
4.83
Pelagic
Table 4. Aquaculture Yield by Species from 1998-2007

Year
Carp
Tilapia
Mugilids
Chinese
carps
Trout
Bass
1998
7,172
6,691
1,476
451
707
157
1999
7,062
6,410
1,542
419
583
227
126
16,369
2000
6,281
7,059
1,661
744
605
302
532
17,184
2001
6,208
8,217
1,633
718
448
378
190
123
48
150
44
18,157
2002
7,748
7,819
1,824
616
374
495
107
39
66
95
17
19,200
2003
7,339
6,826
1,705
713
352
385
140
110
97
17,667
2004
5,765
9,270
1,792
903
331
292
323
180
15
78
18,949
2005
6,413
7,404
2,108
1,607
424
453
295
193
90
181
40
19,208
2006
6,560
8,235
2,087
1,102
449
290
350
122
115
72
2007
6,737
7,973
1,983
1,135
431
147
100
17
Red
Drum
European
sea bass
Barramundi
Eel
Sea
bream
Other
Total
16,654
19,382
645
19,168
162
In 2007 fish mariculture production was 2,251 MT, which is down from 2,724 MT in
2006 and from an average of 3274 MT in 2004-5 (Table 5), and was worth about $16,500,000
(Figure 4). The reduction was mainly due to the decrease in the farming of gilthead sea bream
(Sparus aurata), which is the main marine fish farmed in Israel (97% of mariculture
production). Due to the alleged damage to coral reefs near Eilat, sea cages owned and
operated by the private company Dag Suf and the kibbutz cooperative Ardag were removed
from the Gulf of Aqaba.
Table 5. Mariculture yield by species in the last decade
Seafood
1998
1999
2000
2001
Shellfish
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
10
Other
21
22
16
80
Striped bass
80
49
40
70
Red Drum
128
101
197
109
140
298
315
41
36
Eur. Sea bass
30
26
150
214
346
251
169
36
26
Sea bream
1,643
2,210
2,511
2,688
2,561
2,546
2,860
3,185
2,641
2,187
Total
1,902
2,408
2,914
3,161
3,056
3,110
3,353
3,196
2,724
2,251
Table 6. Mariculture production and fry sales in 2007

Product
Sea bream
Euro. Sea bass
Red Drum
Striped bass
Other
Total
Harvested fish
2,187
26
36
2,251
Fingerlings (x1000)
9,296
1,300
2,362
2,370
1,800
17,128
Gilthead sea bream (known as denis in Israel) production continues along the
Mediterranean coast at the Ardag farm in the Ashdod port (700 MT) and Dag hayam (Subflex
submergible cages; 250-400 MT). A land based pilot farm for mainly sea bream, using the
"Megaflow" approach (described later in chapter), is currently being operated and tested by
Ardag on the site of the National Center for Mariculture (NCM), a branch of Israel
Oceanographic and Limnological Research and produces up to 110 MT.
Israeli marine fish hatcheries produced about 17.1 million fry of different species (Table
6) worth about $5,000,000 (Table 7). About 87% of the total fry production was for the local
market while 13% was harvested for export (Figure 5). Of the total fry produced,
approximately 9.3 million were sea bream, 1.3 million European sea bass, 2.4 million Red
drum, 2.4 million striped bass and 1.8 million of other species (Table 6). Gilthead sea bream
fry weighing 2-3 g sold for $ 0.27 each while juveniles of other species varied from $ 0.29$0.31 each. The sale of fry in 2007 was about 23% of the total income of Israeli mariculture
163
which was an increase from about 18% in 2004-2006 and 14% in 2001-2003 (Table 7).There
were about 2.2 million fry exported, which included 1.1 million hybrid bass (50%), about 1.1
million barramundi (49%) and 30,000 (1%) gilthead sea bream (Figure 6).
The ornamental fish industry, which is mainly concentrated in the collective farms
(moshavim) of the Arava valley in southern Israel, has shown a continuous upward trend in
recent years and in 2007 was valued at about $17,000,000 (described later in chapter). The
production and value of tropical and cold water ornamental fish in the decade 1998-2007 are
shown in Figures 7and 8, respectively.
Table 7. Mariculture in the last decade
Year
No.
Farms
Yield
(MT)
Yield ($)
$x1000
Price per
MT
Fry
Production
(x1000)
Income
from Fry
($x1000)
Total value
($x1000)
1998
1,902
12,414
6,527
9,056
2,647
15,061
1999
2,408
14,829
6,158
13,100
4,172
19,001
2000
2,914
18,496
6,347
11,664
3,208
21,704
2001
3,161
17,665
5,588
13,850
3,740
21,405
2002
3,056
16,124
5,276
9,677
2,427
18,551
2003
3,110
16,866
5,423
13,527
2,423
19,289
2004
3,353
18,525
5,524
14,548
3,757
22,282
2005
3,196
18,464
5,778
17,039
4,430
22,894
2006
2,725
17,833
6,546
17,307
4,129
21,962
2007
2,251
16,484
7,323
17,128
4,959
21,443
Fry production for export (13%)

Fry production for local market
(87%)
From Shapiro 2007.

Figure 5. Total fry production for local market and export.
164
Sea bream (1%)

Barramundi (49%)
Striped bass (50%)
From Shapiro 2007.
Figure 6. Fry production for export.
No. of fish (x1000)
35000
30000
25000
20000
Tropical fish
15000
Cold water fish
10000
5000
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
From Shapiro 2007.
Year
18000
16000
14000
12000
10000
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Tropical fish
Cold water fish
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
20
04
20
05
20
06
20
07
Value (x$1000)
Figure 7. Ornamental fish Production: 1998-2007 (no. of fish x1000).
From Shapiro 2007.
Year
Figure 8. Ornamental fish values (value x $1000).
165
NEW ADVANCES IN THE RESEARCH AND CULTURE

OF THE MAIN FISH SPECIES
Gilthead Sea Bream (Sparus aurata)
The most farmed marine fish in Israel is the gilthead sea bream which represents about
97% of mariculture production. The Ardag Red Sea Mariculture Ltd fish hatchery, which has
the capacity to produce up to 8 million fingerlings/year, was involved until recently in the
grow-out of fingerling gilthead sea bream to market weight in sea cages in the Gulf of Aqaba
collectively with the private company Dag Suf Ltd. (both companies producing about 2200
MT in 2007), until 2008. From 2005-2008 the sea cages were incrementally removed by a
court decision concerning the alleged negative impact of effluent on the indigenous coral reef.
Although the farming of gilthead sea bream is considered commercially successful in
Israel and Europe, fish survival by the end of larval rearing remains at around 25-35%.
Recent studies have focused on the manipulation of the stress response through the diet as a
means to improve survival during larviculture. Koven et al (2001) reported that increased
levels of dietary arachidonic acid (20:4n-6; ArA) in the live food markedly improved survival
following the acute stress of tank transfer. van Anholt et al. (2004) investigating further the
effect of dietary ArA on the response to an acute stressor (90 sec exposure to air) reported
that different age sea bream larvae fed high ArA-containing Artemia sp., exhibited reduced
cortisol levels compared to cohorts fed lower dietary levels of this essential fatty acid. The
physiological underpinning of these findings is the enzymatic conversion of ArA into a broad
range of highly biologically active metabolites, collectively known as eicosanoids. These
paracrine and/or endocrine hormones participate in cellular regulation, hormone release,
osmoregulation, and organ function in fish. The down regulation of cortisol appears to have
given a survival advantage to larvae fed elevated ArA levels prior to exposure to acute
handling stress. On the other hand, larvae exposed to daily salinity change demonstrated
distinctly higher basal cortisol levels that significantly increased with rising ArA levels in the
Artemia they consumed (Koven et al. 2003). These findings suggested that the effect of
dietary ArA on cortisol production may be intimately linked to stress type.
One of the major problems plaguing gilthead sea bream production, particularly in
Europe, is the high rate of skeletal deformity (in excess of 30%) in juveniles and adult fish.
Abnormally developing fish in production are costly as they have to be removed manually
from the stock due to their poor growth and decreased market value. There is accumulating
evidence that environmental factors as well as dietary components during larval rearing can
have far reaching effects on the incidence of deformity during later development in juveniles
and adults. Sandel et al (2010) investigated the effect of the ratio of the dietary phospholipids;
phosphatidylcholine (PC) and phosphatidylinositol (PI) in larvae and juvenile gilthead sea
bream. These authors found that reducing PI markedly increased jaw deformity which can
have adverse affects on juvenile feeding on a dry hard starter feed resulting in reduced
growth.
These authors also found a strong correlation, in fish fed the high PI diet, between the
mRNA expression of osteocalcin (BGP) and dietary PI. BGP is a vitamin K-requiring protein
in bone hyroxyapatite that has a strong affinity for calcium and has been correlated with the
mineralization of bone (Szulc et al., 1994; Simes et al., 2008). Inside the cell, it is known that
166
PI functions as a precursor of second messengers such as inositol 3 phosphate (IP3) that

regulates calcium ions entry into the cell from the endoplasmatic reticulum (Cahu et al., 2003;
Tocher et al., 2008). Sandel et al. (2010) concluded that a PC/PI ratio of 1.28 or a PI level of
3.04 g per 100 g DW diet gave the best larval and fry performance.
Vitamin A studies during larviculture and their consequent effect on malformation in
older fish was also carried out at our laboratory (NCM). Ginzbourg et al. (2009) found
vitamin A fed to gilthead sea bream larvae significantly affected growth and skeletal
deformity in the fry. These authors concluded that from 4-20 days post hatching (dph), there
was a dose response effect between rotifer vitamin A level and cranium deformity while
between 20-34 dph a correlation was found between Artemia vitamin A level and skeletal
deformity. It was calculated that the level of vitamin A that is associated with the best
performance in terms of growth promotion and reduced rate of deformities is within the range
of 0.5-3.9 g retinoid/g wet weight in the live food and 0.4 g retinoid/g wet weight in the
larvae.
The effect of salinity and temperature during larval rearing on the appearance of
deformities later on in development in gilthead sea bream was also investigated at our
laboratory (NCM). Koven et al. (in preparation) reported that the high ambient salinity of the
Red Sea (40%) during larval rearing reduced the percent of swim bladder inflation, survival
and increased skeletal deformities in juveniles.
On the other hand and at odds with a similar study on sea bass (Georgakopoulou et al.
2007) gilthead sea bream larval rearing temperature had no significant effect on spinal
deformities such as lordosis, vertebral compression, pre-haemal kyphosis and pre-haemal
lordosis.
Noteworthy is that the overall level of deformities in fish examined in this study was very
low (1.7%) which is typical of Israeli mariculture and contrasts starkly with the >30%
deformity reported in Europe. This may be related to the fact that sea bream broodstock
originates mainly from production in the warmer waters of the Red Sea (21-27 C).
Consequently these fish have been indirectly selected for improved performance at higher
temperatures leading to the progeny exhibiting lower levels of skeletal abnormality. In
addition, there is a very active broodstock selection program in Israel which encourages
genetic variability that further reduces skeletal deformity.
During grow-out, fish feed can represent more than 50% of the production costs.
Consequently it is imperative that the food pellets deliver the optimum balance of protein
and energy to the fish in order to realize maximum and cost effective growth that
minimizes nitrogen secretion and fish waste. This is becoming particularly important as
environmentally-aware regulatory bodies are increasingly limiting waste output and/or feed
quotas from commercial farms.
A significant step forward was made by Lupatsch et al. (2003a) who quantified the daily
energy and protein requirement in gilthead sea bream by using a factorial approach, which
has been implemented to optimize feed formulations and feeding regimes. These authors
found that sea bream can grow from 1 to 379 g in one year at an average water temperature of
23C. The protein content per g live weight had an average of 176 mg/g fish. In contrast, lipid
increased with fish size (5-11kJ/g live weight) rising from 43 to 186 mg/g live weight for
market size fish of about 400g. This means that gilthead are a fattier fish and require more
energy per unit weight gain than leaner fish such as the red drum (69 mg lipid/g live weight;
167
Thoman et al. 1999), turbot (38 mg/g lw; Regost et al. 2001) and rainbow trout (146 mg
lipid/g live weight; Dias et al., 1999).
Taken altogether, the results facilitate the calculation of the daily recommended energy
and protein intakes for growing gilthead sea bream by quantifying the demands of the fish for
maintenance and growth. Although protein and energy demands are constantly changing in
gilthead sea bream, it is clearly impractical to produce different diets for various stages of
growth. A better approach would be to feed lower 15 mJ/kg energy diets to small fish with a
capacity for high feed intake as it is difficult to produce a 18 mJ energy, 60% protein pellet
for this size fish. Above 200 g a higher energy diet, with a digestible energy content of at least
18 mJ/kg (incorporating more lipid), can be fed as the amount of 15 mJ/kg feed that these fish
would have to consume would approach the physical limitations of the fish.
FISH FOOD
(100% NITROGEN)
SEA WATER
BIODEPOSITS
16%
PN 54%
DN 10%
PN 18.5%
DN 18.5%
6%
______
TOTAL
32 %
(% NITROGEN)
FISH
PN 2.0%
DN 25%
PN 1.8%
DN 2.3%
SEDIMENTATION
ENITRIFICATION
BIVALVE
FILTRATION
UNIT
SEAWEED UNIT
SEA WATER
25%
BIODEPOSITS
DN
SEDIMENTATION
PONDS
B IO D EPO SITS
DN
10%
FISH PONDS
YIELD
BIVALVES
12%
BIODEPOSITS
DN
BIVALVE
POLISHING
4%
SEAWEED
22%
TOTAL
63%
Figure 9. Flow diagram of nitrogen in the proposed integrated system. All the numbers are percentages
of the N introduced in the fish feed (PN = particulate nitrogen; DN = dissolved nitrogen; Biodeposits =
faeces and uneaten food). (After Shpigel et al., 1993a).
168
Figure 10. Typical layout of Mega-flow Low-head recirculating system.
Figure 11. A semi-commercial scale of Mega-flow system operated in Eilat, producing 100 ton per
year.
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Grouper (Epinephelus aeneus)

Although it is not a main aquaculture species in Israel, there has been increasing focus on
the commercial farming of the white grouper (Epinephelus aeneus) which has high market
value (average $10/kg) and a rapid growth rate (1g to 1kg in the first year). During 2009-2010
around 100,000 post larvae were produced at both the National Center for Mariculture (NCM)
in Eilat and Kibbutz Magan Michael near Haifa. An F1 grouper broodstock fed a pelleted
feed and maintained at the NCM has spontaneously spawned for 12 months (March 2009March 2010) under ambient photoperiod and regulated water temperature. However, many
fish during grow out at both locations have been stricken with viral nervous necrosis (VNN)
which presently has no known cure and remains a serious impediment to mass production.
Another obstacle to the successful rearing of this promising species is the high mortality
characterizing early larval rearing. One limiting factor in the survival of grouper pre-larvae is
their minute size following hatching (<1.5 mm) accompanied by a very small mouth gape (
100 m). This means that once the relatively small yolk sac has been depleted after
endogenous feeding a few days after hatching, the larvae, having pigmented eyes and an open
digestive tract, must learn very quickly to successfully hunt and feed on zooplankton prey. In
fact, if grouper larvae are not sufficiently ingesting a suitably sized and nutritious food
particle within the first day of exogenous feeding, they will quickly pass the point of no return
(PNR) where the digestive tract deteriorates irrevocably (Yufera and Darias 2007). The
period between mouth opening and the PNR varies among species but generally depends on
water temperature (Dou et al., 2002, 2005) and larval length (Miller et al. 1988). In grouper,
the rapid onset of irreversible starvation makes it highly unlikely the larvae will survive past
the PNR. Recently, the NCM has successfully implemented a mesocosm approach in the
rearing of the white grouper, which has been modified from a previous published protocol
(Papandroulakis et al., 2005). This approach is based on allowing the natural productivity of
seawater to develop through exposure to sunlight, warm temperatures and nutrient
supplementation resulting in a variety of algal and zooplankton species (e.g. copepods and
ciliates) (Russo et al. 2009) many of which will be nutritious and suitably sized for feeding
larvae.
Unsuccessful metamorphosis in grouper larvae is frequently characterized by
heterotrophic growth, poor pigmentation, cannibalism and generally high mortality.
Cannibalized larvae are often pre-metamorphosing fish exhibiting elongated dorsal and
ventral spines that cause these individuals to be particularly sensitive to handling and
vulnerable to their larger more developed siblings who have already passed through
metamorphosis (Folkvord and Ottera, 1993; Baras, 2000; Baras and dAlmeida, 2001). The
heterotrophic growth resulting from asynchronous metamorphosis and the subsequent
cannibalism is a major factor reducing fish production in this species (Fukuhara and Fushimi,
1988; Lim, 1993; Watanabe et al., 1996; Hseu, 2002).
A main obstacle in grouper culture has been the development of a grow-out diet that can
optimize the rapid growth rate of this species which has made it such a compelling
mariculture candidate. Similarly to gilthead sea bream, Lupatsch and Kissil (2005) quantified
the daily energy and protein requirement in this species by using a factorial approach which
has been implemented to optimize feed formulations and feeding regimes.
In this approach the authors defined the potential for growth at different weights and at
various water temperatures based on feeding to satiation. They predicted the amount of feed
170
that a fish is physically capable of consuming which can be ascertained by adjusting its
energy and protein content which, in turn, determines food intake. Their model predicted that
white grouper would grow from 1g to 1kg in 1 year at 24 C and that the maintenance
requirement for energy in grouper was lower than sea bream and sea bass. Taken together,
this study facilitated the calculation of the daily recommended intake for growing white
grouper.
Figure 12. Scheme of a zero-discharge system configuration used for culture of freshwater and marine
fish (not to scale).
Figure 13. A 50 tonnes annual production segment of a zero-discharge, gilthead sea bream production
facility operated by Local Ocean Ltd. in Hudson (NY).
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European Sea Bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)

The European sea bass in captivity demonstrate a highly skewed sex ratio to males (7099%) (Chatain et al. 1999; Gorshkov et al. 1999) in the population while in nature females are
reported to be more numerous (Arias, 1980). This suggests that culture conditions prevailing
in the farming of this species encourages the predominance of males which grow 20-40% less
than females (Gorshkov et al. 1999; Saillant et al. 2001). Mylonas et al. (2005) found that
North-West (NW) and South-East (SE) Mediterranean strain females exhibited a growth
advantage over males with an average of 17%. Gorshkov et al. (1999) found that larger sea
bass females displayed sexual dimorphism in length and weight before sexual maturity (10-12
months) and that these patterns occurred in all strains and crosses. This is primarily due to
males maturing faster than females thereby diverting energy for somatic growth to testicular
growth, milt production and breeding behaviour.
Mylonas et al. (2005) found that lowering the rearing temperatures during the larval and
nursery stages influenced sex ratios in the NE and SE Mediterranean strains. These authors
concluded that decreasing the rearing temperature from 21 to 15 C markedly increased the
number of females in the population although a further temperature decrease had no apparent
effect. Under these conditions the proportion of females in the population reached 65% which
agrees well with 74% (Pavlidis et al. 2000) and 66% (Koumoundouros et al. 2002) in other
similar studies. Moreover, it appears that the larval period is more sensitive than the nursery
period in skewing the population towards females. In fact, Koumoundouros et al. (2002)
succeeded to increase the number of females in the population by decreasing the temperature
at a very early developmental period (30 h post fertilization to 7 dph). These results are
particularly intriguing as environmental temperature appears to influence sex differentiation
months earlier than when gonadal differentiation occurs at 125 dph or 6.2 cm TL (Saillant et
al., 2003). On the other hand, extending the period of temperature decrease will reduce the
percentage of females in the population. A protracted period of low temperature exposure will
reduce growth rate and the ability to achieve a critical body size which ultimately hinders
differentiation to females. It remains unclear how temperature exposure during early
development effects changes in sex steroids. In Nile tilapia masculinization was associated
with the repression of brain aromatase expression (D'Cotta et al., 2001). Temperature might
effect the pituitary expression of luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone
(FSH) prior to the period of sex differentiation (Miranda et al. 2001) suggesting that the
hypothalamus-pituitary system may be modulated by temperature changing its effects on sex
differentiation.
In 1976 and 1982 the "French strain of European sea bass was imported from France to
Israel (Gorshkov et al., 1999). These fish were adapted to conditions of the northern part of
the Mediterranean but the strain was unsuitable for the warmer waters of the Red Sea where
the dominant culture of this species occurred. This meant that the farming of the French strain
remained limited in Israel and was constrained further to due to an outbreak of
Mycobacterium marinum that began in 1990. Taken altogether both environmental and
genetic factors negatively impacted on commercial sea bass culture in Israel leading to a
drastic reduction in production by the mid-1990s (Colorni et al., 1997).
Despite the decline in the importance of this species in Israeli aquaculture in recent years,
Tibaldi et al. (2006) evaluated the effect of replacing fish meal with differently processed
soybean meals on growth performance, apparent digestibility coefficients, activity of alkaline
172
phosphatase and the brush border enzymes leucine amino peptidase, maltase and -glutamyl
transpeptidase as well as fish morphometrics and flesh quality. It is well documented that
soybean meals, although equally palatable to fish meal (Tibaldi et al. 2006), can affect the
bioavailability of nutrients. Soybean meals must be heat treated to inactivate anti-nutritional
factors (ANF) that can affect protease activity as well as being deficient in specific minerals
and sulfur containing amino acids, such as methionine (Viola et al.1983; Wilson and Poe,
1985; Van der Ingh et al. 1991). Tibaldi et al. (2006) found that BBME activity of leucine
amino peptidase and maltase was similar when feeding fish diets containing fish meal or
various treatments of soybean meals. On the other hand, these authors argued that nutrient
availability in sea bass fed soy bean meals is adversely affected due to non-starch
polysaccharides affecting digesta viscosity and to a much lesser extent ANFs. These authors
reported that, under an unrestricted feeding regime, standard dehulled-toasted and solvent
extracted soybean meal successfully replaced 25% of fish meal in sea bass.
Feeding levels and conversion efficiencies in European sea bass, as expected, are
different than those of other cultured species in Israel. Lupatsch et al. (2003b) compared the
maintenance and growth requirements between gilthead sea bream, white grouper and sea
bass using, as described previously for digestible energy (DE), a factorial approach. Under
similar conditions and satiation feeding, sea bass exhibited the slowest growth over 12
months (325 g) compared to sea bream (380 g) and grouper (750 g). The composition of the
growth in 400 g fish was similar in all three species in protein content (170 mg/g) but differed
in the energy component, where sea bass was 9.8 kJ/g, sea bream was 10.7 kJ/g while grouper
was the leanest at 7.0 kJ/g. These authors measured the daily energy loss of these species and
found that sea bass was less (35.3 kJ) than gilthead sea bream (40 kJ) whereas grouper had
the lowest maintenance requirement (24.9 kJ) due to its sedentary life style. On the other
hand, the energy efficiency of DE to deposit energy as growth was very similar in all species.
These authors argued that this reinforces the concept that energy efficiencies for growth are
constant and independent of fish weight, feeding level and species where the maintenance
requirement is species-specific.
Carp
The practical cross breeds of carp exhibiting heterosis, in terms of improved growth
performance and other qualitative features, are the basis for carp aquaculture in Israel (Hulata,
2001) and were mainly developed at the experimental station in Dor (Wohlfarth, 1993). Over
the years, one of the most suitable cyprinid hybrids tested for production were the two
reciprocal crosses between silver carp (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Valenciennes) and
bighead carp (Aristichthys nobilis Val.) which show higher survival and yield than the
parental species (Issa et al., 1986). This hybrid was handled more easily than pure silver carp
and commercially cultured in Israel during the 1970s to 1980s but was eventually
discontinued due to limited markets. All female common carp populations (Cherfas et al.
1996) have been established in Israel by employing sex reversal of XX gynogenetic females
to males (Gomelsky et al., 1994) and then using these phenotypic males for breeding. The
resultant all female fry showed a 10-15% increased yield over existing commercial stocks.
Interestingly, Tzchori et al. (2004) induced sex inversion of genetically female common carp
to males, at a level of 97%, through the use of the aromatase inhibitor fadrozole in a dose
dependent manner. These results verified the central role of aromatase in sex determination
during the labile period in common carp regardless of genotype.
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A very serious disease outbreak in carp that started in 1998 resulted in 80% mortality of
fish stocks in local farms along the coastal plain in Israel by 2000. During 1999-2002 carp
production decreased by 60% while Koi export to Europe declined 75%. Clinical signs
included severe gill necrosis, dry skin and sunken eyes (Perelberg et al., 2008). It was
determined that the causal agent was viral (CyHV3) and that outbreaks were water
temperature dependent. The permissive range was 21-25 C while clinical signs and mortality
decreased significantly in water temperature above 29 C. Recently Israeli researchers have
developed a vaccine based on an attenuated strain that showed 80% survival in carp exposed
to the disease (Perelberg et al., 2008). The vaccine has now been patented and the usage
rights have been purchased by the Israeli company Kovax Ltd.
Tilapia
The most extensive culture of predominant male hybrid tilapias is in Israel. Male progeny
are produced by the crossing of brood stock from pure species, generally between the Nile
tilapia Oreochromis niloticus and the blue tilapia Oreochromis aureus. There was also all
male progeny produced early on by crosses with O. niloticus and O. hornorum but was
characterized by low fry production (Wohlfarth et al. 1983, 1990). Fry production was
improved by replacing the O. niloticus Bouake strain with the Ghana strain. Nevertheless,
these fry did not have an attractive appearance and they were never commercially used to
stock ponds. The main obstacle in the hybrid approach is the maintenance of pure stocks
which requires extreme vigilance. Managed hatchery systems frequently break down due the
infiltration of parental brood stock by individuals of different genotype, predominantly
hybrids of the pure stock which are difficult to distinguish from their parents (Wohlfarth,
1994). On the other hand, the advantages of hybridization is that it avoids inbreeding and any
adverse effect on the environment with sex hormones (Wohlfarth, 1994). In support of this
Sde Eliyahu claims to be the largest tilapia hatchery in the country producing 30 million
hybrid fingerlings/year from O. auria and O. nilotica.
Another approach to produce hybrid male populations is the use of sex inversion which is
relatively easy to use and generally economical to implement. In the past, F1 hybrids were
used as brood stock and their progeny (F2) sex inverted (Rothbard et al. 1983) because they
may be more fecund than the F1 parents (Verdegem 1987). On the other hand, this approach
falters as F2 individuals grow more slowly and variably. Moreover and perhaps more
importantly there are regulatory issues in the use of sex steroids and the market product may
become increasingly less acceptable to an environmentally aware consumer.
The Negev desert and its eastern part, the Arava valley, possess impressive reserves of
underground saline and geothermal water. Super intensive tilapia fish farms using geothermal
water have developed in these areas (Rothbard 2002). Fry are produced by the crossing of
female O. niloticus with male O. aureus or spawning of red tilapia and then sex-reversed
using male hormones. Grow out comprises a number of stages. First the fry are reared in
intensive nursing ponds to fingerlings of 5 g and then transferred to rearing ponds where they
are grown to 80-120 g. These fish are further cultured in "fattening ponds" to the market size
of 500-700 g over 6-8 months at densities of 20-27 kg/m3 (Rothbard, 2002).
In recent years the organic culture of tilapia has been tested at the kibbutz Geva fish farm
in Jezreel valley. From 2000-2003 stocking density in the organic pond varied from 11,000 to
14,000 fish/ha of which 80-90% were tilapia, as well as red drum and Chinese carp with an
expected yield of 10 MT. However, a major constraint limiting the profitability of this
174
approach is the cost of organic fish feeds which are restricted in their use of traditional fish
and soy meals. A potential solution is to increase the natural productivity by using a
periphyton-based system. This is done by placing hard surfaces in the water column to allow
the establishment of sessile autotrophic and heterotrophic populations, which increases the
natural productivity of the water body that serves as food for the cultured organisms. Milstein
et al. (2005) immersed plastic surfaces equivalent to 40% of the pond surface area in
polyculture ponds containing hybrid tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus x O. aureus) as well as
minor levels of other species. The tilapia were fed 60% of the normal feed ration leading to
only a 10% reduction in the tilapia growth rate and yield. This attests to the potential of
periphyton-based aquaculture to reduce production costs and facilitating the viability of
organic culture of tilapia in Israel.
Saprolegnia infections or saprolegniosis is observed on a variety of fish species including
tilapia as pale patches of filamentous mycelium on the fins. If left untreated the infection
leads to death by haemodilution usually in the colder winter months. Malachite Green was the
most effective fungicide for this disease. In 2003, Israel as well as other countries, declared a
prohibition on the use of malachite green due to its alleged carcinogenic, mutagenic and
teratogenic effects. Until recently, there was no effective alternative fungicide to treat this
disease. S. parasitica infections have a serious impact on the aquaculture sector in general and
tilapia culture in particular. Consequently, it was an imperative to find an effective alternative
to Malachite Green in order to manage saprolegniasis at acceptable levels. Polacheck (2007)
has shown that a diaminostilbene derivative compound called Blankophor BA was found to
be a very effective at relatively low concentrations against S. parasitica in tilapia while
exhibiting low toxicity to the fish. This invention is now is now being patented (USPTO
Patent Application 20090252768).
ORNAMENTAL FISH PRODUCTION

Production of ornamental fish is a relatively young branch of aquaculture in Israel. It took
off in the 1980's, beginning with hobbyists who decided to turn their love of the ornamental
fish into a business. Mag Noy (a coldwater fish producer) pioneered the field in Israel,
launching the first serious export of ornamental fish in 1984, and developing a partnership in
2001with Agrexco (the main agricultural produce exporter in Israel).
Only in the late 1990's did the business really settle down to become a proper economic
branch in Israel. By 2000 Israel was 10th in the world in revenue from ornamental fish.
Singapore, which until then had been the world leader in ornamental fish, suddenly
experienced problems in its production, which may have been caused by a virus. The vacuum
left by the depleted Singapore stock was filled by Israeli producers.
The key to breeding tropical fish is the strength and quality of the fish. Reliability and
better methods of raising the fish are the key to Israel's ascendance in the field, particularly in
European markets. Whereas their competitors in the Far East still raise their fish mainly on
traditional farms, using mud ponds dug in the ground which offer little chance for monitoring
disease and quality, Israel's fish farms use mainly indoor and controlled systems. Reliability
in producing strong healthy fish is serving Israel well against strong competition still offered
by countries like Malaysia, Singapore and the Czech Republic.
175
Cold water ornamental fish are concentrated in five large farms producing mainly
ornamental carp (Koi) and predominantly using outdoor earthen ponds. In addition, there are
a number of smaller farms using closed re-circulating systems. Exports total around 12
million US dollars per annum.
Tropical warm water ornamental fish includes live bearers and egg layers and there are a
total number of about 40 farms in the country of which 6-8 can be considered as large i.e.
production exceeding 250,000 US dollars per annum. Live bearers are mainly guppy
(Poecilia reticulata) and over 40 varieties are produced, including an array of different colors
and body/tail shapes as well as many platy (Xiphophorus sp.) varieties. About 40% of the
guppies imported to Europe come from Israel. On the other hand, the egg layers are mostly
cichlids including various ornamental African cichlids. Of the South American cichlids, the
main species reared are angel fish (Pterophyllum scalare) and discus fish (Symphysodon
aequifasciata). All farms use closed re-circulating systems. Most of the large farms are
located in the desert and their isolated location helps in preventing diseases. The total exports
from this branch are around 8 million US dollars per annum.
Marine ornamental fish includes one farm close to the Red Sea and three other farms
located about 100 km from the sea, all using closed re-circulating systems. They produce
mainly 5 species of clown fish (Amphiprion), the major one being A. ocellaris (known as
Nemo fish). This is a fairly new branch with a monthly production of 7,000-10,000 fish. The
research scientists, extension officers and farmers work closely together to solve problems
which arise during the production process.
The following selected topics briefly describe several research projects which have been
conducted with the aim of enhancing the capabilities of the ornamental fish industry in Israel.
Genetic Improvement of Color and Reproduction

A study aimed at better understanding the patterns of color inheritance in an ornamental
cichlid (Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum) was conducted by Itzkovich et al., (1991). They
suggested a simple Mendelian model, with two alleles at an autosomal locus for the
inheritance of the two color phenotypes of Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum: the dominant (wild
type) allele causes a dark grey colouration, while the recessive phenotype is pink. A number
of studies have also been conducted in order to induce diploid gynogenesis and polyploidy in
ornamental koi carp, (Cyprinus carpio) (Cherfas et al., 1993). The methods used were similar
to those employed for the edible carp and showed promise for obtaining better color patterns
in the fish.
Koi Herpes Virus

Koi herpes virus (KHV) is the cause of a worldwide mortal disease affecting ornamental
koi and common carps (Cyprinus carpio). The virus induces a lethal disease at the transient
seasons, when water temperature ranges between 18 and 25 degrees Co. The impact of the
KHV following its first detection in Israel in 1998 on both the ornamental and edible carp was
extremely severe. The production dropped very steeply over a short period of time and the
virus spread to many farms. The consolidated efforts of researchers, extension officers and
farmers in Israel have led to the isolation of attenuated non-pathogenic viruses that render
virus-vaccinated carps resistant to the disease. Furthermore, the vaccinated fish developed
176
high levels of antibodies against the virus (Ronen et al., 2003). This attenuated virus could be
used as a live vaccine for the eradication of the lethal disease afflicting common and
ornamental carp fisheries in many countries. Further studies have led to better understanding
of the virility of this virus (Dishon et al., 2007). The leading role of the research carried out
on this virus has led to the establishment of Kovax Ltd - a company specializing in
aquaculture vaccines. In 2008 an international workshop on the Koi herpes virus was held in
Israel.
Food Presentation
A research project was conducted by Harpaz et al., (2005) to test the effects of feeding
guppy (Poecilia reticulata) fry a diet offered as either powder or flakes on their growth and
survival. The results of the 8 week experiment showed that the growth of both male and
female fish was considerably enhanced when the diet was presented in the form of a finely
ground powder compared with a flake form. Final average weights of fish given a diet
containing the exact same ingredients (44.9% protein and 6.1% fat) from the same batch of
raw materials in the powdered form were 280.0 12.1 mg compared with 114.6 19.9 mg
for the diet given in the form of flakes. In a diet that had a higher fat level (45.1% protein and
10.6% fat) the difference in final weight attained was even more dramatic 303.9 16.7 mg
for the powder fed fish compared with 92.6 12.5 mg for the flake fed fish.
Color Enhancement
Harpaz and Padowicz (2007) examined the effects of carotenoids, derived from paprika
(oleoresin paprika) added to fish feeds, on their expression in the dwarf cichlid
Microgeophagus ramirezi fish, including accumulation levels, color intensity, growth rate and
survival. Assimilation of carotenoids in the fish body at varying levels of carotenoid addition
60mg/kg or 240mg/kg were evaluated. The results clearly show that the addition of
carotenoids to the diet had no effect on the growth rate or the survival of the fish. On the other
hand, a significant difference in levels of carotenoid accumulation over the 75 day period was
found between the treatments fed with carotenoids and the control. The fish that consumed
food containing 240mg/kg carotenoids accumulated significantly more carotenoids in their
body (59.343.93g/gram dry matter) compared with fish that consumed food containing
60mg/kg carotenoids (40.532.37 g/gram dry matter). Fish that had no carotenoid addition
accumulated 29.18g/gram dry matter. Visual examination of the fish showed a strong
correlation between pigment accumulation level and color appearance in the fish.
Feed Additives: L-carnitine
L-Carnitine (L--hydroxy--N,N,N-trimethylaminobutyric acid) is a derivative of
the amino acid lysine and a non-essential organic nutrient, sometimes referred to as a quasi
amino acid, required for entry of long-chain fatty acids (such as acylcarnitine esters) into the
mitochondria. It plays an important role in energy production by chaperoning activated fatty
acids (acyl-CoA) into the mitochondrial matrix for metabolism. Carnitine is therefore a
normal constituent of animal tissues and plasma, which is required for the transport of longchain fatty acids to the site of oxidation.
177
Based on its role in vertebrates, the use of L-carnitine supplementation in fish diets in
aquaculture has been advocated for multi functional purposes that include:
(1) As a growth promoter, specifically aiding in the utilization of high fat levels in the
diet and thus providing a protein sparing effect
(2) Alleviating stress related to toxic levels of ammonia, water temperature extremes and
facilitating better acclimation to water temperature changes
(3) Enhancing reproduction.

Contrary to its role as a potential growth enhancer, no effect of L-carnitine
supplementation on ornamental fish growth was observed by Harpaz et al. (1999) in the
ornamental cichlid (Pelvicachromis pulcher) nor by Dzikowsi et al. (2001) who studied the
effect of temperature and diets supplemented with 1100 mg/kg food of L-carnitine on the
reproductive performance of female live-bearer guppy fish (Poecilia reticulata) and found
that the temperature had a significant effect on the brood size and brood interval, but the Lcarnitine did not.
On the other hand, a marked reduction in stress related cold shock deaths was shown in
the case of the warm water ornamental cichlid fish Pelvicachromis pulcher fed varying levels
of L-carnitine supplementation (0, 500, 1000 and 2000 mg/kg diet). Fish fed diets
supplemented with L-carnitine (at all levels of supplementation) exhibited a higher survival
rate after exposure to a severe cold shock, compared with the control fish fed a diet that was
not supplemented with L-carnitine (Harpaz et al., 1999). It should be noted that increased
carnitine concentrations may be required for oxidation of lipids when there is a clear need for
energy as a result of cold acclimation and similar acute environmental conditions.
Enhancement of Reproduction
Dzikowsi et al. (2004) conducted research on the effects of exposing fish to a potential
predator and they showed that the reproductive plasticity of the guppy Poecilia reticulata can
be induced in response to predation cues. The number of offspring produced by guppy female
fish was significantly enhanced when the fish were exposed to a potential predator even
though it did not have direct contact with the guppies.
Counting and Sorting Ornamental Fish Using Image Processing
Ornamental fish farms in Israel practice daily counting of the spawned fry and sorting of
fish. Tens of thousands of fry are manually counted daily in the larger farms, for feed
management and stock assessment. A system for counting day-old ornamental fry has been
developed and tested. Sorting of fish is possible as well, based on image processing and has
been found to be very accurate (Karplus et al., 2005; Zion et al., 2008).
INTEGRATIVE SYSTEMS
The nutrient release from aquaculture operations can severely impact on water quality,
conflict with regulations protecting recreational areas and multi-use coastlines as well as
posing a health threat to marine and freshwater species that are in proximity to commercial
178
cage farming or exposed to their effluent. Only 20-30% of feed protein nitrogen, the most
expensive component in aquatic diets, is retained in farmed fish and shrimp, while the rest is
secreted in the feces or as dissolved reduced N (ammonia and organic N). This represents a
profound waste of this key nutrient as well as being the dominant source of fish farm
pollution. Moreover, the public image and expansion of the aquaculture industry is justifiably
being questioned by an increasingly environmentally aware public.
As a general rule, the treatment of fish effluent from sea cages in open water is very
problematic. On the other hand, the mariculture of coral recruits (spats, nubbins, coral
fragments and small coral colonies ) in mid-water (depth of 6 m and 14 m above the sea
bottom) floating nurseries that were meters from commercial fish cages in the Gulf of Aqaba
showed superior growth in the nutrient rich waters (Rinkevich 2007; Amar and Rinkevich
2007). Nevertheless, aquaculture water treatment would be greatly assisted if fish were grown
in land based pond systems and facilities. However, the costs of land based operations are
considerably higher than sea cages in terms of infrastructure, land use and operation, water
pumping, maintenance of acceptable water quality and treatment of organic waste in pond
effluent.
An effective approach to the water treatment of in-land fish farm effluent is biofiltration
and this has formed the basis for the integrative pond approach in Eilat, Israel. Biofiltration of
fish pond effluent has the benefit of reducing water pollution and exchange rates which means
lower pumping costs. Organisms involved in biofiltration can be bacteria (van Rijn 1996),
which convert waste carbon and nitrogen into gasses while microalgae (Neori and Krom ,
1991), macroalgae (Neori, 1996) and suspension feeders (Shpigel and Blaylock, 1991;
Shpigel et al., 1997) assimilate these nutrients into their biomass. Single pond polyculture
systems are limited for intensification due to conflicting requirements of the different
organisms grown in the same pond. Alternatively, the integrated system developed in Eilat is
modular where the different biofilter species and suspension feeders are reared in separate
holding facilities. This means that implementing biofiltration further adds to the production
costs per kg fish in terms of added space, infrastructure, manpower and energy. On the other
hand, this approach has the potential to boost the profitability of land based fish ponds
(Shpigel and Neori, 1996; Neori et al., 2000) by producing commercially valuable aquatic
products directly (seaweeds for human consumption and the phycoid-colloid industry) or
indirectly (pond detritus fed to mullet, microalgae for oysters and clams, macroalgae for sea
urchins and abalone).
Microalgae in the fish ponds at the National Center for Mariculture (NCM) in Eilat are
efficient biofiltration units that contribute dissolved oxygen to the growing medium while
increasing their protein biomass by absorbing CO2, ammonia and phosphate (Krom and
Neori, 1989; Neori and Krom, 1991). Pond algae readily bloom in this region due to the
copious sunlight, in situ nutrient rich water and low to medium water exchange rates (2
exchanges/day) (Krom et al., 1989a, b; Neori et al., 1989). The dominant algal species in the
fish ponds at the NCM are Olithodiscus spp., Chlorella spp., Tetraselmis spp., Chaetocerous
spp., or Pyramimonas spp. The result is that high water quality is maintained in these ponds
although levels can be reduced by grazing heterotrophic microflagellates and ciliates (Neori et
al., 1989).
After a series of studies, the macroalgae or seaweed Ulva lactuca has become the
selected fish pond biofilter at the NCM (Neori et al., 1989; Vandermeulen and Gordin, 1990;
Shpigel et al., 1993b; Jimenez del Rio et al., 1996). The seaweed Gracilaria conferta was also
179
investigated as a suitable candidate but proved to be lest robust under local environmental
conditions. Neori et al. (1993) found the optimal density of U. lactuca was 1 kg/m2 while the
nutrient uptake, yield and protein content was also determined (Vandermeulen and Gordin,
1990, Cohen and Neori, 1991, Neori and Krom, 1991, Israel et al., 1995, Neori, 1996). Their
findings showed that the rate of ammonia supplied correlated positively with the seaweed
removal rate but negatively with the efficiency of extraction. For example a supply rate of
less than 2 g of ammonia-N/m2/day, resulted in U. lactuca removing over 80% of the NH3
from the water. However, when the supply rate increased to 7 g ammonia-N/ m2/d, which is
the annual average, the efficiency of removal of the ammonia-N load dropped to 50%
suggesting that a supply of 5 g ammonia-N/m2/d would be the most effective in terms of
uptake and efficiency (Shpigel and Neori, 2007). In contrast, U. lactuca yield and percent
protein content both increased with ammonia load. As fish are fed less in the cooler
temperatures of winter which in turn seasonally affects the ammonia nitrogen flux, seaweed
yields varied from 70 g/m2/d in winter to over 350 g/m2/d in summer. Similarly U. lactuca
biomass can have 2-4 times more protein (up to 40% DW) during the highest ammonia load
fluxes than found in this species in nature (Neori, 1996). On the other hand, other nitrogen
molecular species such as nitrate are taken up much less efficiently (Neori, 1996).
Filter-feeders such as bivalves filter microalgae which reduces turbidity and converts
non-digestible particles into quickly settling feces and pseudofeces (Mariojouls and Kusuki,
1987). The development of a practical intensive culture of bivalves in phytoplankton-rich
effluent has been well documented in a series of papers (Shpigel and Friedman, 1990; Shpigel
and Blaylock, 1991; Shpigel et al, 1993a, 1993b; Neori and Shpigel, 1999; Neori et al.,
2001). An important finding was that algal laden water from fish ponds, containing Chlorella,
Tetraselmis, Chaetocerous and Piramimonas spp., that drained into a separate sedimentation
pond produced a mixed planktonic microalgae and in situ benthic diatom (Navicula, Amphora
and Nitchzia species) mixture. This was particularly nutritious for bivalves and promoted
growth much better than oysters in tanks fed algae directly from single or multiple fish ponds.
This was primarily due to periodic algal crashes in these ponds precipitated by vigorous
grazing by heterotrophic microflagellates and microciliates. It was concluded that three
factors are responsible for enhanced growth of bivalves; (1) a highly diverse mixed diet, (2)
additional nutritious food from benthic diatoms, and (3) a stable algal concentration. As a result
the Eilat integrated system supported high rates and production of the oyster Crassostrea
gigas (0.7% d-1; stocking densities of 20-40 kg/m-3 , in tanks) and the clam Tapes
philippinarum (0.6% d-1; stocking densities of 5-9 kg m-2 , on the bottom of the sedimentation
pond) (Shpigel et al., 1993a; Shpigel and Neori, 1996).
These findings further advanced the integrated pond concept in Eilat. Today the fish from
intensive culture in outdoor fish ponds assimilate about 21% of feed protein nitrogen. The
remaining nitrogen compounds together with copious sunlight produce algal laden water (1-3
g N/m2/d) which drains into an earthen sedimentation pond. From here the water flows
through tanks with bivalves (polishing reactors) which will strip particulate matter (0.5-1 g N/
kg/d) from the medium representing about 15% of the original feed nitrogen. At this point,
about 32% of the original feed nitrogen input into the fish pond is now trapped in feces,
pseudofeces and uneaten fish feed sinking to the bottom. The water then flows into separate
modules containing U. lactacus which will remove dissolved nutrients approximating 22% of
the original nitrogen load. As a result of biofiltration, close to 60% of the nitrogen input into
the fish pond has been converted into commercially valuable biomass which is about 3 times
180
more efficient than present day fish farms. Moreover, it is conceivable that the 32% of the
original nitrogen input trapped as detritus could be grazed by detritivores (Lupatsch et al
2003c) such as mullet (Mugil cephalus) increasing the efficiency of the system further. Taken
together the resulting seawater returning to the sea will have a markedly reduced nitrogen
load (>90%).
However, it is important to note that integrative pond approach is still grappling with a
number of challenges such as sustaining a careful balance between nutrient production by the
main cultured organism (fish or shrimp) and nutrient uptake capacity of the types of algae and
shellfish used to reduce the nitrogen load. The market value of biofiltration products may
fluctuate resulting in reduced profitability of the system. More infrastructure investment, such
as green house construction, may be necessary to minimize heat loss or gain downstream of
an integrated system. Moreover, production of cultured organisms could be compromised by
disease or poor sanitation which could also influence consumer demand and market price.
RECIRCULATING AQUACULTURE SYSTEMS

Incentives for intensive production of fish in recirculating systems differ from country to
country. In Israel, water and land scarcity are the main reasons underlying the development of
freshwater recirculating systems while the incentive for development of marine recirculating
systems is mainly driven by the environmental effects associated with marine fish culture in
cages and coastal ponds. Recirculating technology for culture of freshwater fish in Israel has
been explored since the early 1980s. Initially, plastic and concrete lined outdoor ponds were
used for this purpose in which fish (mainly tilapia) were cultured up to densities of 20-30
kg/m3 at harvest. Water from these ponds was recirculated through earthen-bottom, satellite
ponds for water purification. Since in Israel most intensive culture ponds are constructed in
existing fish farms, conventional fish ponds or reservoirs most often served as satellite ponds
(Mires et al., 1990; Mires and Amit, 1992). On average, satellite ponds comprised 90% of the
total water volume in these systems. Hence, considerable water evaporation in these often
shallow treatment ponds contributed to a relatively high water usage with estimated values of
around 3 m3 of water for production of 1 kg of fish (tilapia). Although these systems were
easier to operate than extensive pond systems (ease of harvesting, seining and treatment etc.),
water and land savings were only marginal due to the large treatment areas required. Since the
early 1990s various attempts were made to culture freshwater fish in indoor recirculating
systems. One of the earliest systems was a tilapia recirculating system operated at kibbutz Sde
Eliyahu (Y. Simon, personal communication). It consisted of indoor raceways (total volume:
480 m3) operated at fish densities of up to 45 kg/m3 from which water was recirculated
through a mechanical drum filter and a submerged nitrification filter. The system was
operated with a relatively large daily water exchange rate of around 30% of the total water
volume with effluent water being discharged into regular earthen fish ponds for further use.
Over the years, several commercial, semi-closed recirculating systems have been operated in
Israel. A system marketed by the Dutch Hesy Aquaculture B.V. company and operated at
kibbutz Ein Hamifratz is the most prominent among these systems. This 200 MT annual
production plant has been operated over the last seven years, culturing both freshwater
(tilapia) and marine fish (gilthead sea bream, European sea bass) at average stocking densities
181
of around 50-60 kg/m3. Water in the system is recirculated through a drum filter for solid
removal and trickling biological filters for removal of dissolved organic matter and
nitrification. Effluent water from this semi-closed system is diverted into conventional ponds.
A USA developed recirculating technology (Mr. Gary Myers) distributed by the Israeli
AquaMaof company was recently installed in kibbutz Revivim for annual production of 150
MT of African catfish.
Research on intensive aquaculture recirculating systems (RAS) in Israel has mainly been
conducted at the National Center for Mariculture of the Israel Oceanographic Research Ltd. in
Eilat and at the Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment at the Hebrew
University of Jerusalem. At the former research institute, a low-head recirculating concept
was developed (Mozes et al 2002) in cooperation with Kora (1980) Ltd. The low-head
approach enables the reduction of energy consumption in RAS. The Mega-Flow registered
system is based on water circulation and water aeration by means of airlifts (Figure 10). The
system includes three water circuits: (1) the main loop, where pond water is pumped through
airlift pumps several times per hour creating a massive water flow (hence the name 'MegaFlow'). This loop fulfils three functions: aeration, CO2 stripping and dispersion of waste and
uneaten feed in the water column of the system, (2) a second loop, where water is pumped by
smaller airlifts once or twice an hour through an up-flow non-pressurized filter for suspended
solid removal followed by a moving bed biofilter for nitrification. In both filters, a 'macaroni'
type plastic is used as substrate. (3) A third loop, designed for nitrate removal treatment by
denitrification and organic matter degradation using an external sedimentation basin and
recently intensive reactors have been developed. Pilot scale experiments were conducted for
several years (Haddas and Mozes, 2004) before a semi-commercial application of the
methodology in a 100 MT production system for culture of gilthead sea bream was
constructed. This system produced over 100 MT per year, showing little energy consumption,
limited sea-water exchange and reached the designated water quality requirements (Fig. 11).
Research at the Hebrew Universitys Rehovot campus has mainly dealt with the
development of zero-discharge recirculating system. Water in this system is treated by
recirculation through two separate treatment loops, one aerobic and the other primarily
anoxic. Ammonia is oxidized to nitrate in the aerobic loop by a trickling filter. Concurrently,
organic matter and nitrate are gasified by a combination of organic matter digestion and
denitrification in the anoxic loop, which is comprised of a digestion/sedimentation basin
followed by a fluidized bed reactor (Figure 12). By means of combined aerobic/anoxic
treatment of the culture water, main water quality parameters are balanced to such an extent
that successful intensive fish production is possible without the need for discharge of water
and organic matter from the system. Water addition is limited to compensate for evaporation
losses, resulting in an extremely low water requirement for fish production. Depending on the
degree of insulation of the culture facility, water consumption ranged between 40- 200 liters
per kg of fish produced. Initially tested for tilapia production (Shnell et al., 2002), the
technology was later tested for production of marine fish (gilthead sea bream). Based on these
tests (Gelfand et al., 2003; Neori et al., 2007), commercial application of this patented
technology was recently initiated. A beta-site, 50 MT annual production unit for gilthead sea
bream was operated for 18 months in Israel by GFA Ltd. prior to the operation of a full-scale
production system established in 2009 by Local Ocean Ltd. in Hudson (NY, USA) with a
total projected annual production capacity of 600 MT (Figure 13).
182
At present, recirculating technology in Israel is still used to a limited extent. Despite the
advantages of this technology, its application is hampered for several reasons:
(1) Use of the capital-intensive recirculating systems is only justified in case of

production of high valued fish species. As such, the relatively low valued carps and
tilapia, the main freshwater species cultured in Israel, are unlikely candidates for
these systems. In case of marine fish, a need exists for diversification of aquacultured
species. In addition to gilthead sea bream and sea bass, the commonly cultured
marine fish species with wholesale prices that justify their production in recirculating
systems, culture experience with other high-priced marine fish species is still lacking.
(2) Despite their development and refinement over the past thirty years, off-the-shelf,
reliable recirculating systems are not easy to come by. Even recirculating system
configurations that have been widely used elsewhere still require considerable
adaptation before successfully applied by new operators. Hence, lack of skilled and
experienced local manpower and inexperienced management, are often main reasons
for failure.
(3) Weak environmental regulations or the lack of implementation of environmental
laws still allow fish culture by non-sustainable culture methods.
Current developments in the Israeli aquaculture industry point to prospects for increased
application of recirculating technology. It is expected that in addition to the above mentioned
incentives, i.e. efficient use of land and water and reduced environmental impact, others will
further contribute to the expansion of recirculating systems in Israel. Marketing advantages
such as predictable harvest schedules and year-round production as well as consumers
demands for sustainable produced and safe seafood (e.g. free of chemicals and heavy metals)
are among those additional factors. Moreover, with the expansion of recirculating technology
it is expected that investment costs will be reduced considerably. Such cost reduction might
enable culture of lower valued species (e.g. tilapia) in addition to the high valued fish species
thus far cultured in these systems.
CONCLUSION
The aquaculture industry, including both freshwater and marine culture, has expanded
impressively over the years in Israel. On the other hand, the clear regional restraints of land
and energy costs, water shortage, limited sheltered bays and the environmental awareness of
the impact of commercial cage culture on natural resources and multi-use coastal areas has
presented formidable obstacles to its continued expansion. However, these limitations have
also been the driving force for innovation of new technologies and research to increase the
efficiency and productivity of the aquaculture sector while reducing the adverse effects of its
effluent.
Israeli aquaculture research has made inroads understanding how nutrition and
environmental parameters during larval rearing can influence juvenile quality and ultimately
market price, in terms of the incidence of deformity, metamorphic success, growth and sex
ratio. New vaccines were developed to grapple with viruses that potentially can decimate fish
183
stocks and alternative therapies for fungal infection were found. Studies that determined the
daily energy and protein requirement during grow-out in mainstream mariculture teleosts
have facilitated the optimization of feed formulations and feeding regimes. This makes diets
more economical and reduces the release of nitrogen compounds to the environment.
Environmental impact was also considered in the organic culture of tilapia in pond
polyculture or using geothermal water to grow this species in arid regions. The integrative
pond concept, as developed in Israel, is designed to strip the vast majority of dissolved and
particulate nutrients in fish pond effluent through the co-production of plankton and filter
feeders of high market value.
The removal of the sea cages from the Gulf of Aqaba and the chronic shortage of water in
the region have stimulated the development of novel and promising technologies for land
based intensive aquaculture such as the Megaflow design and the zero-discharge recirculating
system. Moreover, by increasing the use of recirculating systems and implementing
methodologies that ensure the strength and quality of the production of ornamental fish, this
promising new Israeli industry has expanded rapidly in recent years and is steadily becoming
an important economical component of Israeli aquaculture.
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97-104.

ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 10
AQUACULTURE STATUS AND NEEDS

IN THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN
Mehdi Soltani
Department of Aquatic Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Tehran, and Center of Excellence of Aquatic Animal Health,
University of Tehran Tehran, Iran
ABSTRACT
Aquaculture development in Iran commenced in the early 1970's with technical
assistance from the former Soviet Union for the artificial propagation of sturgeon
(Acipenseridae) fingerlings for restocking the Caspian Sea. Since then, the capacity to
mass produce other species such Rutilus frisii kutum, Caspian trout (Salmo trutta
caspius), bream (Abramis brama), pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca), rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) and four cyprinids species for restocking other suitable inland
water bodies was rapidly acquired by the Iranian Fishery Organization (Shilat).
Aquaculture has since expanded to culture of food fish in raceways (trout) and ponds
(cyprinids). Other species such as Hamor and Barbus sharpeyi are also being targeted for
future culture. Development projects on the farming of penaeid shrimp (Feneropeneaus
semisulcatus, F.vannamei and F. indicus) in the Persian Gulf region and along the
southeastern area of the Caspian Sea are currently underway. Iran has also initiated
projects to evaluate the feasibility of culturing Artemia cyst, grouper, pearl oyster, and
aquatic plants. Also, for a sustainable aquaculture new species of fish and shrimp such as
tilapia, sea bass and F. vannamei have been imported inside the country.
Despite the rapid development of this industry during the recent years it is faced with
several constraints including lack of modern technology, insufficient financial resources,
and negative impact of environmental pollution and occurrence of devastating infectious
diseases. Poor environmental conditions, inexperienced health managements and
outbreaks by some economically important infectious diseases such as white spot viral
disease (WSD),infectious heamatopoeitic necrosis (IHN), infectious pancreatic necrosis
(IPN) and streptococcosis/lactococcosis are the major constraints faced in Iran
Email address: msoltani@ut.ac.ir (Mehdi Soltani, DVM, PhD, professor of aquatic animal health).
192
Mehdi Soltani
aquaculture causing considerable losses each year. Although both veterinary and fishery
organizations approved some roles and legislations to improve health management
criteria, there is a risk of exotic and economically important diseases that can be imported
through the importation of eyed-egg, larvae, brood stock and ornamental species into the
country. However, some viral diseases including IHN, IPN and WSD have become a part
of endemic diseases in Iran aquaculture sector.
INTRODUCTION
At present, the average per capita of fish consumption in the Islamic Republic of Iran is
low, at 6 kg compared with the world average of 13.5 kg and is to increase average
consumption to the desired 13kg level by the year 2020. Total fishery output including
aquaculture and fishing in Iran increased from 382,000 metric tones (mt) in 1995 to 670,000
mt in 2007. In 1998, the Caspian Sea region and other inland waters produced about 60,000
and 59,000. mt of fish, respectively. Aquaculture production reached 110,000 mt/yr at the end
of the second 5-year development plan (1995-2000), a 2.5 fold increase in production since
the beginning of this plan i.e. 1995 (Hosseinzadeh, 2003). The industry grew rapidly with a
production of about 130,000 mt in 2005 and is projected to reach about 493,000 mt in 2014.
Although aquaculture sector has been rapidly developing during the recent years, it has been
faced with several problems. Outbreaks by some economically important contagious diseases,
use of inappropriate technology, inadequate financial resources and negative impact of
environmental pollution are some of major obstacles faced by the aquaculture industry. This
commentary is intended to give an account of different aquatic animal production systems in
Iran and the challenges faced by the sector.
AQUACULTURE STATUS IN IRAN

Background to Aquaculture Development
Aquaculture activities were initiated in Iran with different species of fish including,
Cyprinids, sturgeons and rainbow trout (Onchorincus mykiss) before 1922. Sturgeon and
rainbow trout aquaculture started in 1922 and 1959, respectively (Hosseinzadeh, 2000). In
1970s the hatcheries of rainbow trout, cyprinid species, sturgeons and Mahisefif (Rutilus
Rutilus frisi kutum) were established. Rainbow trout and four species of cyprinids consisting
of common carp, grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella), bighead (Aristichthys nobilis) and
silver carp (Hypophthalmychthis molitrix) are the major commercial species currently grown
using inland waters. Also, for many years the wild brood stock of some species including
sturgeons, Mahisefid, Caspian trout (Salmo trutta caspius), bream (Abramis brama), pikeperch (Stizostedion lucioperca), and cyprinids were used for the production of fingerlings for
restocking the wild, the Caspian Sea and the rivers. Some species including Barbus sharpyii,
B. grypus, B. xanthopterus, grouper (E. coioides) have been recently propagated.
To compensate the shrimp population in the Persian Gulf, a joint project was carried out
in collaboration with the UNDP to establish a pilot hatchery for shrimp production in 1987.
Later the prawn farming with Feneropeneaus indicus and in some cases F. semisulcatus was
Aquaculture Status and Needs in the Islamic Republic of Iran
193
developed in 1993 with15 tones production. The shrimp industry is developing, although the
shrimp aquaculture production is faced with problems including marketing and outbreak of
viral diseases. Recently marine fish cage aquaculture has been supported by the department of
fisheries but so far except for some experimental works no mass production has been
accomplished.
Current status of Aquaculture Production

The government of Iran has been successful in its efforts to raise aquaculture output and
this is reflected in the overall expansion rate of the sector at 8.2 %/ per year during 19901996. To date, five major fish species consisting of common carp, silver carp, bighead carp,
grass carp and rainbow trout contribute to aquaculture output in Iran (Figure 1).
In 1996, production amounted to about 30,000 mt, valued at US$ 306.6 million. The
production swelled by 4.3 times to about 130,000 mt in 2006 contributed mainly by rainbow
trout, , silver carp, and bighead. These species showed an increase by 27, 11 and 7 % per
year, respectively between 1991 and 1996.
Common carp and Chinese carps including silver carp, grass carp, and bighead carp
contributed to the total production until 1996. In 1996, these two groups of carps accounted
for 93% (about 28,000 mt) of aquaculture production in Iran. Following the introduction of
Chinese carps in the 1970s, there has been a shift from traditional common carp monoculture
to polyculture system of Chinese carps and common carp. The increasing production of silver
carp was mainly due to the higher stocking ratio of the phytoplankton feeder in the
polyculture system despite its lower retail market price compared to grass carp.
Development of rainbow trout aquaculture was also carried out during 1987 till 1996
with a total production of 820 mt in 1987 and 1900 mt in 1996 (Figure 1). The aquaculture
production of this coldwater species of fish was developed during 1997-2006 and reached a
production level of over 46,000 mt and 60,000 by 2006 and 2008, respectively. The
development of F. indicus aquaculture was rapid during 1999 till 2004 with a production of
about 8,900 mt in 2004.
Figure 1. Major species of aquaculture production in Iran (1987-2006).
194
Mehdi Soltani
However, the production of shrimp decreased to 3,500 mt in 2005 because of the white
spot viral disease outbreaks and probably weakened market. Also, crayfish (Astacus
leptodactylus) production obtained from the rivers was about 2 mt in1997 which increased to
270 mt in 2006. Commercial aquaculture production of this valuable species has been
recently initiated mainly in the north and North West provinces of the country.
Attempts for Expanding Aquaculture Industry

Iran is actively pursuing a holistic approach for aquaculture development, building on
one of its key strengths--technology for mass artificial propagation of seed and infrastructure
for restocking inland and coastal waters. To promote aquaculture as an independent economic
activity, Iran has taken several initial steps till the year 2000 to encourage private sector
involvement. These included 1. Making the private sector solely responsible for fingerling
production for on growing, 2. Providing low interest loans, 3. Subsidizing feed ingredients for
feed production, 4. Providing low price fingerlings from the state hatcheries, 5. Granting
twenty-year tax exemption for fish/shrimp farms, 6. Providing free or low price lands and
constructing the necessary roads and water canals for shrimp and trout farming, and 7.
Consistency in the effective public promotion activities to increase fish consumption,
particularly in the central region of the country, where the food habits of including fish in the
diet are not well established yet.
During the last 10 years activities of the Iran Fisheries Organization have proved
successful in attracting the private investors to both seed production and grow out segments
of the aquaculture sector. In 1996, around 20 cyprinid and 10 trout fingerling production
private hatcheries were operational. In the case of rainbow trout, 80 private on growing farms
were operational in 12 provinces. Between 1992 and 1996, the area under rainbow trout
production increased from 80,000 to 166,000 m2 (raceway area) and production increased
from 775 to 1,900 mt.
Aquaculture Production of Major Species

The culture of carps, trout and marine shrimp is currently active in Iranian aquaculture.
Carps
Carp culture is the main fish farming industry in four main provinces of Gilan,
Mazandaran, Khozestan and Golstan (Figures 2-5). In these regions four species of carps
consisting of common carp, bighead carp, silver carp and grass carp are produced in earthen
ponds, rice lands and in waters of temporary dams. Total production was 24,000 mt in 1987
and increased to 27,500 and 77,000 mt in 2000 and 2006, respectively (Figure 1). In Gilan
province, total carp production was 10,544 mt in 1999 which increased to 30,500 mt in 2006
(Figure 2). In Mazandaran and Golstan provinces these productions were about 9,200 and 450
mt, in 1996-1997, respectively which increased to 47,500 and 8,960 mt in 2006, respectively
(Figures 3 and 4). Also, in Khozestan province aquaculture production of warm water species
was about 6,500 mt in 1995 increased to 8,200 and 25,200 mt in 2000 and 2007 (Figure 5).
195
Figure 2. Total aquaculture production of warm water fish in Gilan province during 1999-2006.
Figure 3. Total aquaculture production of warm water fish in Mazandaran province during 1996-2006.
Figure 4. Total aquaculture production of warm water fish in Golstan province during 1997-2006.
196
Mehdi Soltani
Figure 5. Total aquaculture production of warm water fish in Khozestan province during 1995-2007.
Production of carp is now primarily under taken by the private sector. Carp brood stock
selection is usually based on head-size, color, and gill structure (surface and shape of filter)
and adults fish are usually used for a period of 3-4 years. A key factor in the successful egg
production by the private sector was the switch over from the Hungarian method of egg
production to the Chinese method. The former had small incubators resulting in high
mortalities compared to the latter with large concrete circular tanks having egg collecting
devices for spawning and egg collection/incubation, in which there is a minimum intervention
in the spawning process. Carps are grown to a marketable size in production systems that vary
from simple ponds managed on a part-time basis to capital intensive and professionally
engineered and constructed farms managed on a full time basis. In 1994 there were around
2,583 registered warm water fish farms in the country, with a combined pond water surface of
approximately 8,000 ha. The Gilan province has more than 12 private carp hatcheries and
2,200 grow-out carp farms with around 3,500 ha of fish ponds.
The bighead, silver, grass and common carps are the major species reared under semiintensive polyculture system in the earthen ponds where the organic and inorganic fertilizers
are used for the production of natural food. The use of supplementary feeds is also sometimes
common. Under this polyculture system fish are grown up to the market size within a period
of one year of culture. Fingerlings of 5-10g are usually stocked at 2,000-6,000 fish/ha during
March-April. The lower densities are stocked when large sized fish is required. The ponds are
fertilized with urea compost at 135-1500 kg/ha/yr, ammonium phosphate at 80-575 kg/ha/yr
and compost at 3-10 mt/ha/yr and the fish are fed using a supplementary diet consisting of a
variety of grains at 100-6,000 kg/ha/yr. Some farmers practice intensive monoculture of
common carp in well-aerated ponds using pelleted feed with a high protein level of 30-40%.
The fish of marketable size are harvested during November-February and the production scale
varies between 1.6 to 5.5 mt/ha depending on the level of management.
Rainbow Trout
Rainbow trout farming was initiated in 1950s with the importation of eyed-eggs from
Europe. The trout farming was limited to two farms located one each in the east and west of
197
the capital city, Tehran for about 20 years. The trout aquaculture industry was then gradually
developed after 1980s in the cold and temperate areas of the country mainly in the areas of
Alborz and Zagros mountains. At present, Choharmohal-va-Bakhteyari, Lorstan and
Mazandaran are the leading provinces in rainbow trout aquaculture producing about 50% of
total trout production in the country. Most of rainbow trout farms in Iran produce more than
50 mt per year. However, there are some bigger trout farms with a potential production of up
to 1000 mt per year. Most of the trout farms have the raceway system, although there are
about 150 recirculation biofilteration systems. Also, recently a few Norwegian and Danish
recirculation biofilteration systems have been established in different parts of country
including Lorstan, Azarbayejan and Tehran provinces. However, inadequate financial
resources, poor training level and insufficient technology are still main problems of
recirculation biofilteration systems in the country. More recently, the first specific pathogen
free (SPF) trout farm has been established in the centeral province of country to supply the
SPF fingerling trout to the industry particularly to those of recirculation biofilteration
systems. The egg production and intensive grow-out systems have been well developed
although the final outcome is low in some trout hatcheries. This is because of inadequate
experience, insufficient training, low quality of feed and poor health management practices.
Also, currently some of the trout farmers import eyed-eggs from different countries including
Denmark, Finland, Canada, Australia, Scotland and Norway with a different survival rate (up
to 80%) up to the alevin stage. Selection of the brood stock is mainly based on the phenotypic
criteria. Total production of trout fingerling is dependant on a numbers of parameters
including water quality, feed quality and health management factors. In 1996 about 10 million
trout fingerlings were produced by the private sector which increased to over 250 million in
2006. Total production of rainbow trout increased from 820 mt in 1987 to 2572 mt in 1997.
The trout aquaculture production has been about 60,000 mt in 2008 (Figure 1) and based the
governmental working plan a production of above 100,000 mt has been expected by next five
years.
Almost, all trout farmers use commercial pellets produced by private feed manufacturers
with some of them being supported by the Government. Also, recently, the trout farmers
started to import the trout feed from Europe, Canada and the USA. Conversion efficiency of
the pelleted feed is in the range 1: 1.1 - 1.4 (wet fish: dry feed weight basis). Some trout
farmers produce their own feed, mainly for the feeding of brood stock and fattening fish.
Slow growth rate, mainly due to low water temperatures, extends the production cycle to take
a longer time of above 14 months, whereas at water temperatures of 13-16oC this gets reduced
to 9 months. In some regions high water temperatures of above 17oC, particularly during the
summer season, increases the levels of morbidity and mortality due to lower oxygen,
occurrence of some bacterial infections including streptococcosis/lactococcosis and motile
Aeromonas septicemia.
Sturgeon Farming
Sturgeons are among the aquatic organisms that are severely influenced by the effect of
pollution in their natural habitat, the Caspian Sea. These species are of the most economically
valuable species that are protected and conserved through various means. Although climatic
and geological processes affect the fish stocks, human activity has the most destructive
impact (Debus, 1995).
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Mehdi Soltani
These highly valuable fish species such as great sturgeon (Huso huso), Persian sturgeon
(A. persicus), ship (A. nudiventris) and A. gulednstaedti are the major economically important
species of northern Iran that play a significant role in the income of the Iranians in the regions
of the southern Caspian Sea. These commercially valuable species of fish generally spend
their adult life in both freshwater and salt water environments, spawning in the upper river
stretches of the Gorgan and the Sefid-Rud which are contaminated by organophosphates such
as diazinon and malatinon (Rezvani-Gilkolaei, 1997).
Figure 6. Caviar production in Iran during 1998 till 2006.
Sturgeons can live up to 100 years with a maximum recorded weight of up to 1500 kg.
The fish matures usually after 12 years of age and therefore, the process for caviar production
takes a long time. Such biophysiological features of the fish may make them to be frequently
exposed to toxicant chemicals commonly contaminate the rivers and the Caspian Sea coastal
waters. In the last decade the average annual sturgeon harvest from the South Caspian Sea
was 2068 tones. About 1619 mt of caviar, worth $191 million was exported during the ten
year period of 1975 to 1984. A slight increase both in the sturgeon harvest and the world
caviar market price led to a higher export of 1434 mt, ($319million) during the seven years
from 1988 to 1994. Nowadays, because of both overfishing and water pollution the sturgeon
stock has sharply declined throughout the Caspian Sea (Pourkazemi, 1996). The total
production of caviar was 91.3 mt and it decreased to 15.45 mt in 2006 (Figure 6). Similar to
caviar production, the total meat production of captured sturgeons from the Caspian Sea has
remarkably decreased during last decade. For instance, sturgeon meat production was 2170.7
mt in 1970 and it reduced to 1496.1 mt in 1980. In an attempt to keep a steady caviar
production level and increase the sturgeon meat supply, sturgeon farming was initiated with
the assistance of Iran Fisheries Organization. So far 47 sturgeon farm licenses have been
issued by Iran Fisheries Organization to produce 2500 mt meat and 72 mt caviar. However,
one of major problems to establish such sturgeon farming is the difficulty to access to the
required brood fish for production of larvae.
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Marine Shrimp
Developing of penaeid culture in the southern parts of Iran along the Persian Gulf and
Sea of Oman was started in 1992. To date some 40,000 ha of coastal areas has been allocated
for developing shrimp farming mainly in this region. Also, shrimp culture of F. semisulcatus
and F. indicus has been recently started in the eastern parts of the Caspian Sea including
Gorgan and Gonbad regions. So far, 12,000 ha ponds have been prepared from which 8,000
ha are actively used for growing F. indicus and the imported F. vannamei. However, in year
2009, because of a number of obstacles including outbreak of white spot viral disease,
occurrence of red-tide caused by Cochlodinium prykricoides and low market price, about
2000 ha of these shrimp farming were used for shrimp production.
In the southern provinces the government is developing each shrimp culture site by
providing the necessary primary infrastructures such as road, main water channels and
electrical power. Shrimp farming is centered on the development of species indigenous to the
Persian Gulf, particularly F. semisulcatus and F. indicus. The total production was 150 mt in
1995 mainly produced by the private sector. Total shrimp production then, increased to about
8,880 mt in 2004 (Figure 7). However, because of outbreaks by white spot viral disease,
difficulties to obtain the necessary brood stock and probably low price of harvested shrimp in
the market; the shrimp production in Iran reduced to 3845 and 2500 mt in 2005 and 2008,
respectively (Figure 8). In the Caspian Sea region, production yield of 4 mt/ha has been
recorded.
Figure 7. Actual and expected shrimp aquaculture production in Iran during 1999-2008.
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Mehdi Soltani
Figure 8. Actual and expected shrimp aquaculture price in Iran during 1999-2008.
To compensate for the shrimp production and keeping a sustainable shrimp aquaculture,
the brood stock of F. vannamei was imported for the first time in 2007. To improve the
shrimp aquaculture industry in Iran, a UNDP/FAO mission on "Development of National
Strategy for Aquaculture Shrimp Management" (IRA/97/020/A/08/12) is currently underway.
Because of a significant decrease in shrimp production, a total expected price of about $54
million reduced to $12.8 million in 2008 (Figure 8).
Other Crustacean Species (Artemia, crayfish)

Growing of Artemia uromia in the hyper-saline of 100-150ppt is one of aquaculture
activities in Iran. Artemia is used currently as a live feed for the shrimp and sturgeon farming.
The Uremia Lake with an area of 6000 km2 has the potential to produce 300 mt of Artemia
cysts per year. A pilot processing plant has already been established at the lake shores and, in
1996, a 20 mt of Artemia cysts were produced (Abdolhay, 1999). The aquaculture production
of crayfish (Astacus leptodactylus) and Macrobracium rosenbergii is also in the initial stages
of development in Iran, although there are few small farms established in the north and south
parts of the country.
Marine Mollusks
The mollusk aquaculture activity was initiated in Kish island where the black-lip oyster
culture project was established by Iranian Fisheries Organization in 1984 (Hosseinzadeh,
2003). However, because of some difficulties its commercial production has been
unsuccessful so far.
Aquaculture for Stock Enhancement (restocking)

Because of the degradation of natural habitats and reproduction places of some valuable
species such as sturgeons, Mahisefid and the Caspian trout, the restocking plan of the Caspian
Sea and the rivers joining the sea has been a national plan work of Iranian Fisheries
Organization since 1950s. For this purpose, 24 fish hatcheries were established of which 13
201
are run by the Governmental body and the remaining ones are run by the private sector
(Hosseinzadeh, 2003). Over 15, 160, 233 and 250 million fish fingerlings including that of
the above mentioned species have been produced for restocking in the sea and rivers during
1978, 1990, 1999 and 2000, respectively. At present, the Fisheries Department produces 200300 millions fish fingerlings each year for restocking of the Caspian Sea.
Marine Fish
Although Iranian Fisheries Organization made some attempts for the production of some
marine fish species such as bream (Abramis brama), grouper and sea bass (Lates calcalifer)
in the Persain Gulf, the marine fish cage aquaculture has been seriously taken neither in the
Caspian Sea nor in the Persain Gulf so far. The preliminary cage culture of grouper, bream
and sea bass have been carried out in the coastal areas of the Persian Gulf, Mahshar harbor
and Hengam Island. One of the main obstacles for developing of such cage culture is the lack
of adequate technology inside the country. However, at present there is demand by the private
sector to establish cage culture especially in the Persian Gulf and therefore, it is predicted to
have a large marine cage aquaculture industry in both north and south Iran in the nearly
future.
Potential for Further Aquaculture Development in Iran

Hatchery technology exists in Iran for the several fish species that are mainly used for
restocking programs. Therefore, some of these potential candidate species include sturgeon
species, Caspian trout (Salmo trutta caspius), Mahisefid (Rutilus rutilus), bream, mullet,
barbus (Barbus sharpyii, Bsrbus grupus, Barbus xanthopterus), grouper and F. semisulcatus.
Although species of sturgeons such as great sturgeon and Persian sturgeon are suitable
candidates for commercial aquaculture, more research works are required on their commercial
feed, hatchery technology and brood stock consolidation. Bream in polyculture systems is a
common interest among the fish farmers and more studies are required to identify the fish
water quality and feeding regimes. This species has a higher market valuable in Iran compare
to the Chinese carps so a remarkable increase in its production is expected in the future. Mahi
sephid is also one of the valuable candidate species for commercial aquaculture in Iran.
However, attempts to grow this species has been limited to the fingerling stage, and so more
research works are required to grow this species up to market size.
Although aquaculture development is relatively new, Iran has made significant progress
in promoting aquaculture sector. The following activities have been carried out by the
government so far:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Allocation of adequate land and water resources for aquaculture development.

Improvement of processing, marketing and related infrastructure.
Investment in strengthening human capacity.
Successful efforts for raising the demand for aquatic products such as rainbow trout.
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Mehdi Soltani
However, to maintain and extend this progress several efforts needed to be addressed.
These include:
1. securing all year round supply of high quality trout seed
2. providing technical information on production systems and their management,
3. providing training and dissemination of information on reproductive biology and
genetics, brood stock management techniques, feed and feeding technologies,
4. The availability of required facilities/equipments
5. developing research and training programs,
6. strengthening the extension service,
7. facilitating procurement of equipment,
8. improving transportation system for farm to market, and
9. improving the manufacture artificial fish/shrimp feed.
Iran Fisheries Organization is also currently involved in some aquaculture activities to
meet the immediate challenges to a sustainable aquaculture development through a national
brood stock program for some species such as rainbow trout, bream, grouper, sea bass, barbus
sp., F. indicus and F. vannamei.
HEALTH MANAGEMENT IN AQUACULTURE SECTOR IN IRAN

Coldwater Fish Farming
IHN was first identified as one of the main causative agents of fry trout mortality
syndrome in rainbow trout farming in 2002. Further serological and molecular studies of
geographical distribution of the disease outbreaks shows that almost all major trout producing
are infected. Molecular and serological studies have been also confirmed the occurrence of
IPN infection in a number of farmed trout. Although, the incidences by SVC and VHS are
suspected in carp and trout farming, more works are required to clarify these important viral
diseases in Iran aquaculture.
At the moment Lacotococcus garveiae and Streptococcus iniae outbreaks are one of main
bacterial diseases in farmed rainbow trout in different parts of Iran where the trout farms are
located (Figure 9). The disease outbreak is associated with water quality parameters
particularly high water temperature (>14) and poor health management. The peak of
outbreaks occurred during late spring till late summer with mortalities varying from 5-70%
(Figures 10). Also, infections by Cytophaga/Flexibacter like-bacteria occurred in farmed
rainbow trout of different size causing saddle back lesions and the mortality went up to 16%.
The epizootiological studies of such outbreaks shows that unsuitable long transportation, poor
water quality, long exposure to the sunlight and nutritional deficiency, particularly vitamin
deficiency, are probably the main predisposing factors involved in the infections by Gram
negative filamentous bacteria.
203
Figure 9. Geographical distribution of streptococcosis/lactocccosis inside Iran.
Figure 10. View of a rainbow trout pond in north Iran containing fattening diseased rainbow trout
affected by L. garvieae showing typical bilateral exophthalmia (Photo by author).
The first outbreak of yersiniosis with a total mortality of 10-20% was reported in some
farmed rainbow trout in Iran during summer 1997 and 2000. The disease outbreaks can
become a serious problem mainly in those trout farming that use the rivers as their water
sources. In addition, infection by Ichthiophtirius multifiliis is sometimes an obstacle in trout
recirculation biofilteration systems. Infection by Saprolegnia genera is also the most
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Mehdi Soltani
important fungal infectious diseases currently occur in rainbow trout, sturgeon and cyprinids
hatcheries. The losses due to saprolegniosis in trout hatcheries is more than other species
because of low water temperature and longer period of hatching period required for rainbow
trout. In trout culture, an increase in levels of unionized ammonia, trite, carbon dioxide, low
dissolved oxygen, high level of total suspended/dissolved solids and high fluctuation in water
temperature are the main environmental problems encountered the industry. Such water
quality parameters are more serious in trout recirculation systems.
Warm Water Fish Farming

Infection caused by Flavobacterium psychrophilum-like bacteria has been reported from
silver carp farming during the winter seasons in the southern regions of the country. Also, for
many years the cyprinid farming including grass carp and silver carp are suffering from
significant morbidity and mortality when water temperature increased. Various etiological
agents including motile Aeromonas bacteria, Aeromonas hydrophila and Aeromonas veronii,
a reoviral like virus and poor water quality conditions have been so far discriminated as the
main causes of such losses. Many protozoans and metazoans have been reported by several
workers from different species of fish including both wild and cultured fish. Among them
infections by Ichthiophtirius multifiliis, Trichodina sp., Diplostomum spataceum,
Dactylogyrus sp., Lernea sp. and Botirocephalus sp. are the more economically serious
parasitic infections currently occurring in the farmed cyprinids.
Sturgeon Farming
Despite the value of sturgeon species as a part of aquaculture activity in Iran minimum
data are available on the health status particularly infectious diseases of these valuable species
both in wild and cultured conditions. The most available data has been focused on the
identification of the external and internal parasites in these species. Cucullanus
sphaerocephalus, Skrjabinopsolus semiarmatus, Leptorhynchoides plagicephalus,
Pseudotracheliastes stellatus, Diclybothrium armatum, Nitzschia storionis, Eustrongyluides
excisus, Anisakis sp., Amphilina foliace and Corynosoma stroumosum .have been reported by
various workers from different species of sturgeons including Persian sturgeon (Acipenser
persicus) and great sturgeon (Huso huso). Motile Aeromonas, Edwardsiell sp.,
Ichthiophthirius multifiliis, Trichodina, monogenic trematods and Saprolegnia spp. are the
main causative agents identified so far in sturgeon aquaculture. There is no information on the
possible viral diseases in these fishes. Similar to trout and carp culture systems, an increase in
levels of unionized ammonia, nitrite, carbon dioxide, low dissolved oxygen, high level of
total suspended/dissolved solids and high fluctuation in water temperature are also the main
environmental problems encountered the sturgeon industry.
Ornamental Fish
Despite the frequent and large scale importation of different species of ornamental fish
from different regions including East Asia, minimum data are available on their health status.
Infections by Edwardsiella tarda, Aeromonas hydrophila, Aeromonas veronii, Flavobactria,
205
some protozoa and metazoans occur infrequently in some ornamental species such as Oscar,
catfish, goldfish, guppy and guramy.
Shrimp Farming
The first outbreaks of WSD causing a rapid and high mortality occurred in farmed
Penaus indicus in Abadan region, south Iran during June till July 2002 causing remarkable
losses. The second and third outbreaks were also seen in Busheher and Systan-va-Balochestan
provinces during 2004 and 2008, respectively causing high losses. Outbreaks by baculoviral
agents such as Monodon baculovirus have been also occurred in shrimp farming in south
country. However, the exact impact of such viral diseases in Iran shrimp industry remains
unknown.
The risk for the occurrence of other economically important shrimp viral diseases such as
tura viral disease, yellow head viral disease and infectious hypodermal and heamatopoeitc
necrosis viral diseases in Iran shrimp farming is high because of probably low level of
quarantine and inadequate inspection measurements. Also, vibriosis caused by Vibrio
anguillarum, Vibrio harveyi, Vibrio alginolyticus and Vibrio parahemolyticus is infrequently
involved in F. indicus, F. vannamei and F. semisulcatus in south Iran.
Nutritional Health Problems

Several fish and shrimp feed plants have been established inside the country so far mostly
by the private sector. However, still some of these plants are unable to produce the standard
feed both in quality and quantity. For instance, the quality and quantity of protein,
carbohydrate, lipid, mineral and other trace elements are quite variable from one factory to
another. Therefore, use of such low level fish feed can cause some nutritional deficiency and
an increasing in cost benefit for the fish/shrimp farmers. At present, deficiency by some
vitamins such as ascorbic acid and pathogenic acid, low level of some essential amino acids
such niacin, lysine and metionin, high level of lipid and low level of protein in the diets are
most frequent nutritional deficiencies can be seen in trout farming.
Disease Control and Veterinary Medicine in Iran

Usually strategies that may be adapted to control fish and shellfish diseases such as viral
diseases range from no action to test and slaughter, with intermediate interventions as
appropriate. These include surveillance, therapy, and modification of physical /environmental
conditions, alteration of production schemes, vector control, carrier elimination, quarantine
and mass vaccination of target species which is under investigation. In Iran, because of a
number of gaps in our current knowledge about the outbreaks of viral diseases in both fish
and prawn farming, the use of one or a combination of some of these strategies is vital. At the
moment because of no confirmation for some economically important diseases, e.g. VHS,
SVC, KHV and VNN in Iran aquaculture, the use of current surveillance on epizootiology of
exotic diseases and quarantine legislation are critical.
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Mehdi Soltani
Control of Exotic Disease Risks

The exotic viral disease risks exist in aquaculture species in Iran because of poor control
measures in quarantine, husbandry, and vaccination/chemotherapy activities. Husbandry
measures should be based on recognition of a number of potential risk factors for
transmission and maintenance of disease. e.g. the risk of importing diseases with a stock of
IPN, IHN, VNN, VHS, herpesvirus and iridovirus carriers or vectors. Importation of aquatic
animals in particular ornamental species of fish are the main risk factor for both farmed
rainbow trout and cyprinids in Iran. Evaluation of brood stock health is also an important
disease control measure. However, there are currently no particular available tests for brood
stock of cyprinids, sturgeons and rainbow trout in Iran. Information on larval health is also
critical and recently the veterinary organization has approved some roles and regulations to
minimize the transmission of vectors, carriers and affected larval or brood stock inside the
country.
RECOMMENDATIONS AND PROSPECTIVES

The main aquaculture activities planned to reach the aquaculture goals in Iran are to: 1.
develop individual and complex aquaculture of warm water species, 2. enhance the
aquaculture management through the improving water quality criteria, feed quality etc 3.
Employ new and modern technologies such as recirculation systems and cage culture, 4.
Improve the integrated aquaculture to reduce the environmental pollutions, 5. Support
sufficient financial resources 6. Improve the aquaculture marketing and 7. Improve the health
management criteria. Although both Veterinary and Fishery Organizations approved some
roles and legislations to prevent outbreaks by contagious infectious diseases in Iran
aquaculture, there is still a risk of exotic and economically important infectious diseases that
can be imported through the importation of eyed-egg, larvae, brood stock and ornamental
species into the country. This is because of: insufficient routine screening programs for
disease detection, no adequate data collection from fish/shrimp farmers and no sufficient
training/education plans for many fish/shrimp farmers to get more familiar with the impact of
predisposing factors, eradication, quarantine and other aspects of health conditions in their
farmed animals. Therefore, the use of current surveillance on epizootiology of contagious
diseases and quarantine legislation are highly recommended.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks to Dr H.A. Khoshbavar-Rostami and Dr H. Abdolhay and also Dr Sh. Kakolaki,
Dr M. Mazandarani and Dr Z. Omidzahir for their assistance on preparation of some required
data.
207
REFERENCES
Abdolhay, H. (1999) Aquaculture in Iran.country report. Regional Aquaculture Planning
Workshop, 105 September, 1999, Thialand.
Anon. 1998. Caspian Sea Environment National Report of I. R. Iran. Deparmtent of the
Environment.
Debus. L., 1995. Sturgeon in Europe and causes of their decline. Sturgeon Stock and Caviar
Trade Workshop. 9-10 October 1995. Bonn, Germany.
Bartley D. and Rana, K. J. (1998). Evaluation of Artificial rehabilitation of the Caspian sea
fisheries and genetic resources management. FAO report prepared for the SHILAT
(Fisheries Department).
Esmaeili, F., Soltani, M. and Sayari, M. (2001) Occurrence of Flavobacterium
psychrophilum-like infection in silver carp (Hypophthalmychthy molitrix). Iraninan
Journal of Fisheries Sciences, 10(2), 103-111.
Fallahi, R.; Soltani, M.; Karegar, R.; Zorrieh Zahra, M.E.J.; Shchelkunov, I.; Hemmatzadeh,
F.; Nouri,A. (2003). Isolation and identification of the IHNV-like agent from farmed
Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) from Iran. Archives of Razi, 56:
Gorogi A. (1996) Identification of blood and intestinal parasites of Huso huso in southern part
of the Caspian Sea. Iranian Journal of Fisheries Sciences, 4: 43-47.
Hosseinzadeh H. (2000) Status of aquaculture in Iran: Past, present and future. The Third
World Fisheries Congress, Beijing,China, Book of Abstracts, p.10-12.
Hosseinzadeh H. (2003) Status of aquaculture in Iran: Past, present and future. Aquaculture
Fisheries Society Symposium,.By the American Fisheries Society, pp.9.
Iranian Fisheries Sector Study (1997). Final report. Part 1. Prepared by COFREPECHE and
Abzigostar Consulting Engineers.
Khoshbavar-Rostami, H.A., Soltani, M., Hassan, H.M.D., 2004, Acute toxicity and some
hematological and biochemical changes in giant sturgeon (Huso huso) exposed to
diazinon. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists, 24(2), 92-99.
Khoshbavar-Rostami, H.A., Soltani, M., Hassan, H.M.D. (2006a). Some hematological and
biochemical changes in blood serum of Beluga (Huso huso) after chronic exposure to
diazinon, Iranian Journal of Fisheries Sciences, 5(2), 53-66.
Khoshbavar-Rostami, H.A., Soltani, M., Hassan, H.M.D. (2006b) Immune response of great
sturgeon (Huso huso) subjected to long term exposure to Sublethal concentration of the
organophosphate, diazinon. Aquaculture. 256: .88-94.
Khoshbavar-Rostami,H.A., Soltani, M., Hassan,H.M.D. (2006c). Immune response of great
sturgeon to Aeromonas hydrophila bacterin. Journal of Fish Biology, 70, 1931-1938.
Pourkazemi, M., 1996. Molecular and Biochemical Genetic Analysis of Sturgeon stocks from
the South Caspian Sea, Ph.D.Thesis, pp.20.
Rezvani Gilkolaei, S.1997. Molecular population genetic studies of sturgeon species in south
Caspian Sea, Ph.D Thesis, pp.26-29.
Rohani, K., Payghan, R and Jehanshahi, AA. (1996) Isolation of a Reovirus from grass carp
in Khosestan province. Pajohesh va Sazandegi, 3: 104-105.
Sattari, M. (1999) parasites of sturgeons from the southwest of the Caspian Sea. PhD
dissertation, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Univesity of Tehran, 280p (in Persian).
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Sattari, M, Mokhayer B. and Shafii, S. (2006) Parasitic worms of Persian sturgeon (Acipenser
persicus) from the southwest of the Caspian Sea. European Association of Fish
Soltani, M. and Rostami, M. (1997) A Cytophag/Flexibacter like bacterium (CFLB) infection
in farmed rainbow trout in north Iran. Journal of Veterinary Research (previously Journal
of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran), 52(3): 13-22.
Soltani, M., Fadaii Fard and Mehrabi, M. (1999) First report of a yersiniosis-like infection in
Iranian farmed rainbow trout. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish Pathologists,
19(4), 173-177.
Soltani, M., Sharifpour, I. and Ismaeili F. (1999) The effect of some environmental variables
on the course of infection by Vivrio harveyi in white Indian shrimp (Penaeus indicus).
Journal of Veterinary Research (previously Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
University of Tehran), 55(4):9-13.
Soltani, M. and Tarahomi, M. (2000) Pathogenicity of Yersinia ruckeri-like isolates recovered
from farmed rainbow trout in Tehran province. In second Convention of Iranian
Veterianry Clinics, Book of Abstracks, p.37.
Soltani, M., Kakoolaki, Sh. and Kisami, M. (2000) Isolation and identification of dominant
Vibrio species in farmed prawn of Heleh station, Busheher, Journal of Veterinary
Research (previously Journal of Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tehran),
55(2), 28-32.
Soltani, M. and Ebrahimzadeh Mousavi, H.A. (2000) Isolation of Aeromonas hydrophila and
Aeromonas veronii from the farmed grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idella) mortality in
Gilan and Tehran provinces. Iranian Journal of Veterinary Medicine (previous name:
Journal of The School of Veterinary Medicine, Shahid Chamran Unviersityof Ahwaz, 4,
24-29.
Soltani, M. and Kalbassi, M.R. (2001) Protection of Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus)
fingerling against Aeromonas hydrophila septicemia using different agntigsn. Bulletin of
European Association of Fish Pathologists, 21, 235-239.
Soltani, M. (2003) The status of aquaculture health management in Iran. Aquaculture Europe
2003, Trondhim, Norway. Exteneded Abstracts and short communications, European
Aquaculture Society, p.321-322.
Soltani M, Jamshidi Sh and Sharifpour I (2005). Streptococcosis caused by Streptococcus
iniae in farmed rainbow trout (Onchorhynchus mykiss) in Iran: Biophysical
characteristics and pathogenesis, Bulletin of the European Association of Fish
Soltani M. (2008) Lacotoccosis caused by Lacotococcusgarvieae in farmed rainbow trout
(Onchorhyncus mykiss) in Iran. The 7th Symposium on Diseases in Asian Aquaculture,
Taiwan, Book of Abstracts, p.163.
Soltani, M. Nikbakht, Gh, Ebrahimzadeh Mousavi, H.A and Ahmadzadeh H. (2008) Epizootic
outbreaks of lactococcosis caused by Lactococcus garvieae in farmed rainbow trout
(Oncorhynchus mykiss) in Iran. Bulletin of the European Association of Fish
Pathologists, 28(5), 207-212.
Tokhmafashan, M, Akbari, S., Tamjidi, B., Laloi, F. and Soltani, M (2004) Occurrence of
white spot syndrome disease in farmed Penaus indicus in Iran, Applied Fisheries and
Aquaculture, IV (1), 42-47.

ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 11
REVIEW OF MOROCCAN AQUACULTURE

National Institute of Marine Fisheries (INRH), Morocco
ABTSRACT
In Morocco, the practice of aquaculture is under two different public administrations.
The marine aquaculture is managed by Marine Fisheries Department (DPM) of the
Ministry of Agriculture and Marine Fisheries (MAPM). Whereas, freshwater aquaculture
is under the supervision of the High Commission for Water, Forests and Fight Against
Desertification (Haut Commissariat aux Eaux et Forts et la Lutte Contre la
Dsertification) (HCEFLCD). Both aquaculture types have followed different
development histories and different development strategies.
Freshwater aquaculture started in Morocco in 1924, when the initial objective was
the promotion of sport fishing in lakes and dam reservoirs of the Middle Atlas region,
through restocking of hatchery-produced juveniles of ecologically and socioeconomically valued fishes. Since the 80's, the semi-intensive aquaculture systems were
adopted using both natural and artificial ponds. After the 90's, the private sector, with the
support of the HCEFLCD, exhibited limited aquaculture investment in small areas. Since
then, several active private aquaculture farms started breeding many fish species such as
eels, trout, common carp, Nile tilapia, etc.
Marine aquaculture began in Morocco in the 50's. Oyster farming was the first
marine aquaculture activity, originally practiced in Oualidia lagoon located in Moroccan
Atlantic coast, then spreaded to other coastal sites such as Nador lagoon, Khnifiss lagoon
and Dakhla Bay. Some oyster companies are still operational with a total annual
production maintained around 200 to 300 tons. During the 2000's, mussel culture began
to develop in some coastal areas, mainly in Imessouane Bay (Atlantic coast) and M'diq
Bay (Mediterranean coast). On the other hand, marine fish aquaculture was initiated
during the 80's and focused only on the Mediterranean coast. It was first developed in
Nador lagoon before spreading to other sites such as Saidia, M'diq and Azla. Out of the 4
fish farms that were established, only one of them is still operational and producing an
annual amount less than 100 tons.
National aquaculture production reached a total amount of 1,161 tons in 2006,
registering a significant decline of about 48% compared to 2005 (2,239 tons). This
decline was caused by a severe 80% drop in marine aquaculture production (291 tons in
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2006 compared to 1,449 tons in 2005), whereas freshwater aquaculture showed a little
increase of about 9% (870 tons in 2006 compared to 790 tons in 2005). The national total
aquaculture production represents only 0.2% of total national fisheries production.
The complexity of administrative procedures affects the development of aquaculture
industry. Furthermore, the development of aquaculture in Morocco relies on sequential
development plans, which are integrated in national plans and established as action
programs for periods of three or five years. However, the aquaculture industry in
Morocco suffers from a lack of clear vision and strategy of the government. In the light
of new global socio-economic situation and trade competitiveness in the EuroMediterranean context, the current thinking seems to converge towards a real interest to
alleviate the administrative, institutional, legislative and regulatory constraints.
The establishment of local plans for potential aquaculture sites is based on ecosystemic studies as well as environmental and socio-economic integration. Both of which
are considered as fundamental criteria. Regarding freshwater aquaculture, this plan is
developed, based mainly on strengthening and enhancing the potential for restocking of
dams reservoirs, lakes and main rivers for environmental, touristic (sport fishing) and
socio-economic (commercial fishing) purposes. Thus, such plan supports the
diversification of potentialities of freshwater aquaculture (increasing of hatcheries,
establishment of pilot plants for experimental practices and commercial demonstration
scale, development of locally produced aqua feeds, scientific and technical support for
projects of aquaculture production units, etc.).
Currently, aquaculture industry in Morocco is confronting a critical period that
requires collective and coordinated efforts of all public and private sectors to support
basic structural foundations and to strengthen the conditions for integrated and
sustainable development of aquaculture activities. There is no doubt that all
administrative, scientist and professional actors are aware of the need for a new strategy
for aquaculture development, which should be concerted, credible and long-term
established. An effective action program for the development of marine and freshwater
aquaculture is required. It will contribute to create regional poles of integrated
development, which will benefit local economy and may encourage foreign investments
and market organizations with a proper insurance system.
INTRODUCTION
The Kingdom of Morocco is located in the extreme north-west of the African Continent.
Its total population is estimated at about 30 millions and its total area is about 710,000 km2
with 3,500 km of marine Mediterranean, Gibraltar Strait and Atlantic coastlines. Its Atlantic
zone (of about 3,000 km of coastline) is one of the most productive in the world. According
to Orbi, et al. (1998), Larissi, et al. (2001) and Makaoui, et al. (2005), the Moroccan Atlantic
coast is an important upwelling area characterized by a strong primary and secondary
production (Ettahiri et al., 2001; Somoue et al., 2003 and 2005). Since long time ago,
fisheries played an important economic and social role in Morocco which is considered as one
of the leaders in fisheries products, particularly in the region of North-Africa and MiddleEast. That is because of its large marine fishing area and its important sea-products landing,
of which significant quantities are exported to world markets. Since the beginning of the year
2000, the annual fisheries production of Morocco varied between 0.9 and 1.2 million tons.
The average seafood consumption in Morocco per capita per year is almost 10 kg, whereas
the world average is estimated at 19 kg.
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While the world aquaculture industry is steadily growing, the Moroccan aquaculture is
declining. Indeed since 2006, the Moroccan aquaculture suffered a significant decrease in
domestic production comprising less than 0.2% of the annual national fisheries production.
Therefore, the support of the government is highly needed for further significant aquaculture
development since aquaculture industry can play a major role in food security and create
opportunities for employment and rural economy enhancement.
This article presents a general review of aquaculture in Morocco. It is focused on the
history of Moroccan aquaculture, its current situation, major constraints to the industry, its
sustainable development and finally prospects that could be achieved to improve the
aquaculture industry status. The authors are providing information using available data and
documented sources, also based on their own working experiences for many years in the
aquaculture field.
HISTORICAL OVERVIEW
In general, Morocco is not among the countries with strong aquaculture tradition
(Catanzano, 1998). The first trials to culture marine organisms in Morocco for human
consumption commenced in the middle of the last century, using traditional aquaculture
species, practices and techniques imported from Europe. However, the history of freshwater
aquaculture is quite different as described below.
According to the FAO statistics (Figure 1), the total aquaculture production in Morocco
was insignificant between the 50's, when it started, and the end of the 60's. However, from
that point onward it began to increase gradually at a slow pace reaching an annual amount of
200 tons in 1984. Then, again it slowed down during the 6 years that followed before
exhibiting an important growth starting from 1989.
Figure 1. Aquaculture production in Morocco (since 1950), (Source: FAO Fishery Statistic, 2007).
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This increase in production amounts was relatively higher compared to the previous
period, reaching within a short time (about 10 years) a maximum annual production value of
2,800 tons in 1999. From that date onward, the growth of aquaculture started going into a
decreasing trend falling down to about 1,200 tons in 2006. The maximum produced quantity
(2,800 tons) registered in 1999, was mainly due to the carp production (grass and silver carp)
which was about 1,400 tons.
MARINE AQUACULTURE
Marine aquaculture in Morocco has a relatively short history of about 60 years. However,
this short period can be divided into three main stages, according to the significance of the
events.
The First Stage

This stage began during the 50's, when marine aquaculture, or to be more precise
shellfish culture, was started in the Oualidia lagoon. French investors have introduced oyster
species to investigate its potential for culture in this and other lagoons, such as Moulay,
Bouselham and Sidi Moussa sites. Thus, three different species of oysters were investigated.
The first species was the European flat oyster, which seemed to have suffered serious survival
problems with no successful attempts reported. The second species was the Portuguese
cupped oyster. Its culture assays have provided satisfactory results. However, after a certain
while, it was abandoned because of the many pathological problems, which impacted the
culture of this species in Europe from which spats were imported. Consequently, a third
species, the Japanese cupped oyster also called the pacific cupped oyster replaced it. From the
first culturing attempts, this species demonstrated good adaptation to local rearing conditions
and showed highly interesting results compared to its performance in its native area from
which it was imported. Since then, it became commonly cultured on commercial scale in the
Oulidia lagoon and small many oyster farms were established. Spat supply was, and still is,
based on the naturally collected spats imported from France. Thus, oyster culture in Morocco
demonstrated good success locally and the production quantities were almost entirely for the
domestic market. Oulidia lagoon became, for a couple of decades, a well-known commercial
oyster culture site both on the national and regional scales.
The Second Stage

This stage started from the middle of the 80s, which marked the beginning of the first
commercial operations in terms of cultured species diversification and technological rearing
practices that characterized the modern marine aquaculture development in Morocco. Modern
aquaculture in Morocco was then initiated benefiting from examples and experiences of
neighboring European countries and Japan. Promoting aquaculture was achieved through
technological and professional knowledge transfer, and skills and capacity building were
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achieved in the framework of the FAOs Mediterranean program for aquaculture promotion
(MEDRAP). In this program framework, the former ISPM (Institut Sperieur des Pches
Maritimes), replaced by the National Institute of Fisheries Research (INRH) (Institut National
de Recherche Halieutique) since 1996, has achieved, in joint cooperation with the FAO
experts, a numerous filed studies on Mediterranean coast of Morocco, particularly in Nador
lagoon. These works have effectively contributed to the creation of the largest Moroccan
marine aquaculture private company in 1985, called MAROST (MARoc OSTriculture)
which was a commercial-scale enterprise. Through its operations it produced several marine
fish species (sea bass, sea bream and European eel), shellfishes (flat oyster and European
clam), and prawns (Japanese prawn, called also kuruma prawn). Almost all the production of
cultured species was intended for export to Europe, especially to Italy, Spain and France, with
a little amount sold in the domestic market.
On the technical level, this stage constituted the turning point in Moroccan aquaculture
history. On the Mediterranean coast of Morocco, broadly three types of aquaculture systems
were developed from the middle of the 80's to the middle of the 2000's. The first type of these
systems was the lagoon aquaculture, developed in Nador lagoon in the late 80's. This system
utilized the use of floating net-cages for fish culture, floating long-lines and fixed metallic
tables for oysters and shallower areas enclosures for clam culture. The second type of these
aquaculture systems was land-based developed in the beginning of the 90's using earthen
ponds located in the extreme north-east of the Mediterranean coast of Morocco in Moulouya
Estuary, south of Saidia,. At the beginning, these facilities were used for prawn culture. Soon
after that, they were utilized for sea bass and sea bream aquaculture.
The third type of aquaculture systems was also employed in the early 90's which was
open-sea aquaculture. This type was initiated in Mdiq bay using large floating net-cages for
the blue-fin tuna culture. Consequently, this experience encouraged the use of open-sea
technology, since the late 90's, on other marine species especially the sea bream and sea bass.
In which these species were cultured in floating open-sea conventional cages that were
established in Mdiq bay and in Martil bay (in Azla site) and for mussel culture using wooden
floating rafts. Similarly, the lagoon aquaculture system prevailed on the Moroccan Atlantic
coast, mainly in Oualidia lagoon situated in the centre of the Moroccan coastline. Oyster
culture methods remained generally based on the use of wire and weave trays and the use
wooden fixed table.
The latter was however partly become made of concrete. In the late 90's, floating
submerged lines and immerged pearl net and lantern net were attempted for mussels and
scallop, respectively, in Immessoune bay, whereas in Agadir bay, floating lines were
experimented for mussels. Furthermore, fixed lines in shallow waters were used on small
scale for commercial oyster grow-out in Khnifiss lagoon, located in the south of Morocco.
The most important shellfish culture operation that was recently achieved was in Dakhla bay
in the early 2000's, based on local integrated aquaculture planning, using enclosure culture
techniques in shallow waters to grow mainly clam and oysters in significant quantities.
Parallel to these advances in aquaculture technologies and the diversity of cultured
species, the necessary skilled work force was developed through domestic and education
abroad, field and practical training, etc. This has contributed to the mastery in aquaculture
techniques, especially the intensive culture systems including hatchery, nursery, long-lines
and floating net-cage techniques. During this stage, the progress of marine aquaculture
development has yielded a significant increase in the national production (Figure 1).
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Figure 1. Production of mariculture sector of Morocco during the last 10-12 years.
Figure 2. Sea bream and sea bass production and price trend in EU.
The reason behind this progress was the belief that the aquaculture industry could widely
expand into many other potential areas, and to catapult the private sector's investments, both
on the Mediterranean and the Atlantic coasts. This situation demanded effective cooperation
between the professional and scientific communities as well as the administration to join
forces in many aspects of the industry especially in the risk assessments in foreign markets,
which has completely influenced the national aquaculture industry outcome.
Consequently, the Moroccan aquaculture industry confronted serious market problems.
For example, Marost Aquaculture Company has been obligated, in the early 90's, to review its
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strategic production choices, particularly in terms of which economically suitable species the
farm should continue to culture. Then, shellfish culture (flat oyster and European clam) was
highly impacted by the stringent European sanitary restrictions at the end of the 80's, which
led to the reduction of Marosts bivalve production amounts. Eventually, sales dropped
significantly and became very limited to small quantities sold in the domestic market. Even
fish culture operations (sea bream and sea bass) were not saved from this negative outcome,
where at the beginning the industry went through a steady increase in demand during the 90's
before getting seriously impacted by the drop in the European market prices (Figure 2).
Although developing to a high technological level, the Moroccan marine aquaculture was
very vulnerable to the competitiveness of foreign aquaculture markets. It suffered a great deal
from the drastic drop in the prices of their commercially cultured species on European
markets since the middle of the 90's. During which the sale price was sometimes a little bit
lower than the production coast.
In contrast, Oualida oyster culture remained stable in production (Figure 3) and was
harmonious and compatible with its domestic market. Although still reliant on wild collected
spat imported from France, it was able to keep its annual production rate around 200 300
tons for many years.
This stage was also characterized by the development of applied aquaculture research,
mainly by INRH. The latter has executed numerous pilot scale experiments such as: open-sea
aquaculture (blue-fin tuna, red porgy, meager, scallop and mussels), controlled reproduction
in new candidate species, fish nutrition and diets formulation based on local ingredients,
pathology of cultured fish and shellfish, integrated aquaculture planning, etc. The most
challenging research work was achieved in the joint cooperation between Morocco through
INRH and Japanese Government through its Overseas Fishery Cooperation Foundation
(OFCF) on blue-fin tuna aquaculture, in which the project lasted from 1993 to 1999.
Figure 3. Production trend of Moroccan marine aquaculture by group species (1990-2006).
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The Third Stage

This stage is very important and critical, and probably started in the middle of the 2000s.
From production standpoint, it is characterized by a sudden drop in marine aquaculture
products because of the eventual failure of Marost Company at the end of 2006. All its landbased facilities and lagoon-based growing facilities have been removed. The lagoon of Nador
is currently subjected to many development projects, mainly of touristic nature. Moreover, the
lagoon of Oulidia also facing some environmental quality problems shifting its sanitary status
from A grade to B grade, which required the establishment of a purification station. In
contrast, the Khnifiss lagoon has been downgraded for oyster and mussel culture operations
because of its significantly high environmental risk on the culturing of these species. Khnifiss
lagoon is naturally very rich in the heavy metal Cadmium which is relatively highly bioaccumulated in cultured and wild shellfishes.
FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE
The development of freshwater aquaculture in Morocco has started since the 20's. From a
historical standpoint, it could be addressed over four main phases:
Phase 1, from the 20's to the 40's

The beginnings of freshwater aquaculture in Morocco dated back to the early twenties,
when she built the first public fish culture station in 1924 in Azrou, situated in the Middle
Atlas Mountain range. The initial duty of this station was to work on the native trout (Salmo
trutta fario var. Macrostigma Dumril), both for preservation and propagation into
watercourses where it did not exist before. Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), previously
called Salmo Gairdneiri, was introduced in 1925 from USA by French parties for sport
fishing purposes. However, these efforts could not achieve its artificial breeding
systematically until 1936. The foreign community and a limited number of national amateur
anglers used trout for sport fishing, a mainly practiced fishing activity. The common carp was
also introduced between 1924 and 1935, (Mouslih, 1987).

The second public fish culture station was built in Ras-Elma in Ifrane region (1957) along
with yet another station, the Azro Station. All hatchery produced trout fingerlings were
intended for release into the wild, in lakes, watercourses, and other water-areas. Later, a
dozen of 2-14 ha artificial ponds were constructed for Rainbow trout culture that were
intended only for sport fishing purposes.
This period was characterized by an important development in sport fishing (Figure 4). It
corresponded to a period characterized by a proliferation of fishermen associations.
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Figure 4. A graph showing the trend of issuing sport-fishing permits for water-areas (1953-2005).
Several exotic fish species were introduced in order to enhance fish wildlife and to
promote sport fishing. Out of 30 introduced fish species that were selected from the most
important European and North-American ones, only half of them were able to adapt well to
local conditions. In fact, some of them were well known for their sport-fishing value and their
highly appreciated flesh quality, such as rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss), pike (Esox
lucius), largemouth bass (Micropterus salmodes), pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca) and
European perch (Perca fluviatilis). Other species were introduced for consumption purposes
as food such as common carp (Cyprinus carpio), roach (Rutilus rutilus), the Rudd (Scardinius
erythrophtalmus) and tench (Tinca tinca). The introduction of such alien fish species was
carried out without prior scientific studies of their possible impact on the environment and the
endemic fish stock. Eventually, these alien fish species have caused the extinction of the
Moroccan endemic species Salmo pallaryi (Pellegrin, 1924; Mouslih, 1987).
Moreover, two crayfish species were also introduced. The American species, Spinycheek crayfish (Orconectes limosus), which was widespread in several natural lakes of the
Middle Atlas, and the Australian species, Noble crayfish (Astacus astacus), which was more
appreciated by consumers. However, the latter required more favorable water conditions,
mainly clarity and temperature, than the American species. Mosquito fish (Gambusia affinis)
were also introduced but for ecological and human health purposes. It was used to fight
against malaria disease using its ability to feed on mosquitoes larvae.
All of the artificial breeding operations of fish species were first carried out within the
fish culture station of Azrou. Later, these operations were expanded to two other fish culture
facilities, Ras-Elma in Ifrane and the National Centre of Hydrobiology and Fish-culture
(CNHP) in Azrou which was built in 1980.

This phase was first characterized by the establishment of the CNHP in Azrou in 1980.
This Centre is a research institution devoted to applied breeding research on freshwater
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fishes and to hydro-biological studies of freshwater areas suitable for fisheries exploitation.
Also, during this phase (from 1981 to 1999) three Chinese carps were introduced:
Chinese (or Grass) carp, Ctenopharyngodon idellus (Valenciennes, 1844), silver carp,
Hypophthalmichthys molitrix (Valenciennes, 1844) and bighead carp, Aristichthys nobilis
(Richardson, 1845). These species were introduced in order to reduce eutrophication in lakes,
reservoirs of dams and irrigation canals (Azeroual et al., 2000).
CNHP has effectively played a crucial role in the enhancement of artificial breeding of
freshwater fish. It has undertaken hydro biological studies of all aquatic environments
concerned with fishing and farming (physical and chemical water quality, weeds, aquatic
wildlife, fish pathology, etc.). Also, it has gradually implemented important procedures such
as breeding design with respect to ecological considerations, selecting the most favorable
adaptable species, defining the suitable size for releasing, etc. Through its artificial breeding
programs, culturing and releasing fishes, and in maintenance and monitoring of rivers, and
natural and artificial lakes, it became indeed the pedestal foundation for the inland water's
permanent richness, allowing preservation and development of diversified fish resources.
Hatchery produced fingerlings was enhanced increasing the release capacity of
fingerlings for inland water areas. The construction and the launch of the Deroua station
designated mainly for carp culture, in Beni Mellal region, have contributed significantly to
the large fingerlings production capacity. The fingerling hatchery production component
became an important tool for freshwater fisheries. The latter became almost entirely
dependent on restocking programs, which is one of the most active working plans of
HCEFLCD. As a matter of fact, aquaculture operations for restocking purposes has
increasingly played important roles, particularly in improving good water quality and proving
aquatic protein for local populations. On the socio-economic aspect, fishermen communities
were setting-up their operations near the important restocking freshwater fish areas,
particularly large dams reservoirs. Encouraged by this healthy development of events,
HCEFLCD focused its activities towards promoting freshwater restocking aquaculture with
special emphasis on promoting fish farming to supply rural populations with sufficient
quantities of food-fish.
According to this trend, carps became a major rural food fish species in some localities in
Morocco. Although they were initially introduced to fight off the biological eutrophication in
the irrigation canals and reservoirs dams, they have later caused a spectacular spontaneous
development in local water conditions. Indeed, they have propagated naturally at high rates
leading to further development in commercial fishery, and generating social and economic
benefits for both aquatic environment quality and rural socio-economy. Even though, the
sustainable success of such important speculation is dependent a lot on the well organization
of the profession. In this regard, CNHP has undertaken socio-economic surveys and
awareness sessions for the largest reservoirs dams fishermen in Morocco.
Phase 4, the Current Period of 2000's

Once the feasibility of freshwater fish farming and the management of water areas have
been established, private investment sectors were encouraged through leasing fishing rights or
the installation of aquaculture units. Indeed, it has been expected that the support provided by
HCEFLCD would encourage the private investment in freshwater fish farming. However,
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only few private fish farms are currently active in culturing carps, rainbow trout, European eel
and Nile tilapia.
Carps and rainbow trout are the most cultured freshwater fish species by private
aquaculture ventures in Morocco (Figure 5). Although hatchery-produced carp fingerlings are
mainly intended for release in dams reservoirs, a little part of this production is also used for
commercial production. The total hatcheries production of carp fingerlings is 6.5 million, of
which 4 millions are produced by private hatcheries and 2.5 millions by CNHPs Stations.
Some private farms use earthen ponds, such Pisciculture-Smir farm to grow carps. Trout
commercial production is practiced by the same farm since many years in Azrou (HCEFLCD,
2008). Its production attained 98 tons in 2007, of which 52 tons were processed (filets,
smoked, etc.).
Figure 5. Evolution of freshwater aquaculture production by fish group species (1998-2006).
Recently, Nile tilapia was introduced in 2002 from Egypt for commercial aquaculture
production. It was introduced by the freshwater private fish farm, Pisciculture du Nord,
which was recently established and has opted for an integrating culturing system including all
phases of production, from hatchery to processing and selling. Nile tilapia is currently well
bred in local hatcheries and is successfully cultured in three culturing systems (intensive,
semi-intensive and extensive), using Fiber-glass polyester, concrete and earthen ponds that
are managed separately in the same location. First results seem to be encouraging in mass
selection and in breeding of selected fish populations.
CURRENT STATUS OF MOROCCAN AQUACULTURE

Aquaculture Production
Today, with the unexpected failure of Marost, there is only one operational fish farm that
cultures marine fish on the Mediterranean coast of Morocco (Aqua-Mdiq located in M'diq
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bay). Its production capacity is about 200 tons per year of sea-bass and sea-bream. Also, there
are currently eighteen active shellfish farms culturing oysters, clams and mussels, of which
seventeen farms are on the Moroccan Atlantic coast and only one on the Mediterranean coast.
The latter is based in Mdiq bay and cultures mussels. Among those located on the Atlantic
coast, there are ten oyster farms based in Oualidia lagoon, four oyster and clam farms in
Dakhla bay and two mussel farm in Immessouane bay. There is also one oyster farm still
existing in Khnifiss lagoon but without having the right to sell its products. Moreover, there
are some small shellfish farmers, constituting local small cooperative associations. They are
currently mainly involving local fisherwomen, particularly in Moulay Bouselham and in Sidi
Moussa lagoons. These small shellfish farmers grow European clams. Their total production
capacity is about 50 tons / year.
In the time being, the total production of marine aquaculture farms currently in operation
seems to not exceed 600 tons for a national potential production of largely higher value. The
development of Moroccan marine fish aquaculture has been in fact seriously hampered by
significantly important subsidies granting policy of European Union to their aqua-farmers
which has greatly lowered non-European aquaculture products competitiveness. Moreover,
production costs are very high, particularly on marine land-based aquaculture which
faces, among others, land problem and high cost energy that is significantly slowing its
competitiveness on the international markets.
While marine fish culture faces a critical development phase, shellfish culture remains
relatively constant in terms of production since many years ago. This is due the equilibrium
between standing domestic market demand and shellfish farming supply. However, prawn
culture has failed to survive. Some attempts toward culturing Japanese prawn have
taken place in the late 80's and early 90's, but at present, although some particular projects
have gotten initial authorization to start their activity, there is no prawn culture farm at all in
Morocco.
Prawn-culture has very short history in Morocco. Although two farms in the north-east of
the Mediterranean coast of Morocco have tried prawn-culture and both have established their
own prawn hatchery, this activity was not able to flourish due to economic reasons. In fact,
the competition with tropical and Asian countries was so high, and market prices were not
favorable for continuing the prawn-culture operations in Morocco. Considering the short
lived-operation and the past trend of production fluctuation in the prawn culture, there is no
possible predictable trend for the prawn aquaculture in Morocco. But, its future could rely on
the efficiency of site management and domestic market demand.
In terms of freshwater fish culture, this activity consists mainly in restocking operations
based on hatchery-produced fingerlings. The main propagated species are common carp,
silver carp, Chinese carp, rainbow trout, and brown trout. There are many other bred fishes
which are getting some progress in breeding procedures and may be mass produced in the
near future. The annual fingerlings production of the most common cultured species can reach
more than 8 millions. Enhancement production plan is in fact being considered in an in-depth
operational study. Competent administrative department is required to significantly increase
the production quantity of cultured organisms for domestic needs. To achieve the target
objectives, it has been recommended to improve the quality of culture propagating units,
culturing units and feeds processing units.
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POTENTIAL SITES FOR AQUACULTURE

Marine Aquaculture
Morocco enjoys an excellent geographical situation with two distinct maritime fronts
(Atlantic and Mediterranean) that have a combined length of around 3,500 km. Thus, the
national coastline offers several natural potential sites where aquaculture activities can be
practiced (Figure 6) (Orbi et al., 1996).
Mediterranean Coast
Atlantic Coast
Figure 6. Geographical location of the potential sites of marine aquaculture.
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However, in Morocco, the marine aquaculture development is not only a complementary

and strategic element for fisheries, but also assures preservation and planning of the coastal
zone as well as their economic and social improvement. For this reason, two options are
foreseeable: to implement development on the existing social and professional class and/or to
implement development on external funds and competencies (to attract some national and
foreign investors). Therefore, the main potential sites are subdivided into three categories:
Potential Sites with a History in Aquaculture

In this case the objective is the preservation and rehabilitation of the aquaculture sites.
Nador Lagoon: It is a large lagoon system with an area of 120 km, situated in the
Northeast of Morocco, it connects with the open sea through a single passage that is 80 m
wide. (Lakhdar Idrissi et al., 2005). Due to the geological structure of this region and the
formation of the lagoon fishing area with considerable potential for aquaculture (Orbi et al.,
2008b). During the past 20 years (1986 to 2006), this site achieved an aquaculture production
of about 1000 tons (sea-bream, sea-bass, oyster and clam). Currently, this activity is
completely stopped due to serious problems essentially linked to market conditions, pollution
and urbanization development. However, with the expansion of natural algae fields
(Gracilaria), this site could be dedicated to seaweed culture (Abdellaooui et al., 2005).
Oualidia Lagoon: It is the oldest aquaculture site in Morocco (Hilmi et al., 2005; Orbi et
al., 2008b), and is located on the Atlantic side, 76 km south of El Jadida. This tidal lagoon is
shallow and is influenced by freshwater ecosystem.
There are 10 oyster farms around the lagoon and its yearly production turns around 300
tons (Rharbi et al., 2001). Currently, aquaculture activities in this site meet serious problems
related mainly to the environmental deterioration as a result of different anthropogenic
pressures (organic and chemical pollution). But now, many actions which are undertaken by
the government are focused on preservation and rehabilitation.
Potential Sites for Industrial Aquaculture

In this case the objective is the development of commercial aquaculture activities
integrated with a management concerted with different coastal users (fishing, tourism, etc.).
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M Diq Bay: It is located on the Mediterranean side, between Sebta in the North and
Cape Negro in the South. Characterized by a weak slope, current and hydrological conditions
favorable to aquaculture development (Lakhdar Idrissi et al., 2001a and b). There are 10
farms in the area but only two of them are operating with an annual production of
approximately 500 tons (300 tons of fish and 200 tons of shellfish). This location is
considered a potential site for industrial aquaculture. Thus, a development plan of aquaculture
as well as an integration of this activity in the light of the global development of the region is
under elaboration by the Marine fisheries Department.
Agadir Bay: located in the south of Morocco with an orientation of Southwest - North.
This bay is characterized by a large morphological and geological diversity. The depth of the
region does not offer any particular advantage. The sea bed rises gradually from 100 m
between 6 to 10 miles away from the coast to 20 m within one mile from the coast. This bay
represents an ecosystem with strong primary production privileged by different oceanic
currents (Upwelling, the Canary current) with temperature variations more important than in
the Northern marine ecosystems.
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Indeed, these factors (food availability and temperature) have some important
consequences on the growth rate of cultured shellfish. Furthermore, with the present
development (tourism, agri-food industry, etc.), this region constitutes a potential market for
aquaculture products (fresh and processed). Also, in order to contribute to the aquaculture
development in this bay, a specialized research center in aquaculture is in the process of
establishment in Agadir under the framework of the Spanish cooperation.
Dakhla Bay: Among all identified bays along the coastline, Dakhla bay is distinguished
by its configuration and diversity of biotopes. Situated at the Sahara coastline, this bay, is
oriented NE SW with a length of 37 km and a varying width between 10 and 12 km.
Edged along its whole length by a narrow dune ridge elevated at 5 meters that naturally
protects the area against strong surges (very protected zone). It is separated from the Atlantic
ocean by the Oued Edahab peninsula, but it has a large connection with the ocean (10 km)
which makes it relatively enclosed environment. The bay possesses a shallow depth of 1 to 3
m on the periphery and 6 to 9 m in the center.
Also, with high number of canals that were created by the swing of tides and whose
maximal depths do not exceed 20 m, this lagoon is an important potential site for aquaculture
and particularly for shellfish culture. Indeed, this activity is currently practiced by 4 oysterculture farms and 1 clam-culture farm and the annual average production is about 100 tons.
Emerging Potential Sites

In this case the objective is the development of a income-generating aquaculture activity
in synergy with developing fishermens village and natural reserves.
Imessouane bay: It is a small bay located 100 km south of Essaouira and 90 km north of
Agadir in southern Morocco. This site has been transformed into a fishermens village.
Localized in an upwelling zone, this site has a good potential for shellfish culture. Currently,
there are two farms of mussel culture with an annual production close to 50 tons. Through
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their organization in cooperative, local small-scale fishermen are involved in the culture
practice in order to diversify their activity and improve their income.
Khnifiss lagoon: This lagoon is located in the south Atlantic coast of Morocco, 170 km
north of Layoune. It has a length of 20 km and an area of 65 km surfaces and is oriented on
a NE SW axis. It opens into the Atlantic Ocean by a narrow passage of about 100 m and
continues toward a saline area known as ''la Sebkha Tazgha''. The depth of the main canal
vary between 5 and 6 m in front of the passage and decrease in the upstream direction
(Lakhdar Idrissi et al., 2001c and 2004). The first aquaculture facilities were established there
in 1995 by the introduction of scallop culture.
Currently, only oyster culture is practiced, but with its new status as a National Park, this
lagoon is undergoing new activity development such as tourism, bird watching, etc.
Therefore, for the environment and resource preservation, an income-generating aquaculture
activity could be well developed there (Orbi et al., 2008a).
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FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE
The current situation of freshwater aquaculture is still below its real development
potential. HCEFLCD has recently carried out a study of the continental fisheries and
aquaculture in order to establish a master plan for its sustainable development. This study has
highlighted that Morocco has effectively significant potential water areas for restocking
aquaculture and fish farming development. These potentials water areas were estimated at
200,000 hectares (ha) in total, of which 1,500 km of watercourses, 60 ha of artificial ponds,
700 ha of natural lakes and more than 100,000 ha of reservoirs dams. It has been shown that
such development could contribute to socio-economic development, with the most significant
impact being in the rural areas.
CULTURED AND INVESTIGATED SPECIES

The species produced through aquaculture in Morocco include mainly fishes and
bivalves. Also, some species of crustaceans and seaweeds have been investigated with less
success. Among cultured species, some are considered as traditional for Moroccan
aquaculture while others still need more research efforts to be successfully cultured.
Major Marine Species Cultured or under Investigation

Sea-bream, (Sparus aurata)
At the beginning it was produced using wild local caught juveniles. Then, hatchery
produced fry were produced by Marost fish hatchery since late 80s. Sea-bream hatchery
produced fingerlings varied annually from 2 to 5 million individuals which were all used only
for Marost own culture needs. The other farms relied on the importation of fry from Spain
and France to meet their own needs. In terms of rearing, experiences achieved in the
collaboration between the INRH and MAROST showed that juveniles with an average weight
of 130 g cultured in floating net cages in Cape de leau, reached 400 g four to five months
before those that were reared in identical cages in Nador lagoon (Figure 7). On the other
hand, juvenile having an average weight of 2g showed a very weak growth in Cape de leau.
This discrepancy in growth rates is probably attributed to the strong currents characterizing
this site.
Sea-bass, (Discentrarchus labrax)
Similar to the sea-bream, sea-bass was first produced using wild local caught juveniles.
The captured juveniles often contained a small percentage of sea-bass Discentrarchus
punctatus. Hatchery produced sea-bass fry were thereafter produced locally by Marost fish
hatchery since late 80s. The annual amounts of hatchery produced sea-bass fingerlings varied
from 2 to 6 million individuals. All this entire production was used only for Marost own
culture needs. The other farms depended on the importation of fry from Spain and France to
satisfy their own needs.
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Figure 7. Differences in mean growth rate of sea-bream in floating cages.
Figure 8. Mean growth rate of sea bass cultured in floating cages.
Trials to culture this species in MDiq Bay showed that, sea-bass juveniles with an
average weight of 12 g, cultured in floating net cages reached 400 g in 16 to 18 months
(Figure 8).
Sea-bream and sea-bass are the most important cultured marine fish in Morocco (Figure
9). They both exhibit the same trend in culture production. First, an important steady increase
of production was achieved during the first half of the 90's, to reach mean production values
of 500 to 600 tons each. Then, this trend was followed by a broad decrease since 1997, to be
stabilized around 300 to 400 tons each during the most part of the first half of the 2000's.
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Figure 9. Evolution of marine aquaculture production from 1990 until 2006.
The maximum production amount recorded for sea-bream and sea-bass were respectively
792 tons in 1994 and 845 tons in 2005. Three of the 4 farms which used to culture these two
species failed successively on 1997 (La SAM), 2001 (DORALOUP) and 2006 (MAROST).
All of these fish farms were located on the Mediterranean coast of Morocco. Currently,
only one farm (AQUA-MDIQ) still continues to culture sea-bream and sea-bass while
there are many projects which have got basic license without succeeding to achieve their
establishment.
Bluefin Tuna, (Thunnus thynnus)

This species has been the subject of an eight year experimental captive breeding and
grow-out project, which has lasted from December 1992 to August 2000. This project was
executed in the framework of the scientific and technical bilateral cooperation agreement
between Morocco and Japan involving Moroccan researchers from INRH and Japanese
experts from OFCF (Overseas Fishery Cooperation Foundation).
Two main experimental phases were conducted for more than three year duration each,
using wild caught blue-fin tuna. The first phase was initiated using local trap-caught giant
tunas (76 fishes) with an average weight of about 250 kg each. These tunas were caught while
migrating back to the Atlantic Ocean through the Gibraltar Strait after their spawning in the
Mediterranean Sea. Subsequently, they were kept in large floating net cage moored in 45~50
m deep open sea site. They were fed two times per day on mackerel, horse mackerel and
squid every day, except Sundays. The second phase utilized medium sized tunas (109 fishes)
with an average weight of 55 kg each.
These tunas were caught in Spain by purse seine and brought to Mdiq by suitable
maritime transferring means. The duration of this maritime transfer was 11 days, during
which tunas were kept in a Bridgestone transporting fish cage which was towed by a tugboat.
The velocity of the transfer towing was about 1.5 miles and tunas were regularly fed trash fish
(Iioka et al., 1999 and 2000).
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Other Species under Investigation

Red porgy, (Pagrus pagrus), Common Dentex, (Dentex dentex), Golden grouper,
(Epinephelus alexandrinus), Brown grouper, (Epinephelus marginatus) and Meagre,
(Argyrosomus regius) are the main fish species subjected to applied breeding research by
INRH during the 2000's. The broodstocks of these species were collected from local caught
fishes, except for the meagre which was imported as juveniles from France. While Red porgy
and Dentex have been successfully reproduced in captivity for many years, the other species
still face some difficulties.
Red porgy was investigated in a pilot scale trial rearing them in floating net-cages. This
work which was done in a joint partnership with a local farm (Aqua-M'diq) showed very
interesting results. The process of gonad maturation in the adults has largely occurred in the
fish natural habitat prior to catching them. The majority of individual adults were captured
while they were in an advanced stage of sexual maturity. Therefore, spawning was
spontaneous and was achieved through several successive spawning patches. Spawning
started from March and continued until May (Talbaoui et al., 2002). The photo and thermo periodic cycles during spawning (Figure 10) show that Red porgy spawning occurs during the
ascending phase of temperature (15.8 to 17.8C) and photoperiods (12 h 14 min to 13 h 58
min) (Talbaoui et al., 2006b). Growth curves of obtained Red porgy larva are represented in
Figure 11. These curves show a more active growth trend than those of Sea Bream Sparus
aurata in our rearing conditions (INRH Aquaculture Center). The cultured fishes reached an
average weight of 400 g in 18 months, feeding on sea-bass commercial pellet ((Talbaoui et
al., 2006b).
Figure 10. Spawning season of Red porgy Pagrus pagrus during 2000 and 2001.
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Figure 11. Linear growth of Red porgy Pagrus pagrus larva.
Common Dentex (Dentex dentex)

Under the umbrella of the Morocco- Japanese cooperation project, larval and alevins
rearing trials were taken to a pilot scale level. In these trials several biological and physical
parameters were tested such as initial larval stocking density, dissolved oxygen, temperature,
photoperiod, luminous intensity, food, etc. To achieve that, 4 series of larval rearing trials
were conducted in order to improve the aquaculture technology and the requirements of the
captive environment of Dentex larval culture. From a total of 127 spawning trials (Figure 12),
about 17 million eggs have been collected. Of that amount, 13.6 million eggs were viable
(77% viability rate) ( Ait Ali et al., 2003).
Figure 12. Spawning trials and egg production of Common Dentex.
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Figure 13. Growth rate of common dentex fingerlings exhibiting promising results.
This rate decreased considerably to 0% at the end of the season. However, growth rate of
fingerlings exhibited a positive linear relationship indicating very promising results (Figure
13).
Japanese (Pacific) cupped oyster, (Crassostrea gigas)

The culture of this species has a relatively long history in Moroccan marine aquaculture,
and is considered the most valuable seafood product. The production rate of this species is
indeed the highest among all cultured bivalves in Morocco (Figure 14).
Figure 14. The aquaculture production of several marine bivalves exhibiting variable growth rates from
1990 to 2006.
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Since its beginnings many decades ago and still today, its culture remains dependant on
spats imported from France which are collected from the wild. Oualidia Lagoon is considered
the first site where commercial grow out operations are carried out. Also, oyster culture
operations in Khnifiss lagoon have lately achieved some technically successful productions
with very significant growth results. Nevertheless, this site still requires more environmental
investigation studies, especially regarding the impact of naturally existing heavy metals
(Cadmium) brought to the site by seawater currents flowing from the surrounding upwelling.
Since the late 90s, studies have indicated that Dakhla Bay can also be an important
culture area for the same species. Further more, data collected are suggesting that more
investors are willing to invest in this site providing the opportunity for this site to be the most
important bivalve culture site. Indeed, the research studies concerning the growth and
mortality of cultured oyster in this bay indicate that spats with a length of 8 and 27 mm have
grown to 114 and 121 mm, respectively during one year of rearing (Berraho and al. 1998)
(Figure 15). These growth rates are very promising and are superior to those observed in other
sites. In general, the growth rate of oysters in this bay is very rapid from October to May and
then becomes slightly constant until September (Zidane et al., 2008)
Figure 15. Growth of cultured C. gigas in Dakhla Bay (A: 8 mm spat; B: 27 mm spat).
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Flat oyster, (Ostrea edulis)

It is a native species in Morocco, particularly on its Mediterranean coast. In the 80's, a
large natural stock exists in the Nadors lagoon. Marost used it to produce, in its own
bivalves hatchery, a few millions spat of this species and locally grown for commercial
purposes. Problems faced to export Moroccan cultured fat oyster to Europe have been the
main cause to give up and to renounce its breeding. However, in early 2000s, hatchery
produced spat of flat oyster were introduced from Canada, by a private farm (Aquasur), for
experimental growing purposes in Khnifiss lagoon. This experience was not being able to be
renewed because of low zoo-technical results and the uncertain quality of the imported spat.
European clam, (Ruditapes decussatus)
This species is native to Morocco and its natural stocks cover almost all Moroccan
lagoons, estuaries and bays (El Moussaoui et al., 2005). These stocks are all heavily overfished. Thus, the remaining stocks are too weak to support any kind of fishing effort
(Labbardi et al., 2005). Clam culture operations began in Nadors lagoon during the late 80s,
relying on local hatchery produced spats. These operations were not sustainable because of
the difficulty and complexity of the culturing techniques in addition to the physical
characteristics of some of these sites like muddy sea bed which lowered the production
efficiency (Shafee et al., 1998). Thereafter, several attempts were carried out in other lagoons
such as Oualidia and Moulay Bousselham to culture this species of clam, but all of these
attempts failed eventually. However, since the late 90's other clam aquaculture operations
emerged in Dakhla Bay. The first results from that site showed good growth of clam length
(Figure 16). At the beginning, these emerging new aquaculture projects of this species were
totally relaying on the locally available wild juveniles, which were caught inside the exploited
area. Thereafter, all clam culture projects were required to produce their own spats from their
hatcheries in order to preserve the remaining local stock of this species. Currently, a private
local clam hatchery is planned to be established with a production capacity of more than a
100 million spat per year.
Figure 16. Length growth of cultured clam Ruditapes decussatus in Dakhla Bay.
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Japanese Scallop, (Patinopecten yessoensis)

This species is not native to Morocco and was introduced in 1995 from Canada by the
private company, Aquasur, for experimental growing trials in Khnifiss Lagoon. Due to the
encouraging positive growth rates observed, the experimental breeding trials were further
extended in 1998 to other potential sites like the Imssouane Bay, located north of Agadir. The
decision to select other sites was made to reduce the high mortality rates observed in Khnifiss
Lagoon which was attributed mainly to temperature regime. Once this problem was solved by
moving these trials to Imessouane Bay, encouraging results were recorded and sea ranching
of this species in this lagoon was possible. However, other types of problems emerged with
changing the original locality which was mainly due to difficulties related to spat provisions.
Consequently, these trials were stopped in 2004. The main results obtained from this
productive experience in Imessouane Bay point to important growth success where
commercial size of scallops was attainted in 13 months (Figure 17) with varying mortality
rates (Idhalla et al., 1998 and 2000).
Figure 17. Encouraging data regarding growth and mortality rates of cultured scallop Patinopecten
yessoensis in Imessouane bay.
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Japanese prawn (Parapenaeus japonicus)

In 1997, 250,000 post-larva (PL-70) were imported from Spain for growing purposes at a
commercial scale. In 1998, other prawn breeders were imported to initiate reproduction trials
in the shrimp hatchery of Marost. The first hatchery post-larva production reached an amount
of 1.5 million of PL-75. The grow-out phase was carried out in permanently submerged
rearing structures (enclosures). However, the site for the submerge enclosures has required
fastidious survey, control and servicing works. Additionally, there were many
commercialization difficulties due to the low European market prices compared to the high
production cost in Morocco. Also, many other constraints have appeared, particularly prawn
losses due to predation and inefficient harvesting techniques. No follow-up commercial
attempts were thereafter made by Marost, except for another company (La SAM) which has
tried in the early 90's to breed this shrimp species in earthen ponds, using its own hatchery
produced post-larva. The recorded productions numbers were very low, less than 40 tons per
year. In fact, 35, 31, 7 and 1 tons were recorded in 1992, 1993, 1994 and 1995, respectively,
before giving up for the same reasons of low European market prices and high competition
with Asian cultured shrimps. Thus, La SAM halted their prawn production operations in 1995
and shifted to sea-bream and sea-bass culture since 1993.
Mediterranean Mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) and African Mussel (Perna perna)
Both are native species to Morocco. Their wild stocks cover almost all Moroccan
coastlines (Idhalla et al., 1998). Most of these wild stocks are heavily over fished and the
remaining are too weak to support any kind of fishing effort. Mussel aquaculture began in
Cala Iris Bay during the late 70s. Thereafter, several investigations on mussel culture have
been conducted in Agadir Bay. The results showed that for both species, the growth rate in
length is fastest in the early phases of culture reaching from 5 to 5.8 mm/month, then after
180 days of culture the growth rate slows down (1st test). Besides, the growth rate of P. perna
is faster than that of M. galloprovincialis rate in the two tests. It is also more elevated for spat
bet in culture in June than those bet in March (Idhalla et al., 2005). The commercial size was
reached at 6.5 to 7.5 months of culture for P. perna and at 7.5 to 8.5 months for M.
galloprovincialis. The monthly variations of growth of meat and dry weight are similar for
both species. The weight gain for both species decreased in summer and autumn. The growth
rate in meat weight varied between 11.2 and 13.1 g/year for P. perna and between 8.2 and
10.8 g/year for M. galloprovincialis (Figure 18). These growth rate values are very promising
and superior to those observed in other sites. Currently, emerging mussel aquaculture is being
developed in other sites as MDiq Bay, Imesssouane, etc (Rafik, 2007).
Algae Species
Morocco is known for its high agar-agar production (2nd rank in the world). The most
important and exploited industrial algal species is Gelidium sesquipedale. Its natural stocks
are subjected to heavy exploitation for local agar extraction industry more than for
exportation abroad in its raw state. Attempts for algae culture started in the late 90's. Gelidium
was tested for mass culture in the coastal area of El Jadida and in Dakhla Bay. Unfortunately,
these attempts faced continuous acts of vandalism in El Jadida which is considered a very
important area containing large natural Gelidium stocks. Whereas other problems occurred in
Dakhla Bay that were in the form of high predation occurrences by the Gold line fish Salpa
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salpa. Other attempts were carried out in 2004 using Gracilaria species in Nador Lagoon
without any significantly conclusive results.
Figure 18. Length growth (A) and weight growth of cultured mussel (M. galloprovincialis and P.
perna) in Agadir Bay.
European Eel, (Anguilla anguilla)

Due to the physiology of this species, its culture attempts were carried out in locations
where both the marine and freshwater environments can be utilized efficiently. Commercial
scale culture of Eel started in the late 80's by catching eel from the wild followed by rearing
until the commercial size. Each culture cycle would last between 3 to 5 months duration of
captive holding before selling. Although eel culture gained great interest because of its simple
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rearing/holding techniques and because of its relatively good return on investment, exports
did not exceed 100 tons. Cultured eel is exported live to Italy.
Major Freshwater Species Cultured or Under Investigation. As is the case elsewhere,
freshwater fishes in Morocco, both native or alien species, have been threatened by various
factors, particularly domestic and industrial pollution, drought, dam building, water diversion
and over fishing. According to Azeroual et al. (2000) there are 30 native and 16 introduced
species that are endangered in Morocco which require practical measures to improve the
chances of preserving them. Restocking aquaculture is a valid and suitable solution, which
can be implemented specifically for this purpose. The most part of freshwater cultured fish
species are intended for release in the wild (rivers, natural lakes, etc.) and artificial water
areas (dam reservoirs, large earthen ponds). There are currently three major freshwater
species that are under commercial aquaculture. In fact, restocking fish activity is the main
purpose of the current freshwater aquaculture practices (Figure 19). Almost the all-exotic
species brought from Europe and North America, which have been successfully bred in local
captive conditions and were well acclimatized to local conditions, are used in restocking
programs of several water areas localities. This has allowed the development of fisheries in
all concerned regions.
Rainbow Trout, (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

It has been introduced in Morocco in 1925 from USA. This cold water fish species is
anadromous and since its introduction, it has been released in water areas located in the
Middle and High Atlas Mountains range, such as rivers, dam reservoirs and artificial lakes
(large earthen ponds). Rainbow trout is a carnivorous species feeding on a wide variety of
prey including insects, crustaceans, mollusks and fishes. Despite its relatively long culture
history, rainbow culture in Morocco is still less important than what it could be. This species
could not reproduce naturally in Moroccan wild water areas.
Figure 19. Development of freshwater aquaculture production by fish species (1998-2006).
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Therefore, the use of hatcheries to sustain production seems to be the only possible way
to get rainbow trout fingerlings. However, although hatchery reproduction phase is well
mastered, the annual fingerlings production in CNHPs facilities still did not exceed 600,000
individuals even if, in recent years, rainbow trout has become very popular for sport fishing.
Commercial trout culture is practiced mainly by one private farm (AIN-AGHBAL Domain),
located in the middle Atlas Mountain range where weather conditions are more favorable for
rainbow trout breeding.
Brown trout (Salmo trutta fario var. Macrostigma Dumril)

This species is endemic to Morocco where it inhabits rivers, tributary streams and
rivulets, and lakes of the Rif, the Middle Atlas and the High Atlas Mountains range and some
high-altitude lakes. It is well known for its pronounced territorial behavior, it is carnivorous
and macrophage. It feeds on live prey, insect larvae, and crustaceans and, under certain
circumstances can become ichthyophagous and even cannibalistic. Like the rainbow trout,
this species is also artificially propagated and mostly used for restocking purposes using
hatchery produced juveniles in the main traditional trout water areas, and lakes. The annual
hatchery-fingerling production in CNHP facilities is around 120,000 individuals. Both brown
and rainbow trouts remain the key species for restocking mountain watercourses and water
areas. CNHP manages yearly to produce sufficient number of trout breeders for eggs and
fingerlings production necessary for restocking needs. Moreover, Moroccan wild brown trout
stock is considered to be endangered. Its small natural remaining wild stocks are on the
decline following the degradation of its natural habitat. Efforts are underway to rehabilitate its
habitat and to restore and preserve wild stock trout species which are among the main tasks of
the CNHP.
Common carp (Cyprinus carpio), Chinese (or Grass) carp, Ctenopharyngodon idellus
and silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix
These three exotic species were introduced to control eutrophication in lakes, dam
reservoirs and irrigation canals. Their fingerlings are produced both by CNHP and some
private hatcheries. CNHP total production of carp species fingerlings (Deroua Station)
reached more than 2.6 million fingerlings in 2007 of which 1.5 millions were Silver carp
fingerlings, 900,000 were Common carp fingerlings and 200,000 were Chinese carp
fingerlings (HCEFLCD, 2008). Private producers are represented by three major commercial
hatcheries situated on rivers shore of Oum ER-Rbia, Loukkos and Smir. The major part of
their hatchery produced carp fingerlings are sold to ONEP, (Office National de l'Eau Potable)
for stocking in dam reservoirs to biologically control the eutrophication process. The
remaining of their production is sold to ORMVA, (Offices Rgionaux de Mise en Valeur
Agricole), for stocking in irrigation canals to control aquatic weed overgrowth.
Originated from China and southern Russia, the common carp was introduced to
Morocco in 1924 from France. It was first introduced into the natural lake Merja Sidi
Boughaba located in the south of Kenitra. Currently, this species has colonized most of the
natural lakes and dam reservoirs. This species prefers calm, warm and stagnant water lakes.
Its growth depends essentially on its introduced race and farming conditions. Its introduction
in natural lakes has resulted in a negative effect, causing the destruction of other species
spawning grounds and increasing water turbidity (e.g. Ifrah Lake).
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The silver carp is native to the Amur River in Central Asia. It was introduced in Morocco
from Hungary in 1983 and was released in the irrigation canals of Loukkos. This fish has
been well acclimatized to Moroccan continental waters. Its feeding behavior is based on
phytoplankton through its water filtration ability. It presents a major factor in controlling the
phytoplankton proliferation. The silver carp has colonized the majority of Moroccan dams,
depending on the release operations of artificially produced fingerlings. There is no natural
reproduction of this species in the water areas where it was stocked. Silver carp has produced
good results in Morocco in terms of growth, reaching 3 kg in 1 year, 6-8 kg in 2 years and
over 10 kg in 3 years in dam reservoirs.
The Chinese (grass) carp is native to large rivers in China, particularly the Amur River.
Like the silver carp, grass carp was introduced in Morocco in 1983 from Hungary and was
first introduced in the irrigation canals of Loukkos. It was very well acclimatized to
Moroccan inland waters. Propagated through artificial reproduction, it has colonized the
majority of dam reservoirs and irrigation canals showing a high rate of growth. Exclusively
herbivorous, grass carp feeds on aquatic plants and also some terrestrial plants that could be
introduced into its habitat (lawn grass, trefoil, etc.). Since the process of digestion is not
complete, the ejected feces seem to contribute to water fertilization.
Nile Tilapia, (Tilapia nilotica)

Introduced in 2004 from Egypt, by a private promoter for experimental scale culture. It
was then stocked in Deraou fish culture public Station, in the framework of cooperative
partnership, to check its performances under Moroccan culture conditions. Breeding and
culture results were very successful. It is considered as a suitable species for valuating unused
and improper water-areas.
Pike-perch (Stizostedion lucioperca)
Originally, this species was imported from North Eastern Europe (Finland), through Lake
Constance (Switzerland). It is a carnivorous fish which prefers high altitude (up to 2000 m)
and calm water areas. Currently, it is well spread through Moroccan inland waters and exists
in the largest dam reservoirs (Al Massira, Bine El Ouidane, Mohamed V, etc.), collinear lakes
and natural lakes. Because of the good flesh quality and the scarcity of the pike, it became
increasingly sought and became subjected to selective fishing.
Pike (Esox lucius)
The pike was also introduced in Morocco from Europe (Switzerland and France) since
1939. It was first imported as pike eggs through air transport to Azrou Station where
hundreds of thousand fingerlings were produced. Pike is a strictly carnivorous fish. It has
taken 10 years of continuous efforts to succeed in acclimatizing the pike to local conditions.
In 1954, fishermen started to catch naturally-living sexually mature pike breeders, from fish
spawning grounds in a natural lake (Dayet Aoua). Consequently, eggs were obtained from
these breeders and were incubated in Azrou Station. Since 1993, pike artificial gonad
maturation and spawning techniques were achieved using common carp or salmon pituitary
gland extract injection technique. Also, artificial feed for pike larvae was developed and thus
fry culture was maintained at high rates allowing the production of more disease resistant
fingerlings which are more suitable for release. Consequently, hatchery produced fingerlings
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were of high quality and were better fit for release programs enhancing the stocking of pike
fingerlings in some lakes and reservoirs of large dams and collinear dams. Release programs
are still practiced by CNHPs Azrou Station. Pike currently exists in most natural lakes, in
some dam reservoirs and one watercourse (Tigrigra in Azrou).
Largemouth Bass (Micropterus salmodes)

This species was introduced in Morocco in 1934 from USA, through Western Europe.
Currently, about 200,000 fingerlings are produced yearly by CNHPs Stations and released
for both sport and commercial fishing purposes. There are many areas in Morocco where it
was perfectly acclimatized. It can reach between 5 to 6 kg in Moroccan conditions. This
cannibalistic species is considered as one of the higher predators in freshwater aquatic
ecosystems where adult fish feed almost exclusively on other fish and large invertebrates such
as crayfish. Largemouth bass Fry feed first on zooplankton and insect larvae at the early
stages of its life, then as it grows older it becomes active predator. The fingerlings produced
by the CNHP hatchery are used in the stocking of some lakes, dams reservoirs and collinear
dams.
Tench (Tinca tinca)
The tench was introduced in Morocco in 1934, and was stocked in some isolated natural
lakes of the Middle Atlas range such as Tifounassine and Aziza. This species is omnivorous
which feeds on insect larvae, mainly Dipteral and various mollusks with a trend towards
herbivorous diet. It is more resilient than carp and can tolerate low levels of D.O. better than
most other fish species. It can stay alive out of water for long periods of time. Currently, the
tench is nearing extinction in Morocco and it requires immediate plans of artificial
propagation to restore wild stocks.
Red-claw crayfish (Cherax quadricarinatus)
This species was introduced from Australia in 2002 by the private fish farm,
Pisciculture du Nord located in Had Gharbia, in Tangiers region. Since then, this crayfish
has been successfully bred in hatcheries and grown out locally in intensive culture systems c
It was introduced from USA and released in many aquatic ecosystems of the Middle
Atlas range between 1930 and 1992, (Benabid et al., 2003). But, the acclimatization of this
species was only successful in the region of lfrane (in water-area Zerouka II). The juveniles
production of this crayfish is managed by CNHP which is later released in rivers.
Spiny-cheek crayfish (Orconectes limosus)
This carnivorous species is native to North America. It was introduced in Morocco
through importation from France. Currently, it is found mostly in Hachlaf water area. In
Moroccan waters this species could reach a maximum size of 15 cm. Over time, this species
has become a pest presenting a hazard on the dam dikes structures because of its burrowing
behavior. Therefore, the idea of eradicating its population seems as a good strategy at this
point of time.
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AQUACULTURE TECHNIQUES
Seed Supply
The earlier attempts to culture aquatic organisms in marine or continental waters, relied
on imported seeds. In freshwater aquaculture operations, many public and private hatcheries
were established and were able to produce their own fingerlings. These fingerlings were
stocked most of the time in different water areas with diverse objectives in mind such as
improvement of water quality, and enhancement of sport and commercial fishing, etc. On the
other hand, marine aquaculture operations still rely on imported seeds, particularly for oyster
culture and to a lesser extent for fish culture.
The first experimental attempts to produce bivalve seeds by controlled hatchery
techniques were performed on the Japanese oyster during 1984 and 1985 in a joint venture
between IAV Hassan II Agronomic and veterinary Institute Hassan Second of Rabat and a
private oyster farm in Oulidia Lagoon. These attempts did not score any satisfying success,
nor they have shown that the possibility of local artificial seed production is even possible.
Moreover, Oualidia oyster growers have tried to use Marost hatchery-produced Japanese
oysters for many reasons. These reasons were to avoid spat importation cost, to overcome
substantial initial losses related to transport and other spat settlement techniques and to have a
continuous and steady local supply of spats. However, the use of Marost spat was found to be
difficult to pursue further due to the high losses incurred in the initial stage of the culture
process. While some of these problems could partially be solved by the use of pre-growing
equipments and some technical modifications during the initial hatchery single spat stocking
phase, oyster growers seemed really not prepared to accept or proceed with any changes or
modifications to their normal routine culture practices which were based on the collection of
wild oyster spats then settling them on scallop or oyster empty shells. In fact, oyster farmers
in Oualidia were not familiar with the techniques required to handle and to rear small single
oyster spats. The use of hatchery produced small size (spats retained on a 3.0 mm2 mesh
sieve) single oyster seed involves some changes in the routine of the culture procedures,
particularly by setting up of pre-on-growing equipments. Local farmers considered this
important step as an overly-cautious and labor-intensive addition to the procedure (frequent
spat grading operations by hand held sieves of different mesh sizes, etc.). The supply of larger
size spats is of course more desirable but it demands a significant raise in cost. For that
reason, Oualidia oyster growers still depend on foreign importations of oyster seeds collected
from the wild.
Flat oyster and European clam were the first bivalve species in Morocco that have been
reproduced in the hatchery on a commercial scale. This was achieved by Marost farm in
Nador Lagoon on the Mediterranean coast. The hatchery design was made by an American
expert using large rearing tanks (20m3 each) for larval rearing. The first spat production of
these two species was achieved in 1986. While European clam spats were produced in free
single seeds, flat oyster spats produced were settled on mussel's empty shells. In the following
years spat production trials of flat oyster were also carried out in free single seeds. The
hatchery produced single spats were pre-on-grown in nursery to reach suitable sizes (oyster
spats retained on 3 to 6 mm2 mesh sieves and clam spats on 2 to 3 mm2), before being
transferred to the sea on-growing facilities.
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In the late 80's, sea-bass and sea-bream culture relied on hatchery produced fingerlings.
The first marine fish hatchery was established by Marost farm. The operation of this hatchery
started in 1988 and remained in full production for 19 years. Its design concept was based on
the ability to use both flow-through and re-circulated systems utilizing borehole water to
reduce heating costs. The production capacity of the hatchery was 10 million sea-bass and
sea-bream fry. French experts were involved in the daily management of this hatchery,
providing on-site training for local staff. The original broodstock used for this production
were first acquired locally from the wild. Most of the acquired brooders were kept for
spawning for several years. However, new brooder fishes were selected from the first
generation reared in captivity. The selection of these brood fish was conducted based on their
higher biological performance, and then they were added to the main broodstock population
every year. Since sea-bream is a protandrous species where the males sex reverse to females
as they grow, new males were yearly supplemented to the captive population. Whenever
possible, wild fishes were also added at a rate of 10 to 20 % to renew captive broodstock.
After many years of hatchery practices, a proven procedure has been established for
broodstock management, in addition to mastering techniques for advancing or delaying
spawning for some broodstock in order to extend the spawning season and the hatchery fry
production.
Hormonal spawning induction was achieved for both, sea-bream and sea-bass, using hCG
at the beginning, then later replaced by LHRHa. Currently, these techniques were replaced by
manipulating environmental rearing conditions such as the temperature and photoperiod. The
latter technique has enabled to extend the spawning process to almost an all year round
season. Larval rearing was performed in 4 m3 circular FRP tanks. Operational runs were
modulated in groups of 4 tanks each, which were linked to their own independent recirculating system. Improved intensive larval rearing techniques have been successfully
achieved for both species as they have been developed in the Mediterranean region.
Optimization and control of the major environmental parameters have been undertaken to
improve the fry quality and performances in the grow-out phase. Morpho-anatomic
deformities, mainly related to skeleton, opercula and swim bladder, have been significantly
reduced.
Among the 4 marine fish farms, only two (Marost and la SAM) have fish hatcheries to
secure their own needs for sea-bream and sea-bass fry. Whereas the other two farms (AquaMdiq and Doraloup) import their fry from Spain and France. Prawn seeds were also secured
through two hatcheries, one belonged to Marost in 1997 to 1999 and the second one to La
SAM in early 90's. Japanese prawn broodstock were imported from Italy. Lack of expertise,
shortage of sewing-up and starter feeds, as well as improper design of growing-out facilities
were the main constraints for prawn seed production. However, the highest hatchery produced
prawn seeds were about 1.5 million for Marost and about 3 millions for La SAM.
The Mussel culture operations rely usually on the wild spat collection due to the
availability and abundance of local wild mussel populations. Natural mussel beds are
important in many coastal areas in Morocco, where they are heavily exploited for domestic
market consumption. Out of 7 private experimental farms which were developed for mussel
culture using rafts or long-lines anchored in moderate depths of water, only 3 are presently in
operation. Mussel culture in Morocco was proven to be technically feasible but largely
dependant on the regular spat supply from the local natural stocks. Mussel spats are collected
by local fishermen from the surrounding areas of the farm site location. In Mdiq for example,
243
where a private mussel farm was established since one year and half using floating raft
technique, mussel spat settlement occurs all year-round, indicating that mussel spawning
occurs through out the year. Therefore, the productivity and efficiency of the culture
operations are closely associated with the farmer's efforts to ensure sufficient spat supply.
Freshwater fish seeds intended for release operations were imported for many years until
the 80's. The first public hatchery for freshwater fish fingerlings research and production was
established in Azrou in 1980 (CNHP). This hatchery undertakes applied research to develop
and improve freshwater fish breeding techniques. It also produces fingerlings for economical
and ecological reasons such as improvement of water quality in some areas and for sport and
commercial fishing. Currently, CNHP has three public hatcheries in Azrou, Ras Elma, and
Deroua. While Azrou Hatchery is producing carnivorous fish species, Ras Elma and Deroua
hatcheries are mainly producing trout species (1.5 million fingerlings) and Carp species (2.5
million fingerlings), respectively. The total hatcheries production of carp fingerlings is 6.5
millions, of which 4 millions are provided by private hatcheries and 2.5 millions by CNHPs
stations.
Feed Supply
Various feeds for cultured fish are imported from foreign markets. Feeds were first
imported from England in the late 80's, then at a later stage from France and recently from
Spain. In 2004 and 2005, pilot scale trials of sea-bass grow-out were conducted using several
experimental fish feeds formulated locally. The formulation of these feeds was carried out
under a joint venture between Aqua-Mdiq (fish farm), Aquamed (poultry feed manufacturing
plant), INRH and IAV Hassan II. These pilot scale trials produced satisfactory results, such
that 4 out of the 5 feeds produced from local raw materials, yielded some of the best
performances compared to that of imported commercial feeds. All these feeds presented
inferior energy contents and P/E reports superior to those of the standard feed (Figure 20).
Figure 20. Continued on next page.
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Figure 20. Weight gain of Sea-bass by food type (A) and Variation of the weight gain according to P/E
report of different applied regimes (B).
This experimental work elaborates the feasibility of manufacturing formulated feeds from
locally available ingredients for marine fishes to the extent that such feeds can be as effective
as the imported commercial feeds (Talbaoui et al., 2005 and 2006a). Therefore, it became
possible to provide fish pellets domestically for both marine and freshwater cultured fishes,
using local ingredients.
Two animal feed manufacturers have invested to diversify their production outputs by
including fish feed manufacturing equipment. One of the two manufacturers is based in
Kenitra and the other is in Hakama village, near Tangiers. The latter manufacturer is owned
by an industrial group, which possesses a freshwater fish farm, also located in the Tangiers
region, that breeds and grows Nile tilapia. This feed manufacturer uses by-products of shrimp
decorticating factories owned by the owner group. Thus, it utilizes shrimp carapaces in the
formulation of their fish feeds. Research efforts are still underway to improve the quality of
local manufactured fish feeds according to the cultured fish species.
CULTURE HUSBANDRY
Broadly, different rearing techniques and management procedures were employed by
Moroccan aquatic species farms. For marine bivalves and freshwater fish culture, the most
common method used is the extensive system. Whereas for marine fish, both intensive and
semi-intensive systems are employed in floating net cages in lagoon and open sea sites, and in
coastal land-based earthen ponds, respectively.
Since water quality is the most important factor in aquaculture, monitoring of essential
water parameters was always among the main concerns of all farmers. In earthen ponds
Particular attention was given to Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biological Oxygen Demand
(BOD) which are considered extremely important for the cultured fish or prawn growth and
245
survival and for the aquatic environmental management. Also, abundant clean water is
required to maintain a disease-free culturing environment. Low water exchange rate is also
one of the main concerns in cage culture. Depending on site location, fouling of the net cages
due to dense algal growth resulted in the deterioration of rearing water quality and fish losses.
Fish farmers have tried to use improved quality of rearing nets and to optimize net cages
service (frequency of nets change, drying and cleaning procedures of collimated nets, etc.).
Other major concerns for the farmers were the stocking densities in limited space, the
structure and distribution of cages in terms of their distance from each other and the
efficiency and the stability of the mooring system. Another environmental concern was that
the long term usage of aquaculture sites for many years led to unfavorable sedimentation of
the farm waste materials mostly from feed. Such sediments may produce significant amounts
of hydrogen sulfide leading to very low DO conditions.
With respect to fish health, systematic diagnosis of diseases is regularly practiced by fish
farmers. Marost has a pathological survey laboratory for monitoring and preventing diseases
outbreaks and pathogenic organisms from spreading to or from wild species.
Some of aquaculture farms have established an effective quarantine system for imported
species to prevent unknown diseases from invading local aquaculture and wild environments.
Medical treatment procedures, based on the use of specifically authorized medicines and their
proper recommended dosages, have been developed and improved through on-site
experiences. In general, prophylactic efforts are mostly directed to prevent infestation rather
than to cure disease which could sometimes be difficult to eradicate once established.
Generally speaking the lack of expertise, scientific breeding techniques, and culture plans
and research programs are the main obstacles that face aquaculture farms and hatcheries.
INRH and CNHP have always provided as much information as possible on site-selection,
choice of appropriate type of techniques and facilities for selected sites, applications for site
permits, mooring system installation and improvements on floating culture facilities, start-up
operational production trials and management of the rearing environment. Sometimes, both
organizations were even involved in the design of facilities, equipment specification and
installation, and the first steps for launching the production process.
As far as freshwater aquaculture is concerned, it is mainly based on extensive polyculture
system which is practiced in dam reservoirs using various fish species. Such aquaculture
system and facilities pose practical problems such as refrigeration facilities of captured fish
and deficiencies in logistics as well as efficient infrastructure of commercialization.
Manpower
Since the practice of aquaculture and many other related fields are fairly new concepts to
the workers in this field, the availability of sufficient qualified manpower was a problem.
Some fishermen were converted to aquaculture workers simply by receiving on-site education
and training to acquire basic aquaculture operational skills. Since then, development of the
human resource element has become an urgent task requiring the design of an appropriate
training programs. These practical programs were either conducted locally or abroad to
acquire the necessary skilled workforce.
Applied training courses and practical programs have recently been arranged for private
aquaculture technicians and new young potential investors in joint cooperation with Spain.
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Also, training plans have been organized for persons who are involving in aquaculture
research and related administrative affairs, in joint cooperation with FAO (CIHEAM) and
Japan. On the national level, the number of manpower involved in marine aquaculture field in
2005 was about 344 people distributed over 261 permanent employees, 42 temporaries and 41
service staff including fishermen and divers ( (El Ahdal, 2005). This number did not include
research staff.
The academic education in the field of fisheries existed since 1975. The aim of these
education programs was to meet the increasing domestic needs in maritime and continental
fishing sectors. Since then, several strategic education and training methods have been
adopted to monitor developments in fisheries sciences and thus was able to adapt academic
education to the emerging jobs market. Since 1997, a program was established so that
students who graduated from the general agronomy discipline can specialize in fisheries,
including aquaculture, over a period of two years.
IAV HASSAN II and some Moroccan universities have been trying to offer adequate
academic education to respond to the development needs in the field of aquatic live resources
exploitation and aquatic environmental management. However, the general problem still
exists which is the inability to respond, in a relatively short period of time, to the most urgent
and variable requests that are considered as obstacles to aquaculture development, particularly
in terms of skilled qualified manpower.
Preserving and enhancing productive potentials of wild and aquacultural resources must
also be based on integrated strategic approaches with multiple objectives in order to
incorporate human resources needs which should correspond to the progress in aquaculture
design, planning and management.
REVIEW OF AQUACULTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

INRH and CNHP represent the two public institutions that are dealing with the operation
and development of aquaculture research in Morocco (Figure 21). Veterinary Directorate is
also involved with INRH and CHNP tasks but mainly in the framework of providing service
support for aquaculture establishments in Morocco, by organizing and coordinating the
setting up of environmental monitoring and fish pathology survey for existing farming
exploitations. INRH and CNHP undertake applied research, field farming and studies on
potentially exploitable sites, technical feasibility of new aquaculture species, etc. They are
also involved in providing scientific and technical advice and recommendations in
aquaculture policy development and management.
Additionally, they are involved in aquaculture site license granting procedure for private
investors, by providing scientific opinion regarding the biological and technical feasibility of
potential projects. These two institutions also support developing private aquaculture projects
and farms through joint cooperation with the private sector by giving advice on husbandry
improvement of traditionally cultured species, up to date developments on culture techniques
of local species, preparation of environmentally integrated farm design, construction
specifications and equipments, etc.
247
Figure 21. INRHs network structure along the Moroccan coastline.
MARINE AQUACULTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

In accordance with its mission, INRH conducts research and experimentation in order to
contribute to promoting and developing viable and sustainable marine aquaculture in
Morocco (Figure 22). Its marine aquaculture research and development programs are in
harmony with the global fisheries strategy defined by the Fisheries Ministry, taking into
account the recommendations of INRHs Administrative Board, comprised mainly of
professionals, INRHs Scientific Committee and the Fisheries Superior Council Conseil
Suprieur de l'Exploitation et la Sauvegarde des Ressources Halieutiques. Therefore, the
main efforts of the marine aquaculture research of INRH have focused on two key aspects:
1. Site identification and classification for aquaculture purposes through 3 main axes:
Identification of potential aquaculture sites through classical selection criteria,
(sheltered areas, semi-exposed areas, restocking areas, etc.).
Ecological studies on selected areas which present potential for aquaculture
activities.
Conducting breeding attempts for selected marine species in the selected sites.
2. Development of culture techniques for marine species through 3 programs:
A species-diversification program that aims at developing the reproductive
technology of some potential candidate marine fish species.
A zoo-sanitary program by the establishment of pathological surveillance
protocols to survey and monitor the main wild-captured and cultured marine
species of fish and shellfish;
Aqua-feed formulation and production program that aims at developing fish feed
from local ingredients based on studies of the fish nutritional requirements.
248
Figure 22. The experimental fish hatchery of INRH Aquaculture Center in Mdiq. Top: Broodstock
culture unit (left), Larviculture unit (right). Bottom: Live food culture unit (left), Biological Lab (right).
Since INRH has acquired significant experience in marine aquaculture, it has actively
contributed to the establishment of guidelines, programs and development protocols to
support the aquaculture industry. The actions undertaken so far by the INRH can be
summarized as follows:
Examples of INRH studies on potential aquaculture sites and other achievements:

a) Contribution to the preparation of the master plan for aquaculture development
in accordance with Fisheries Ministry Policy aiming at responsible and
sustainable aquaculture development.
b) Identification of potential sites for marine aquaculture and conducting
investigations on environmental, biological and hydro-biological parameters
(Lagoons of Nador, Moulay Bousselham, Sidi Moussa and Oualidia; Bays of
M'diq and Dakhla; Estuaries of Tahadart and Loukous, etc.).
c) Conducting studies on quality and sanitary aspects in the framework of the
National Network Survey of Coastal Sanitary: studies and survey of live
captured and cultured aquatic organisms through biological and chemical
parameters.
d) Animal Health Monitoring Network of captured and cultured marine species:
prevailing diseases study and survey.
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e) Multidisciplinary study (physical, biological and sedimentological) of the

Dakhla Bay in the south of Morocco and assessment of its potential for
aquaculture.
f) Contribution to the establishment of locally integrated management plan for
Dakhla Bay including shellfish aquaculture component.
g) Applied studies conducted for earthen pond aquaculture investment projects in
the Tahaddart site (located in south of Tangiers).
Examples of INRH efforts in the development of aquaculture techniques:

a) Conclusion of experimental aquaculture project on blue-fin tuna which was
conducted in M'diq Bay during the 8 years framework of Moroccan-Japanese
cooperation (INRH and OFCF). Significant results were obtained in terms of
growth (average annual growth rate of about 50 kg). Difficulties in captive
breeding were attributed to low temperature profile of the culture facility
compared to those of the natural spawning areas. However, this project has
technically contributed to the development of local open-sea fish culture cages,
and to the blue-fin tuna fattening practices in the Mediterranean region.
Unfortunately, there were no successive private commercial investments with the
exception of the previous commercial blue-fin tuna fattening activities (late 80's
and early 90's) to commercially and qualitatively re-evaluate the thin trap caught
tunas for Japanese market.
b) Applied studies on new candidate marine fish species for aquaculture. These
studies are in progress since 2000 by INRHs Aquaculture Centre in M'diq, in
the framework of Marine aquaculture fish species diversification.
c) Pilot scale trials on cage grow-out of hatchery-produced red porgy, in joint
cooperation with a local private fish farm in Mdiq Bay produced significant
growth and survival results. However, the final color of the culture fish was
grayish instead of the natural reddish color which render the produced fish
commercially worthless. Investigations are ongoing to find practical solutions.
d) Educating and training fishermen on applied breeding techniques of the
European clam. This extension service was made in Moulay Bousselham
Lagoon. It was carried out in conjunction with INRH and the Japanese
International Cooperation Agency (JICA).
e) Monitoring and control of European clam breeding practices which are carried
out by local fisherwomen in the two lagoons of Sidi Moussa and Oualidia. These
two sites are known for clam fishing activity which constitutes one of the main
income sources of the local population. This work was conducted within
Fisheries Department Support Program.
f) Feasibility study on the breeding of Mediterranean and African mussel species in
Agadir and Imessouane Bays. Hydrodynamic and hydrological survey was
previously performed to gather useful information and knowledge about the local
area environment and to select a suitable open-sea site for mussel culture settling
up facilities.
g) Experimental culture of Japanese Scallop using long-lines techniques. This
activity was conducted in joint cooperation with a private shellfish farm
(Aquasure) in the Bay of Imessouane, which hosts a fishing village.
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FRESHWATER AQUACULTURE RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT

CNHP which is located in Azrou was established in 1980. Its main mission was to
manage fish resources of inland waters, training of the private sector staff to deal with
operations spills, environmental and biological monitoring and control against eutrophication,
monitoring of biodiversity, and changes in the environmental and ecological factors of
different aquatic ecosystems. The center is linked directly to the Directorate of Desertification
which falls under the tutelage of the High Commissioner for Water, Forests and the Fight
against Desertification. From organizational point of view, the center includes 5 departments
and 2 fish stations, according to the Administration of Water, Forests and Soil Conservation
in 1995 (Instruction No. 7, 16/2/95). These departments and stations are:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Ichthyology Department.
Physical Chemistry Department.
Algology and eutrophication Department.
Zoology and fish diseases Department.
Production department.
Deroua Station for Carp culture in Beni Mellal.
Azrou Station for fish culture and its annexes.
The missions that are assigned to the National Centre of Hydrobiology and Fisheries are:
a) The hydrobiological study of all aquatic ecosystems of the Kingdom.
b) The design, development and fisheries planning through exploitation by fishing and
fish farming.
c) Propagation and rehabilitation of indigenous fish species and the introduction of new
economic species.
PROSPECTS
Although aquaculture is a slow developing industry which suffered several considerable
setbacks, the prospects are very promising. Indeed, it relies on the general societal acceptance
whether or not to promote and strengthen aquaculture development efforts. It is surely quite
fortunate to have such a vast marine coastline, favorable climate conditions and highly skilled
national expertise. Therefore, a reorientation of the fisheries policy toward giving more real
interest in aquaculture as well as support research and development, will definitely pave the
way to establish a solid aquaculture industry.
There are many aspects of aquaculture that need development. One of the most important
of these is the selection of suitable species for aquaculture. It is crucial to select candidate
species of which capture fisheries cannot satisfy domestic and/or foreign market demands.
Utilizing modern techniques of biotechnology, it is possible to conduct many high quality
research to identify different wild stocks and exploit the richness of the gene pool of many
species for purposes of improving the end product of the aquaculture industry. Recent
advances in biotechnology, particularly in artificial breeding, will open new venues in
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culturing a diverse range of aquatic organisms which eventually leads to the mass production
of new target species fingerlings. Applied marine and freshwater aquaculture research is
currently conducted in joint cooperative actions between research institutions and private
farms, to develop and optimize local fish feeds. It still has to integrate social and economic
aspects on appropriate scale to reconcile local development interests and environmental
protection and concern.
A human resource development program is being developed through technical and
scientific cooperation and assistance which makes aquaculture a suitable income generating
business for interested fishermen who have the sprit of entrepreneurs. Certain types of
aquaculture such as spat collection do not require large capital investment because of low
level of technology involved and because it relies on methods that are suitable for rural and
under-developed areas. Thus, aquaculture can offer many jobs opportunities with substantial
income for local fishermen. Large sheltered and suitable sites are relatively limited, but a well
technically conceived aquaculture projects could however be established even on a small
scale. Such project can be operated at many economic levels, such as the family level, small
fishermen cooperatives, local communities, or even a commercial-scale enterprise
arrangements. Aquaculture could then play an important role in local area economy, creating
new economic added-values and employment opportunities.
Moroccan people prefer sea-food as a healthy and nutritious alternative despite the fact
that they do not consume large quantities. Generally, they prefer the wild fish over the
cultured ones, with considerable appreciation of marine species over the freshwater ones. For
that reason, accurate information and promotion of marine and freshwater cultured fishes can
increase the consumption of cultured organisms. Processing is a suitable way to increase
consumer acceptance.
CONCLUSION
Within more than 60 years, Moroccan aquaculture has gone from exclusively traditional
exploitation targeting mostly shellfish culture especially oysters for domestic market, to a
relatively more industrialized activity targeting various cultured species of increased export
value. However, aquaculture production rate did not follow this trend and remained very low
and sometimes even decreased relative to aquaculture potential in Morocco. It is worth noting
that in general Morocco is looked at by the rest of the world as a large fishing country with no
interest or need for aquaculture. Adding to the fact that Morocco has vast and valuable
fisheries resources and well developed marine fishing technique, which could provide
significant sources of protein to Moroccan people. Despite its very long marine coastlines, its
important freshwater areas and its favorable climate, Morocco is not a country with a
traditional aquaculture custom. Indeed, among the Mediterranean countries, Morocco
probably presents the lowest aquaculture production. Fundamental questions still arise about
its real potential that could be effectively exploited. However, suitable choices for aquaculture
development should be discussed and emphasized on the national level. This current situation
of uncertainty regarding aquaculture development, and the long-term economical risks are the
main factors disrupting and hampering private initiatives investments and achievements.
Therefore, there is a need to direct current efforts and emerging interests toward a
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synchronized emphasis on aquaculture development in Morocco. A clear aquaculture policies,

planning and proper management should be developed based on solid, realistic and tangible
advantages. Nowadays, aquaculture in Morocco is still not considered as a strategic priority in
the fisheries development national plan. Only recently, the issue of aquaculture was included
for the first time in the 5 year development plan (2000-2004).
The findings of current applied aquaculture research reflect good potential opportunities
for investments which may warrant the re-examination of all previous challenges and
achievements, particularly under the more recent technical and environmental considerations.
Many aspects of a successful aquaculture operation are still lacking such as a comprehensive
site selection management plan, technical skills insufficiency, scarcity of fundamental
equipments and lack of proper infrastructure facilities. Therefore, there is an urgent necessity
for strategic planning of aquaculture development that addresses these controversial issues
including specific rights of parties involved and proper legislation and regulating measures.
Competent administration efforts should focus on the establishment of specific and concerted
strategy based on overall review of the previous policies and the real development needs and
assets. Qualified experts who are involved in the administration and in the research and
development should conduct regular national surveys on freshwater and marine aquaculture.
They should discuss the findings with all concerned parties and partners to evaluate the main
problems and constraints affecting aquaculture achievements and to ensure sustainable
aquaculture operations in Morocco. Among the controversial issues that are of importance is
the culture of highly valued commercial species using more intensive and high cost culture
technology. This issue raises the question about what type of aquaculture system should the
state promote when the organism involved is of high value. Another issue that should be
addressed is the capability of Moroccan aquaculture farms to culture species intended for
foreign markets and whether or not it can withstand serious foreign competition. To ensure
sustainable aquaculture development, it is important to learn from past experiences and to
draw conclusions that could address critical issues.
Traditional aquaculture, which is mainly intended for domestic markets, should be
rigorously consolidated. Its poses valuable contribution in maintaining adequate seafood
supply to meet local demands of the growing national touristic economy. However, as
discussed earlier, the development of traditional aquaculture is not quite clear, although there
are many coastal areas suitable for shellfish culture, which could highlighted through
appropriate research and management efforts. Although in Morocco there are few public and
private freshwater fish hatcheries and used to have a marine fish, shellfish and prawn
commercial hatcheries, yet there are many stumbling blocks for the much needed
development of traditional aquaculture. Most of these blocks are of domestic nature such as
local seeds supply, local feeds manufacturing and the social and environmental integration of
aquaculture activities.
On the regional level, there is a great need for technical cooperation through the
establishment of strong working relationships with international partners. Both Mediterranean
and Arabian cooperation should be encouraged and strengthened through the existing
respective organizations and networks. This may allow undertaking aquaculture research and
development within a jointly coordinated actions to ovoid duplication of efforts. The
application of results of the cooperative applied research and technology development may
contribute to the complementary development of aquaculture at a regional level. The
Mediterranean and Arabian populations are growing at a rapid rate and the focal point of the
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present challenge is to ensure sufficient protein supply to cope with the current and future
population growth. Aquaculture could be play a major complementary role for fishing and
agriculture as a food source.
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Environmental Technology, 29, Issue 9 September 2008, 1031-1042.

ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 12
AQUACULTURE IN THE KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA:

GROWTH, PROSPECTS AND PROBLEMS
Feisal Bukhari
Consultant, Fisheries Research Centre, Ministry of Agriculture,
Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
ABSTRACT
Saudi Arabia, an important country in the Middle East with over 2400 km of coastal
length, has a major role to play in the seafood production and supply in the region.
Presence of this aquaculture-potent country is increasingly felt with considerable and
gradual increase in its fish production. Aquaculture sector contributes to about 10% of the
average annual fish production (0.17 mmt) with sizeable contribution coming from
tilapia, African catfish, common carp and giant freshwater prawn among the cultured
freshwater species. Groupers, rabbit fish, breams, milkfish, mullets and the tiger shrimp
contribute to the marine aquaculture production. The National Prawn Company (NPC) is
a private venture success story of the region in the field of aquaculture. The company has
established fairly high standards of productivity with quality output. King Abdul Aziz
University has been one of the leading Universities that cater to the R andD needs of the
aquaculture sector in the country. This chapter deals with all aspects of aquaculture in the
country with a focus on possible prospects and problems.
INTRODUCTION
Saudi Arabia has a large geographical area of 2,150,000 square kilometers and covers
about 80% of the Arabian Peninsula. It is located between 15 20 to 32 15 N latitude and
34 30 to 52 00 E longitude. The country has two coastlines of 1800 km and 600 km on the
Red Sea and the Arabian Gulf respectively.
The climate of Saudi Arabia is sub tropical to tropical (hot and dry). Annual aridity
indices in the interior parts are over 90%. The rainfall is low and irregular. The annual
E mail:feisalbukhari@yahoo.com
258
Feisal Bukhari
average rainfall ranges from 30-90 mm in the north-central areas to over 300 mm in the
mouth plains of Hijaz and Asir. The Raba Al-Khali in the south-east has seen long spells of
draughts of even 10 years. Water balance situation in less than 100 mm rainfall areas remains
deficit all the year round where evaporation exceeds precipitation. Summer months are
extremely hot and the air-temperatures cause excessive water losses from the soil and from
the water surface. Seasonal and diurnal fluctuations in temperature are wide resulting in
climatic extremes (Table 1).
However, coastal areas, particularly along the Red Sea, have small seasonal variations in
temperatures largely due to the stabilizing effect of warm maritime air masses. Much of the
seasonal temperature variation is along the broad central axis extending from Qurrayat in the
north to Sulayyil in the south. The winters in the north-eastern and central parts are cold and
wind waves intermittently sweep down the region from December to February causing frost
and below 0C nocturnal conditions. The temperature regime in the open shallow water
environments may become highly trying during winter for tropical aquaculture species.
Saudi Arabia has three main types of water resources: non- renewable ground water,
renewable ground surface water and desalinated water. About 88% of potable water
requirement of Saudi Arabia is met by the coastal plains, particularly the southern part, the
Tihama which receives 60% of the country's total rainfall. Rainfall in this region turns out to
be a catchment for a series of dams and reservoirs such as Jizan, Najran and Abha. These
reservoirs are rain-fed and provide an average supply of about 1.85 billion m of water,
accounting for about 9% of total annual water consumption. Desalinated water production is
about 2.87 Million m per day. Desalinized water is used for drinking.
Despite harsh climate and limited water resources, Saudi Arabia has been among the
world's fastest food producers and its agricultural share of total GDP and it is the sixth largest
exporter of wheat and among the largest producers of dates. It has attained self sufficiency as
well in other crops, eggs and dairy products. Outputs of vegetables and fruits have increased
significantly over the last decades.
Table 1. Mean monthly air-temperature C of some major agriculture
regions of Saudi Arabia
Month
Jan.
Feb.
March
April
May
June
July
Aug.
Sep.
Oct.
Nov.
Dec.
Riyadh
1
2
8.5
20.4
9.9
22.7
14.2 27.9
18.8 32.5
23.8 35.9
25.7 40.9
27.4 42.5
26.6 42.2
24.1 39.8
19.4 34.6
13.2 26.7
10.9 22.5
Dhahran
1
2
10.7 20.7
11.3 21.9
15.5 26.6
18.9 30.7
23.8 39.8
27.2 41.2
28.5 42.1
27.8 41.6
25.1 39.6
21.4 32.5
17.1 28.3
12.7 23.1
Hail
1
3.6
5.5
9.2
13.9
19.1
20.1
22.5
21.9
20.0
13.7
9.5
5.1
Note: 1 = Mean Minimum. 2 = Mean Maximum.
2
16.5
18.9
21.9
27.9
31.2
36.9
37.6
37.5
36.6
28.8
23.1
16.8
Al-Qasseem
1
2
12.4 18.2
14.9 21.5
19.7 26.7
23.9 30.7
29.5 36.9
32.9 40.0
33.9 41.5
33.6 41.1
31.6 39.5
25.6 34.3
19.3 25.7
13.7 20.5
Al-Kharj
1
2
5.9
21.5
8.7
24.9
12.9
29.1
17.5
35.3
21.7
42.0
23.3
44.1
24.3
45.2
24.8
45.0
21.2
42.9
16.6
36.9
10.7
30.2
7.9
24.4
Tabuk
1
2.8
4.3
10.6
13.9
16.4
20.9
21.6
21.3
18.6
13.6
8.7
4.6
2
16.9
20.1
26.9
31.2
35.8
37.7
39.1
39.1
37.7
30.7
24.3
18.9
Aquaculture in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
259
The consumption of fresh and frozen fish in Saudi Arabia during the year 2007 was
170,121 tons, of which 23,314 tons, 37,090 tons and 14,375 tons accounted from the Red Sea,
the Arabian Gulf and aquaculture production respectively. The fish production increased from
54,680 tons in 2000 to 75,341 tons in 2007 (MOA) and has reached the level of maximum
sustainable yield. The present population of Saudi Arabia is about 22 million and the annual
per capita fish consumption is 10.4 kg (8.3 kg in 2000). Fish consumption in Saudi Arabia is
showing a rising trend in view of the value of fish as a health food especially as a source of
omega fatty acids; which have been found to reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. It has
been recognized that the exploitation of fishery resources from the Red Sea and Arabian Gulf
alone are not enough to meet the existing and future demand for fish in Saudi Arabia.
Aquaculture, which has a close relation to agriculture and animal husbandry in concept and
practice, can play an important role in augmenting the fish supply in Saudi Arabia.
PRESENT STATUS AND DEVELOPMENT OF AQUACULTURE

Aquaculture was initiated three decades ago. The Saudi Arabian Ministry of Agriculture
(MOA) contracted the Wight Fish Authority (WFA) of the United Kingdom (UK) to carryout
the Fisheries Research Activities along the costal lines of both Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea.
The Region-wise production details of fish and shrimp in the country is depicted in table 2.
Several reports on the potential of marine fish farming in Saudi Arabia have been
produced (Howard, 1977 a and b Howard et al., 1977; Vine et al., 1979). Summary of these
reports is presented in table 3.
Table 2. Regional Fish/Shrimp Farming Production in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
for the year 2007
Region
Fresh Waters
Riyadh
Qasim
Mecca
Eastern province
Jouf
Hail
Tabuk
Coastal Waters
Mecca
Aseer
Tabuk
Medina
Jizan
Eastern province
Total Production
No. of Fish
Farms
46
21
6
15
2
1
1
1
5
1
1
1
0
2
0
51
Production
(tons)
3,606
1,916
963
627
81
0
19
0
306
9
0
297
0
0
0
3,912.759
No. of Shrimp
Farms
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
1
1
0
0
2
0
4
Production
(tons)
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
14,527
12,109
1,400
0
0
1,006
0
14,527.564
260
Feisal Bukhari
Sturgeon
Grouper
Rabbit fish
Salt water
Tilapia
1
0
0
0
12
0
4,633
0
0
4,636
280
1,006
0
15
0
0.09
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
45
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
50
0
46
12
4,633
5,922
15
0.09
50
Caviar
0
0
0
Mullet
Cat fish
Mecca
Tabuk
Jizan
Eastern
province
Qasim
Total
Production
Carps
Region
Sea bass
Table 3. Production of Farmed Fish by Species in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia

for the Year 2007
Medina, Aseer, Riyadh, Hail and Jouf Regions: No production.
Suitable sites for marine farming were identified, environmental parameters (temperature
and salinity) evaluated and some preliminary observations on growth and salinity tolerance of
three cichlid species, Oreochromis aureus, O. spilurus and Tilapia zillii, imported from
Kenya, were made (Peacock, 1979; Osborne 1979). Fish fingerlings of O. spilurus showed
satisfactory growth when cultured in floating cages.
Fish culture project of king Abdul Aziz University for Science and Technology also
established a tilapia and common carp hatchery in Riyadh during 1980. Since then, a
substantial number of fingerlings were produced for distribution to prospective fish farmers
playing a catalyst role in the development of fresh water aquaculture in Saudi Arabia.
In the 1980's a number of fish culture projects were started. Most of them succeeded.
Some of them failed mainly due to the misconception of the investors who thought
aquaculture to be an easy way to make money and also due to the lack of trained personnel. In
most cases the investors of these farms have used their own land, farm facilities and other
operational inputs.
The main turn-on factors for aquaculture development were identified to be the
following:
Availability of Land: Saudi Arabia is a vast country and wide tracts of land are available
along both the coasts for mariculture. Some of the land within the agriculture belt was already
moderately invested for the construction of small concrete tanks. These types of fish farms
were usually integrated with agriculture to maximize the utilization of fresh water resources.
The Department of Lands (MOA) leases out coastal lands cheaply for long term investment.
Climate: Despite extreme climatic conditions in Saudi Arabia, a number of tropical and
sub-tropical aquaculture species were successfully cultured. In view of the limited fresh water
resources, mariculture has proven to be the potential area of investment with a wide range of
seaside sites including hypersaline lagoons available for this purpose.
Quality of Water: The water quality of both groundwater and sea water is suitable for
aquaculture and appears to be pollution free.
261
Easy Credit: Agriculture banks provided interest-free loans to the farmers mainly for the
machinery purchase and for drilling wells. Such loans were sanctioned on a 10-year
repayment basis.
Cheap Energy: Aquaculture in Saudi Arabia ranges from semi-intensive to intensive and
requires a considerable amount of energy for water pumps, aeration and other purposes which
is made available at a low cost.
Subsidized Fish Feed: Feed is subsidized by the Government of Saudi Arabia and has
been made available to farmers at a reasonable price.
Marketing: There is a good demand for fish by both the Saudi's and the expatriates and
the produce is locally consumed. Fish marketing infrastructure is also excellent.
Freshwater Aquaculture
Tilapia Species and Production
Freshwater aquaculture in Saudi Arabia is based mostly on tilapia. There are about 14
tilapia production farms, with a total production exceeding 1,300 tons annually.
Production systems: The production systems range from simple technology of stagnant
waters (50%) to more intensive aquaculture practices (38.9%) and open water systems
(11.1%) (Al-Owafeir M., et al 2007). Most of production facilities consist of concrete and
fiberglass tanks varying in size from 1 to 200m. Small tanks are used for spawning and larval
rearing whereas; the large tanks/ponds are devoted mainly for grow-out. Fingerlings (2-10 g)
are transferred to the larger facilities (Siddiqui, A. and Al-Harbi, A. 1997) where they grow
and the fish reaching a size of 200-300g are continuously harvested and marketed. Tilapia
reproduction in grow-out culture facilities is not monitored or controlled. Aeration is provided
through out the culture period. Production varies from 5 to 25 kg/m (Siddiqui et al 1989)
with a fish stocking density varying between 30 and 60 fingerlings/m and it takes about 8
months for the fish to attain a marketable size (Al-Owafeir M., et al 2007).
Fish Feeds: Commercial sinking fish feed with 34% and 39% dietary protein at a
subsidized price (SR 800-1,400/ton) is available from a local feed company (Grain
Silos/Flour Mills Organization) as well as private fish feed mills. The feed is available in
powder, crumble and pellet forms. Manual feeding is common and the feeding rates and
frequency of feeding vary with the size of fish. The feed conversion ratio ranges between 2
and 2.5.
Marketing: Farmed tilapia weighing over 200 g is well received by certain ethnic
expatriate groups. Saudi populations prefer local fish spices. Fresh tilapia, direct from the
farm, are preferred. Tilapia sale price ranges between 11 and14 SR/kg, there are no seasonal
price fluctuations. The retail price ranges between 6 and 20 SR/kg.
Common Carp
Common carp, Cyprinus carpio, was introduced in to Saudi Arabia in 1980 from Taiwan.
It was grown to maturity and spawned in small concrete tanks by providing a layer of nylon
netting at the bottom of the tank and floating nylon netting at the water surface. Mature
females and males, with an average weight of 1.5 kg, were released in between the two
nettings and allowed to spawn naturally during the night.
262
Feisal Bukhari
Table 4. Fresh water Tilapia Farms and Production in Saudi Arabia (2007)
Farm
Al-Sheeb
Al-Rajhi
Al-Balla
Al-Alshaikh
Al-Habib
Al-Saadi
Al-Ahmadi
Al-Kabir
Al-Zahrani
Al-Awaibidi
Baghanim
Al-Jadani
Al-Amoudi
Al-Tamimi
Total
Location
Riyadh
Qasim
Qasim
Riyadh
Riyadh
Riyadh
Qasim
Qasim
Mecca
Mecca
Mecca
Mecca
Mecca
Eastern Province
Production (tons)
300
180
150
150
150
75
70
50
48
35
32
30
24
20
1,314
The spawned fish were removed in the morning and eggs attached to the nylon netting
were hatched in the fiberglass tanks with running water and aeration. Newly hatched larvae
were reared on freshly hatched Artemia nauplii and rotifers for 4 weeks. Powdered artificial
fish feed was given thereafter. Carp fingerlings (approx 2g) were stoked and reared in large
concrete tanks. Fingerlings grown in this manner are supplied to fish farmers. However, carp
is not commercially cultured in Saudi Arabia as it has poor market demand.
African Catfish
The African catfish Clarias gariepinus, was introduced in 1986 from Egypt. Successful
spawning of the catfish was achieved through induced breeding by giving an injection of carp
pituitary and HCG. Semi-natural spawning was done by keeping one female and a male in
fiberglass tank or by stripping the eggs from a female and squeezing the milt from the male.
The eggs were hatched in a fiberglass tank in 24-36 hours. Larvae were normally reared on
Artemia nauplii for the first week, thereafter gradually replaced by artificial fish feed
(Siddiqui et al. 1992, 1993). African Catfish can withstand higher densities than tilapia under
similar conditions, needs less water and can survive at very low dissolved oxygen levels. The
potential of aquaculture of this species is good. However, the fish is yet to find way into the
commercial aquaculture.
Freshwater Prawn
Giant fresh water prawn, Macrobrachium rosenbergii, postlarvae and adults were
imported from Taiwan during the fag end of 1990. Berried females were used for hatching
and larval rearing from April 1991 onwards. Potentials of fresh water prawn monoculture, its
Polyculture with tilapia and common carp have been investigated (Siddiqui and Al-Hinty,
1991). Natural live food production through the application of organic and inorganic
fertilizers and the supplemental feeding has been practiced. Result's revealed that prawn
monoculture is not profitable in comparison to tilapia aquaculture. However, it has great
263
aquaculture value in polyculture both in concrete tanks and earthen ponds (Siddiqui and AlHinty, 1991 and 1992).
Mariculture
Saudi Arabia is rich in marine resources. In 1982 the Fish Farming Center (FFC) was
established under an agreement between the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO) and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), represented by the Ministry of
Agriculture. FFC specializes in the development and application of aquaculture technology
appropriate for the kingdom. Research and development activities on selected local species of
fish and shrimp at FFC provides much needed information for successful aquaculture in KSA.
There are 22 species of groupers and many other local marine fishes in the Red Sea.
Studies are being carried out to choose and determine suitable marine species and to develop
aquaculture techniques applicable to local conditions. In addition to the economic importance,
some of the criteria for species selection are the attainment of maturity in confinement;
readily spawn under captive conditions, high larval and fry survival and fast growth rates.
Six local marine fishes studied include five species of groupers (hamoors), viz.,
Epinephelus malabaricus, E. fucoguttatus, E. polyphekadion, Plectropomus pessuliferus
(taradi) and P. areolatus (najil). Groupers are high-priced and preferred in the Saudi market.
Studies on the higher-priced Plectropomus sp. are in the early stages. The groupers have been
naturally spawned under captive conditions without much difficulty at the FFC through
proper maintenance and conditioning. Grow out to marketable sizes (> 500g) has also been
shown to be economically feasible.
Rabbitfish
Rabbitfish (sigan or saffy; Siganus rivulatus) is another important fish species which also
has a high market demand. At the FFC, studies showed that S. rivulatus can be spawned
naturally and artificially (Lchatowich et al 1984a), without the hormonal induction. High
larval mortality however, is a major problem that needs to be addressed. The life cycle of S.
rivulatus was completed and the seed became available for culture. This obliterated the need
to collect juveniles from the Red Sea. The Rabbitfish fingerlings can reach marketable size in
6 months when reared at different (low and high) stocking densities in cages installed in the
Red Sea (Lchatowich et al 1984b and Bukhari 2005).
FFC also carried out fish pen-polyculture study with milkfish (Chanos chanos), mullet
(Mugil cephalus) and tilapia (Oreochromis spilurus). Results were not very promising. Apart
from poor survival there were difficulties associated with the harvesting of milkfish and
mullet. However, tilapia showed encouraging results. Research priorities were fixed to
investigate into aspects of potential alternate species for polyculture (Bukhari et al. 1986).
Table 5. Growth, survival and production of rabbit fish Siganus rivulatus
in sea cages at different stocking densities
Stocking density
m
80
100
120
Mean initial
wt. (g fish)
2.0
2.0
2.0
Mean final wt.

(g fish)
108.0
101.0
91.9
Survival
(%)
96. 5
95.6
94.7
Production
(kg m )
8.13
9.44
10.20
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Feisal Bukhari
Tilapia
Tilapia is known to have high resistance to adverse environmental conditions, including
extremes of temperature and salinity. Tilapia culture is widely practiced throughout the
kingdom spreading even to the coastal areas. FFC succeeded in developing and demonstrating
aquaculture of O. spilurus in hyper-saline seawaters conditions along the kingdom's Red Sea
coast.
Various studies have been carried out on O. spilurus at the FFC during mid eighties of
the last century. Results showed that the sex ratio of 1:4 gave more consistent fry production
while, a 1:3 ratio also fared well. A six-week nursery trial revealed that the optimum fry
survival and growth was the best at a stocking density of 13 per liter. A production trial in
floating sea cages showed that a high density of 225 fish/m yields the best production thus,
recommended higher stocking densities for enhancing fish production (FFC 1987).
Tilapia aquaculture studies were carried out in a concrete tank system, the "Baobab
Tilapia Culture Facility" a trademark of technique developed by Baobab Farm Ltd., Kenya.
(FFC 1983). "Baobab Technique" is an intensive tank aquaculture technique for tilapia
species which uses a hatchery specifically designed for mouth brooding tilapia species. The
nursery and grow out systems were considered to be the best for tilapia production.
Tilapia in the Baobab FFC showed very good growth (220-250g) and food conversion
efficiency (1:1-1.5) after 9 months of tank culture with a production of 40 kg m (FFC
Operational Manual for Baobab systems 1991). Tilapia life cycle is completed in the closed,
full strength saline seawater. O. spilurus brood stock and larvae were developed and
established that could produce and grow in the Baobab salt water tanks, therefore fry
acclimation in the arena was not necessarily any more.
Black Trigger Prawn
The Fish Farming Center had started studies in the late 80's on tiger prawn by importing
Penaeus monodon post larvae from Malaysia to test its culture viability in the kingdom. Since
prawn is a brackish-water species and the average salinity of Red Sea is 40 ppt, acclimation to
the high salinity of the full strength seawater is essential before it is reared in culture
facilities. It was observed that prawn growth and survival were slow and low conservatively
due to the high salinity of the Red Sea despite the lengthy periods of nursery acclimation.
Also, it was observed that the tanks and ponds gave higher growth and survival for prawn (P.
monodon) than in cages and pens (Bukhari et al. 1989) despite better water quality in the seabased facilities compared to the land-based facilities.A poly-culture study involving P.
monodon, rabbitfish (S. rivulatus) and mullet (Liza sp.) in tanks had shown a positive
influence on prawn growth and survival rates. The addition of fish to shrimp tanks improved
the water quality. It was observed that the presence of herbivorous fish stabilizes water
quality and increases yields (Bukhari 2002). P. monodon had generally low survival (50%)
and poor growth (24-27 g) in salt water ponds at FFC compared to a higher survival (70%)
and growth (35-40 g) in south east Asian environments (Bukhari et al. 1989).
White Indian Shrimp
Difficulty in the attainment of maturity of P. monodon in captivity and other speciesrelated limitations made the FFC to look for a local shrimp spices to study as a culture model
that might be advisable for aquaculture by the private sector.
265
The Indian White Shrimp Fenneropenaeus indicus, abundant in shallow lagoons of the
southern part of the Red Sea coast with a depth of 1-2 m and with a peak of occurrence during
April - November (Badawi and Cas, 1989) was found to be a potential alternative. Some
juveniles were collected, grown and spawned in captivity for culture at FFC (Bukhari et al
1990). Larvae of F. indicus are easily obtained from ablated and un-ablated females (Bukhari
et al 1991b). The earliest nursery stage for transfer to growout ponds at 43 ppt is PL25
(Bukhari et al 1997a). From hemolymph osmolality experiments it appears that the Red Sea
strain of F. indicus is better acclimated to tolerate high salinities showing higher survival
rates at salinities in excess of 35 (Bukhari et al 1997a) when compared to its Indian Ocean
counter part.
Microencapsulated artificial feeds to replace live feeds in F. indicus larval culture have
been investigated. Results revealed that a 50% replacement is possible. It has been possible
also to replace expensive local protein sources with cheaper local protein and to produce diets
for the price of the cheapest imported feed (Bukhari et al 1997b). Density trials from 2080/m for F. indicus in ponds at FFC resulted two production cycles of 180 days each per year
(final harvest weight 15 to 28g), survival rate of 55-93%, feed conversion ratio (FCR) of 2-3
and a production ranging from 6 to 13 tons/ha/yr (Bukhari et al 1992 and 1993).
Research conducted on shrimp species (Tiger prawn, Penaeus monodon and Indian white
shrimp, F. indicus) has contributed greatly to the development of the commercial shrimp
industry in the kingdom. FFC developed and demonstrated successful culture of the Indian
white shrimp under hyper-saline conditions of the Red Sea. Production of P. indicus has been
highly successful and present production at the FFC is from the 17th generation of
domesticated broodstock.
Another production trial was also carried out at the eastern side of the kingdom
investigating on the influence of water exchange in tanks on P. monodon and F. indicus.
Results indicated higher survival rates of 77.95% and 83.2% with 600 and 1200% water
exchange, respectively for the tiger shrimp while, it was 69.8% and 77.1%, respectively for
the white shrimp (Bukhari 1998).
A comparative study was also conducted on the Saudi Arabian Gulf coast using two
production facilities viz., rectangular cemented raceway tanks and circular earthen ponds with
the tiger shrimp (P. monodon) and the white shrimp (F. indicus). Results revealed the
possibility of obtaining two tiger shrimp crops of 4.5 tons/ha compared to one crop of 4.3
tons/ha in raceways. Estimated average pond production of F. indicus (April-Nov.) was 5.8
ton/hec/crop compared to 3.9 ton/ha in raceways (Bukhari 2000) (table 6).
Table 6. Average initial weight (g), final weight (g), survival rate (%) and production
(tons/ha/yr) for the Indian white shrimp, F. indicus in earthen ponds
at the Red Sea Coast of Saudi Arabia
Stocking
density m
20-80
Initial Weight
(g)
0.94-1.16
Final Weight
(g)
20-25
Survival rate
(%)
60-90
Production
(tons/hec./yr.)
7-10
Grouper
A study to investigate high density in grow-out culture facilities of the (Hamoor)
Epinephelus polyphekadion; revealed the possibility of reaching marketable size of (500 g)
266
Feisal Bukhari
during 38-44 weeks when 16 grammars fingerlings are used at Stocking density of 100 m
(FFC 2007). Continuous efforts at the Fish Farming Center's hatchery are in progress to
improve the larval rearing and survival rates of P. areolatus and P. pessuliferus. Considerable
success has been achieved with a 94% fertilization and hatching rate exceeding 68%.
Table 7. Average Weight (g) and Length (cm) for Tiger prawn, P. monodon and Indian
White Shrimp, F. indicus in Rectangular Tanks and Earthen Ponds at the Arabian Gulf
Coast of Saudi Arabia
Tiger prawn
White shrimp
Weight
(g)
35.7
17.0
Rectangular tanks
Length
Survival
(cm)
(%)
15.9
65.5
13.6
54.6
Weight
(g)
62.4
23.1
Earthen ponds
Length
Survival
(cm)
(%)
19.5
18.0
15.3
62.5
PRESENT AND FUTURE AQUACULTURE PROJECTS

Highlights of the kingdom's aquaculture situation are as follows:
Freshwater fish farms (mostly tilapia) are scattered in the central, western and eastern
inland areas, generally linked with agricultural farms; 2,900 tons of Oreochromis
spilurus were produced by 40 farms.
Shrimp culture is considered as the main aquaculture activity, concentrated in the
southern and south west regions were stable climate in common. More than 11,000
tons of shrimp was produced by 3 projects with a production area of 1,880 hectares.
These projects are expected to be expanded to 7,600 hectares and produce about
40,000 tons. It is also expected that about 10,000 tons will be produced from 3 new
projects under construction. Also, 70 shrimp farming projects are in the pipeline.
On going Auxiliary Activities includes 4 fish feed plants, 2 of which are expected to
export about 10% of high-quality feed to neighboring countries.
A leading company in the south has established a hands-on training institute in
aquaculture, equipped with various diagnostic laboratories and a processing plant
that has a production capacity of more than 80 tons/day.
Another processing plant is operating in the east. Another company in the east has an
Inspection, Diagnosis, Analyses, and Consultation facilities.
The MOA is working on the establishment of the legal framework to regulate the
aquaculture industry. The kingdom is working for establishment of aquaculture projects that
implement environment-friendly, responsible and sustainable culture systems. One of the
objectives is to improve production of safe products that are suitable to global market
requirements.
The Quality Management Systems (QMS) is followed by leading farms. They follow
regulations and the FAO Code of Conduct, practice GAP/GMP and SOP (documentation
at various production stages), HACCP/SQF (implementation and recommendation of
267
certification by the SGS for hatchery, farms, feed mill and processing plant), obtained ISO
Certification (ISO 9000-2001; working to obtain ISO 14000; ISO certification allowed the
export of shrimp to Japan, USA an EU), and have QAI Specialized Laboratory (analyzes and
monitors the production processes and the environment).
The kingdom will benefit considerably by establishing the aquaculture industry. For
instance:
It is able to effectively utilize its natural resources that would have otherwise
remained idle, particularly the large tracts of coastal flats;
It generates secondary business or income and job opportunities for local people.
It promotes socio-economic development of coastal areas that encourages local and
other people to stay and populate, which inturn promotes border security.
It reduces the gap between local production and consumption.
It improves the country's trade balance through aquaculture products exports.
It enhances scientific awareness through aquaculture technology transfer and
adoption.
COMMERCIAL MARINE FARMS IN SAUDI ARABIA

National Prawn Company (NPC)
National Prawn Company (NPC) is one of the worlds largest fully integrated desert
costal aquaculture project located south of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. It was established after over
three decades of dedicated RandD at a cost of more than US$350 million to catch-up with the
booming global seafood market and this company marked the beginning of coastal
aquaculture in Saudi Arabia.
The technology development and adoption includes selection of site and species,
engineering and hydro dynamic designing, preparation plans and execution of earth work to
facilitate mechanical harvesting, formulation of diets for high saline and winter aquaculture,
etc. that were achieved by various level of RandD programmes. All the efforts were aimed at
an annual production of 10,000 to 15,000 tons. The company poised to produce over 30,000
268
Feisal Bukhari
tons annually from 16 more farms after the completion of its ongoing second phase
development.
The completed Phase I Project is fully integrated with its own domestication units, 2
Naupli production units, 3 Larval rearing units, 11 farms with the production capacity of
12,500 MT/yr, 120 MT Production capacity of state of the art modern equipped automated
Processing plant by producing various product mixes, 50000 MT/yr production feed mill,
21.4 MW Power Plant, Desalination RO Plant with a production of 1100 m3 per day and fully
equipped supporting units.
The shrimp farm stocking material is obtained from locally domesticated native brood
stock, reared under high bio-security regulations. Grow out shrimps are fed by in-house
manufactured high saline feed through mechanical feeding and marketable shrimp is
mechanically harvested, marketed or processed immediately after the harvest based on market
requirement.
It has its own well equipped Central Laboratory and an organized QA system in place
with regularly updated measures of standards and Bio-Security controls. An established R and
D department with a team of qualified researchers works on domestication, feed formulation,
Bio-saline agriculture project and other projects.
269
The Intake Pump Station has been designed to supply water at a 90 m3/sec rate through a
man made intake canal of 35 km. On the other hand the Discharge Pump Station has been
designed to push a flow of 90 m3/sec from a drainage canal of 38 km. Each farm has been
designed to release the drainage water through its own Effluent Treatment Plant (ETP) with a
sedimentation basin in an effort to reduce the farm effluents and to protect the aquatic
ecosystem.
BaaN ERP is being implemented in NPC and covers its Financial and Management
functions, Warehouse and Distribution, Purchasing and Sales, Production and Processing. By
end on providing the Business Performance Indicators through the Executive Information
Systems (EIS) to enable the top management for critical decision making. All MPC
production units of Hatcheries, Grow out farms, Processing Plants and Feed Mills are covered
270
Feisal Bukhari
under the certification of ISO 14001:2004 and HACCP Standards. Besides Processing Plant
facilities are complaint with EU standard and certified for the same.
The Company presently exports around 10,000 tones of shrimp in different size groups to
30 countries based on their requirements by every year. Besides the frozen products, fresh
shrimps are exported as well to certain countries including Turkey and Italy etc. NPC has
recently commenced the construction of the second phase of the projects with 16 farms with
the production capacity of 17500 MT/Yr, which will significantly increase its annual
production to more than 30,000 tones of premium quality shrimp. This is predicted to make
NPC the single largest supplier of shrimp in the world. The multi million dollar venture is
also envisioned to be a global leader in environmentally friendly aquaculture shrimp
production, boasting cutting-edge farming technologies and techniques as well as stringent
quality standards. Besides shrimps, fish culture projects and Marine Agriculture Project by
producing mass commercial phytoplankton facilities are on the developmental stages and
scheduled to take off by 2008. Along that Bio-Technology Project of Chitin and Glucosamine
production from the shrimp head meal is in pipe line.
NPCs workforce comprises of over 2000 employees from nearly 27 countries, all of them
working wholeheartedly towards taking the company to greater heights. Some of these
employees are specialists in their respective fields.
271
Yet NPC understands the need to keep them updated on their knowledge and skills and
hence arranges for internal and external courses under the auspices of its in house Training
Center which also contributes a lot to the Saudization efforts of the government, by
collaborating with King Abdul Azaiz University. Fresh, out-of-educational institutions, Saudi
nationals are provided with on-the-job training and courses in English, so that they are ready
to take up any job which suit their careers.
NPC provides its employees with furnished accommodation, recreation facilities like
indoor and outdoor sports, super market, laundry, centralized dining halls, Clinic with 24
hours medical care, cultural centre, library, school facility, and a central mosque at the
Township accommodation area. Over a 60 km stretch of the constructed 160 km of road is
asphalted.
Saudi Fisheries Co. (SFC) Shrimp Farm

SFC started investing in Aquaculture from 1992 and implemented its project in 1995 with
a shrimp farm located on the southern Red Sea coast at Al-Hureida covering a farm area of 10
sq. km. housing 108 circular rearing ponds of 1 hectare each.
The Shrimp Farm of Saudi Fisheries Company.
Al-Faris Farm for Sturgeon Fish and Caviar Production

Al-Faris farm (Caviar Court) produces high-quality "Osietra Malossol" grade caviar of
the sturgeon species Acipenser baerii and their crossbreeds.
272
Feisal Bukhari
Al-Faris farm for sturgeon fish and caviar production.
Sturgeon grows in facilities designed and built in accordance with the closed circuit
recirculation technology. Self-sufficient indoor units are equipped with sophisticated water
treatment hardware. The water treatment includes mechanical separation, biological filtration,
aeration and disinfection. This approach guarantees complete isolation from harmful
environmental factors such as pollution and infections.
Water treatment plant of the Al-Faris Farm.
273
CONCLUSION
The kingdom still has tremendous potential for coastal as well as inland aquaculture
activities. Survey conducted by the country's Department of Aquaculture has recognized the
availability of many suitable coastal areas for marine farming operations. The kingdom's
natural resources (highly suitable environment with unpolluted water, favorable climate, large
areas of suitable land, no mangrove destruction) and well-established infrastructure (good
road networks, airports and seaports), availability of established technology and the
supportive Government policies (MOA and other related government agencies; e.g; long term
lease of land at work permits) are responsible for the success of aquaculture in the kingdom.
Saudi Arabia has plans to pursue aquaculture of other local species of marine fish, algae,
seaweeds and mollusks. At present, the kingdom is in the process of establishing the legal
framework to regulate the aquaculture industry, taking in to consideration the sustainability
of aquaculture projects that are environment-friendly and socio-economic and technical
viability.
REFERENCES
Al-Owafeir, M., Tharwat, A. and Belal, I. E. (2007). Tilapia Aquaculture in the Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia: Field Study. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences. 14 (1), 25-34.
Bukhari, F.A., 2002. Cultured Tiger Prawn Penaeus monodon through polyculture with
Rabbitfish Siganus rivulatus or Mullet liza sp. in Red Sea water. Egypt. J. of Appl. Sci.,
17 (9), 31-38.
Bukhari, F.A., (2000). Comparison Production of tiger shrimp Penaeus monodon and White
shrimp P. indicus in cemented raceway tanks and earthen ponds, at the Arabian Gulf.
Arab Gulf J. Scient. Res., 18 (1), 54-63.
Bukhari, F.A., (1998). The influence of Water Exchange Rate on the Production of Penaeus
monodon (Fabricius) and P. indicus (Milne Edards) in Saudi Arabia. Arab Gulf J. Scient.
Res., 16 Pp. 415-430.
Bukhari, F.A., D.A., Jones and A.J. Salama (1997). Development of nursery feeds for White
shrimp Penaeus indicus cultured in Saudi Arabia. Journal of King Abdul Aziz University
Marine Sciences, 9, 91-99.
Bukhari, F.A., D.A., Jones and A.J. Salama (1997). Optimal salinities for the culture of White
shrimp Penaeus indicus from the Red Sea. Journal of King Abdul Aziz University Marine
Sciences, 8, 137-147.
Bukhari, F.A., D.A., Jones and A.J. Salama. (1993). The potential for the culture of White
shrimp Penaeus indicus in high saline ponds on the Saudi Arabian coast of the Red Sea.
European Aquaculture Soc. Spec. Pub. No.19, 117.
Bukhari, F.A., S., Mannewwong, S., Al-Thobaiti, M.Y., Seth and M., Carlos.(1991).
Spawning, hatching and larval rearing of the White shrimp Penaeus indicus at the Fish
Farming Center, Saudi Arabian Agriculture Magazine 4th ed. 22, 39-49.
Bukhari, F.A., A., Al-Suhame and M., Carlos. 1991. Growth and survival of Penaeus indicus
in different salinities. Saudi Arabian Agriculture Magazine 1st ed. 21, 23-27.
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Feisal Bukhari
Bukhari, F.A., (1981). Aquaculture activities at the fisheries department. the Saudi Arabian
Agriculture Magazine 4th ed. 12, 20-23.
Howad, K., (1977). A preliminary report on the prospects for marine fish farming on the Gulf
Cost of Saudi Arabia. MAW and WFA Rep. No. 11, 9 p.
Howard K., M. Amousi and P. Vine (1977). Prospects of marine farming in Saidi Arabia. An
examination of the hydrographic parameters in summer time to assess the suitablility of
Rabigh coast for marine farming. MAW and WFA Rep. No. 20, 14 p.
Osborne, T.S., (1979). Some aspects of the salinity tolerance and subsequent growth of three
tilapia species, Sarotherodon aureus, S. spilurus and Tilapia zillii. MAW and WFA Rep.
No. 46, 16 p.
P. White and F.A. Bukhari. (1990). Survey of potential aquaculture sites in the Jazan area.
Tech. Rep. Fish Farming Center, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
Peacock, N. A., (1979). The suitability of tilapia species for marine aquaculture. MAW and
WFA Rep. No. 48, 12 p.
Siddiqui, A. and Al-Harbi, A. (1997). Effects of sex ratio stocking density and age of hybrid
tilapia on seed production in concrete tanks in Saudi Arabia. Aquaculture International,
5, 207-216.
Siddiqui, A. Q., A. R. Al Najada and H. M. Al Hinty, (1993). Growth, survival and
production of hybrid tilapia (Oreochromus niloticus O. aureus), common carp
(Cyprinus carpio) and African catfish, Clarias gariepinus (Burchell 1822) in mono-and
polyculture systems during winter in the central region of Saudi Arabia. Prog. Fish-Cult.
55, 57-59.
Siddiqui, A. Q., and H. M. Al Hinty, (1992). Feasibility study of freshwater prawn,
Macobrachium rosenbergii, culture in Saudi Arabia. (KACST Project No. AR-1164)
Third Progress Report, 55p.
Siddiqui, A. Q., and H. M. Al Hinty, (1991). Feasibility study of freshwater prawn,
Macobrachium rosenbergii, culture in Saudi Arabia. (KACST Project No. AR-1164)
Second Progress Report, 22p.
Siddiqui A., Howlader, M. and Adam A., (1989). Culture of Nile tilapia Oreochromis
niloticus (L) at three stocking densities in outdoor concrete tanks using drainage water.
Aquacult. Fish. Manage., 20, 49-57.
Vine, P. N., N. Peacock, N. A. and T. S. Osborne, (1979). Studies of the aquaculture potential
of Saudi Arabia MAW and WFA Rep. No. 29, 17 p.

ISBN:978-1-61209-834-0
Chapter 13
AQUACULTURE IN TURKEY STATUS AND NEEDS

Hayri Deniz
Aquaculture Department,
General Directorate of Agricultural Production and Development,
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs,
Ankara, Turkey
ABSTRACT
The geographic and climatic variations as well as the abundance of marine and
inland waters offer a wide variety of production types on different species in aquaculture
in Turkey and because of this reason Turkish aquaculture is expanding very rapidly.
Aquaculture, being a very young sector, represents 18% (139.873 mt) of total fish
production in Turkey. Due to developments in the sector, Turkey soon became the third
fastest growing aquaculture sector in the world. At the same time, Turkey is the 5th
largest aquaculture producer in Europe and the 3rd largest (when shellfish production is
excluded). It is also the 2nd largest producer in Europe of sea-bass, sea-bream and
rainbow trout. Thus, Aquaculture is playing an increasingly important role in the Turkish
economy, as fishery products are the only products of animal origin that can be exported
to the EU. Turkey has excellent growing conditions and has the potential to expand
production substantially. However, the current distribution of sea farms, most of them
located in the Aegean region in enclosed bays or coastal waters where they compete with
other activities is considered a constraint and the main problem for the future expansion
of the sector. Additionally, there are several other factors affecting the development of
the aquaculture industry, such as the complex and lengthy licensing procedures, short site
leasing period, the changing aquaculture regulation framework in Turkey, the lack of a
long term planning policy, the adaptation to the EU framework on environmental issues,
the dependency on carnivorous species, the role of the media in the consumer perception
of aquaculture and the lack of reliable data among others. However, the increasing fish
consumption particularly in the domestic market is the main driving force for the
development of aquaculture. The market potential for aquaculture products makes this
sector one of the most attractive sectors for investment. There is a great possibility of
E-mail: hayri.deniz@taim.gov.tr & hayrideniz@hotmail.com
276
Hayri Deniz
cooperation with other Mediterranean countries in various fields such as studies in
technological innovation, new potential species, economic performance of the industry
and prior to setting up producers organizations, technical assistance to improve poor
growth performance of some species, or the design, supply and installation of offshore
fish farms; production management for small fish farms, offshore facilities and pilot
plants for new species, insurance issues, market studies, feasibility plans for new zones
and training on marketing, promotion and quality control.
INTRODUCTION
Turkey is a peninsula with wide selection of lakes, dam lakes, ponds, reservoirs, rivers
and springs. This diversity in water masses presents a major potential for aquaculture (Figure
1 and 2). With 8,333 km of coastal line and 177,714 km of rivers, the marine and inland water
sources suitable for aquaculture are approximately 26 million ha (Table 1 and 2). It is known
that there are 247 species in the Black Sea, 200 in the Sea of Marmara, 300 in the Aegean Sea
and 500 in the Mediterranean. However, only 9 species of commercial interest represent
almost the 60% of the total Turkish production (DENIZ, 2001).
Turkeys inland water resources are unevenly distributed throughout the country. The
mean annual surface runoff of Turkeys 26 river basins is 186 billion m3, of which half is
considered technically and economically exploitable. Turkey produces approximately 0.6% of
the total world fishery production. Out of 225 countries, Turkey is ranked 31st in marine
fisheries and 30th in aquaculture production.
Table 1. Sea Resources in Turkey (Source: MARA)
Mediterranean, Aegean Sea, Marmara Sea, and Black Sea
Coastlines
(km)
7,144
Surface Area
(ha)
23,475,000
Istanbul and Dardanelles
1,189
1,133,200
Total
8,333
24,607,200
Marine Resources
Table 2. Freshwater Resources in Turkey (Source: MARA)

Freshwater Resources
No of Resources
Surface Area (ha)
Length (km)
Natural Lakes
200
900,118
Dam Lakes
159
342,377
Ponds
750
15,500
Rivers
33
177,714
Total
1,142
1,261,995
177,714
Aquaculture in Turkey
277
Figure 1. Turkey view from the Space (Source: Own elaboration).
Figure 2. Inland water basins in Turkey (Source: MARA).
Official figures indicate that total fishery production in 2007 was 772,323 mt (Table 3, 4,
and 5), comprising marine fisheries 76%, aquaculture 18%, and inland fisheries 6% (DENIZ
and KARASU BENLI, 2008). Contribution of aquaculture was 18% as a volume in total
fisheries production, although, 39% as a value in 2007 (Fig. 3 and 4).
Table 3. Fisheries production in mt in Turkey during 2003 2007.
(Source: TURKSTAT)
Source
Marine Fishery
Inland fishery
Aquaculture
Total
2003
463,074
44,698
79,943
587,715
2004
504,987
45,585
94,010
644,582
2005
380,381
46,115
118,277
544,773
2006
488,966
44,082
128,943
661,911
2007
589,129
43,321
139,873
772,323
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Table 4. Landings of key commercial species in mt during 2003 2007.
(Source: TURKSTAT)
Species/year
Anchovy
Horse Mackerel
Pilchard
Atlantic Bonito
Whiting
Grey mullet
Blue fish
European hake
Total
2003
295,000
28,000
12,000
6,000
8,000
11,000
22,000
7,500
463,074
2004
340,000
27,405
12,883
5,701
8,205
12,424
19,901
4,380
504,897
2005
138,569
13,540
20,656
70,797
8,309
10,560
18,357
4,100
380,381
2006
270,000
14,117
15,586
29,690
9,112
8,915
8,399
3,460
488,966
2007
385,000
22,991
20,941
5,965
12,940
8,291
6,858
3,337
589,129
Turkish aquaculture which started with one farm in 1971 has rapidly developed into
1,715 farms in 2008 with governmental support and technical developments. Currently, there
are 1,365 inland fish farms with 88,520 mt capacity and 350 marine farms with 110,840 mt
capacity (Table 6). The Euphrates and the Tigris river systems which are within the GAP
Region consist of 2,235 km of rivers, 6,481 hectares of natural lakes, small lakes and
approximately 129,987 ha of dam lakes, the construction of which has been completed by
DSI and opened for operation, are suitable for aquaculture.
Table 5. Fisheries production in Turkey in the past decade (mt) (Source: MARA, 2008)
Year
Inland
Marine
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
33,290
37,770
43,385
37,514
34,297
40,217
44,115
48,604
56,694
59,033
23,410
25,230
35,646
29,730
26,868
39,726
49,895
69,673
72.249
80,840
Total
Aquaculture
56,700
63,000
79,031
67,244
61,165
79,943
94,010
118,277
128.943
139,873
Total Fisheries
Production
543,900
636,824
582,376
594,977
627,847
587,715
644,492
544,773
661.991
772,323
% of Total Fisheries
Production
10.42
9.89
13.57
11.30
9.74
13.60
14.59
21.71
19.47
18.11
279
Figure 3. Contribution of Turkish fisheries production in 2007 (volume, mt) (Source: TURKSTAT).
Figure 4. Contribution of Turkish fisheries production in 2007 (value, million ) (Source:

TURKSTAT).
There is increasing need for the development of aquaculture as natural resources. Several
natural water resources make Turkey an ideal country for aquaculture development
(GOZGOZOGLU, 2002). Turkey has a great potential for aquaculture and fisheries. A wide
diversity of aquatic species can be farmed in fresh, brackish or salt water using a variety of
production systems. Aquaculture in Turkey is a relatively young industry. It started with
rainbow trout culture in the early 1970s and little happened in terms of sea farming until 1985
when sea bream and sea bass culture started in the Aegean Sea. Today both freshwater and
sea farming play an increasingly important role in the production of fisheries products. In
2000 its share of total fisheries production was around 14% by volume and 28% by value. In
2007, aquaculture was contributing around 18% by volume and 39% by value.
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Table 6. Number of farms by species and sub-sector in 2008.
(Source: MARA-DGAPD Aquaculture Department)
Species
Inland
No. of farms
Total capacity (mt/year)
Trout
Common carp
Spirulina
Other
Sub-total
Marine
Sea bass, sea bream
Trout
Trout + sea bass
Sea bream + sea bass + new
species
Blue fin tuna
Mussel
Other
Sub-total
Total
1,342
42
5
9
1,398
85,797
2,045
395
674
88,520
305
7
11
11
79,694
7,044
5,427
8,399
9
3
4
350
1748
8,140
1,625
1,185
110,840
199,360
The main developments took place during the 1990s with the rapid increase in sea bass
and sea bream production, the development of rainbow trout, Atlantic Salmon and sea bass
farming in the Black Sea, kuruma shrimp on the Mediterranean coast, mussel in the northern
Aegean and Sea of Marmara, and more recently the development of turbot culture in the
Black Sea (Figures 5 and 6). The sector has developed to such an extent that Turkey is
currently the third largest finfish aquaculture producer in the World and the second largest
producer of both sea bass and sea bream and of rainbow trout. Aquaculture production
declined during the 2000-2002 because of economical crises, after then was increased
ordinarily up to now. Before 2003, marine aquaculture production was less than the inland
aquaculture production. After 2003, growth rate of mariculture operations was superior to that
of inland aquaculture (Figure 7).
Aquaculture is an important economic activity in the coastal and rural areas of many
countries. It offers opportunities to alleviate poverty, creates employment, helps community
development, reduces overexploitation of natural aquatic resources, and contributes to
enhancing food security. For example it is estimated that the aquaculture sector in Turkey
provides employment for around 25,000 people.
Due to the increasing worldwide demand for aquatic products, aquaculture is one of the
most important and fastest growing sectors, not only within fisheries and but also within the
food production sector.
281
Figure 5. Contribution of aquaculture production by regions (volume, mt) (Source: TURKSTAT)
Figure 6. Contribution of regions in Turkish aquaculture by value (million ) (Source: TURKSTAT).
Turkeys population is increasing at a rate of 1.5% per annum, and per capita income is
also increasing in parallel with the economic development and attempts at integration with the
EU. Current per capita fish consumption is very low compared to many European countries,
but it is expected that all these development will lead to increases in domestic fish
consumption. In fact there are some indicators that this is happening already. On the other
hand, wild fish stocks are already under pressure from over-fishing, environmental
degradation and pollution. Annual fish consumption per capita in the world is about 16 kg.
However, the fish consumption in Turkey is around 8 kg. As the annual per capital fish
consumption of EU countries is 25 kg, the consumption in Turkey needs to be doubled to
reach world average and tripled to reach EU consumption level (DENIZ, 2008). Being the
only animal product exported into EU countries in Turkey, the majority of the fish production
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Hayri Deniz
consists of sea bass and sea bream raised in marine cages. Turkey, with a capacity of 25% of
the EU sea bass market, is the third fastest growing country in the world in aquaculture.
Figure 7. Growth trends of total aquaculture, mariculture and inland aquaculture in 2000-2007 (mt)
(Source: TURKSTAT).
AQUACULTURE IN TURKEY
It is well known that aquaculture is one of the fastest growing food production activities
in the world, a trend that is certainly true in Turkey. Aquaculture in Turkey has grown
considerably over the past 10 years to keep pace with consumer demand for fresh, high
quality fish. Demand for seafood in domestic market alone is expected to increase considering
low per capita of 7-8 kg, which is very low for a country like Turkey. The first aquaculture
practices in Turkey initiated in the inland waters were during the 1970s for trout production
and in 1985 for marine fish production. Due to the late commencement of aquaculture
practices compared to other countries and to unconscious practices during its initiation years
as well as inadequate follow up of relevant technological development, aquaculture in Turkey
has relatively been underdeveloped. However, with the initiation of academic education
related to aquaculture in 1980s and the cooperation between private sector and academic
communities to realize projects on the issue has enabled aquaculture in Turkey to remarkably
increase within a short period of time. The first sea bream and sea bass hatchery and cage
systems in Turkey were established in 1985 in the Aegean Sea (OKUMUS and DENIZ,
2007).
During the early 1990s Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout mariculture in the Black Sea
has attracted considerable attention and efforts, but trials for salmon farming had to be
283
terminated due to high water temperatures during summer. There were some attempts for
kuruma shrimp on the Mediterranean coast during the mid 1990s. Initiative of bluefin tuna
farming or fattening in the Mediterranean and Aegean Sea was the main development at the
beginning of the new millennium. Lack of shellfish production has been a limiting issue for
diversity of Turkish aquaculture; however mussel farming has recently been initiated in the
Aegean Sea. The sector has developed to such an extent that Turkey is currently the third
largest farmed finfish producer in Europe (after Norway) and the second largest producer of
both sea bass and sea bream (after Greece) and of rainbow trout. Production figures in the last
5 years show that Turkey is among the first 12 countries with the fastest developing
aquaculture sector. The rising aquaculture sector in Turkey that has recently began to
develop, ranks among the sectors having a promising future (Figures 8 and 9). The
aquaculture sector is divided into various branches. One of the main branches is trout farming
which exists in almost each province of Turkey. Additionally, sea bass and sea bream culture
which is carried out in provinces located in Aegean Sea coast; particularly in Mugla Province
has also gradually developed. Furthermore, it is possible to find many initiatives in Turkey on
tuna culture which has started accelerating and became widespread among European
countries after 2000.
Figure 8. Distribution of aquaculture productions by species in 2007 (volume) (Source: TURKSTAT).
Figure 9. Distribution of aquaculture productions by species in 2007 (value) (Source: TURKSTAT).
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Hayri Deniz
Some of these initiatives have succeeded and started production as soon as they have
completed building their facilities in various places. In order to keep up with such a rapid
development, existing fodder companies and fish net factories have renewed their
technologies and have proceeded in this sector. In addition, the number of hatcheries and
firms selling material and equipments for aquaculture purposes has increased, and new
consulting companies have been established. Thus, foreign companies, seeing Turkey as an
open market have started to make investments.
The industry has developed to such an extent that Turkey is currently the third largest
farmed finfish producer in Europe and the second largest producer of both sea bass and sea
bream and of rainbow trout. The production figures of the last 5 years show that Turkey is
among the first 10 countries with the fastest developing aquaculture sector. Its rapid
development has been driven by various factors including relatively high demand for fish,
availability of sheltered sites and good water quality, government supports, until recently
loose or flexible regulations, high private sector interest for aquaculture investment, rapid
development of specific marine hatchery technology and low labor cost. Currently there are
1,715 fish farms with total license capacity of 199,360 mt/y. More than half (56%) of this
capacity is held by marine farms, and the rest is by freshwater farms. This also reflects current
production share of 58% marine and 42% freshwater. Twenty-one percent of marine cage
farms are found in offshore sites and holds 60% of total marine cage capacity. Considerable
part of the farms is small to medium-size family operations. For example, 42% of the marine
farms have capacity of less than 50 tons and 18% have over 500 mt. There are 20 marine
hatcheries producing 330 million fry annually (MARA, 2008).
One of the typical characteristics of aquaculture in Turkey is that it is mostly (96.57%)
based on intensive and semi-intensive systems of carnivorous fish species production (Table
7). Rainbow trout ranks the first (44.72%) followed by seabass (29.79%), and sea bream
(22.07%) (EUROFISH, 2008). There are number of marine farms (350), mostly cage farms
and some ponds, which have completed license and permit issues. They have a total capacity
of 110,840 mt/y. The major species cultured in marine waters are, sea bass (30% of total
aquaculture production), sea bream (23%), rainbow trout (2%) and new Mediterranean
species (2%).
Sea bass and sea bream are responsible for the raise in production figures. In contrast,
shellfish production is almost stable with annual production rates around 1500-2000 mt/year.
Considering the capture-based aquaculture, there are 13 tuna-fattening farms (seven
companies). Unfortunately, the socio-economic impact of aquaculture is greatly ignored and
there are no reliable figures on this issue. It has been estimated that aquaculture provides
25,000 employment opportunities. However, in some particular jobs, especially aquaculture
engineers, technicians and workers who are employed at production sites and hatcheries are
working under very hard conditions.
In recent years, fish production through aquaculture has increased. Competition between
fishermen dealing with aquaculture in trout, sea bass and sea bream production has led the
sector in seeking new fish species. Black Sea turbot, on the other hand, is one of the species
with high market value. The culture of fish species has been practiced in the recent years to
diversify aquaculture production in Turkey since the market of the main three species, sea
bass, sea bream and trout, became more competitive. Therefore, Black Sea turbot has a great
potential not only for aquaculture but also for the market (Table 8).
285
Site selection is an important factor for the aquaculture sector, affecting general and farm
level management both in inland and marine aquaculture. In order to make proper site
selection some points need to be taken into account: type of water, temperature-salinity range,
areas of ground and surface and water depth, type of ground, tidal range, elevation and
distance from the sea, distance from land, nature of seabed, type of pumping system, coastal
topography, shelter, access, services, local infrastructure and hazards.
Table 7. Marine aquaculture farms by production systems in 2008. (Source: MARA)
System
Cages
Land-based (ponds)
Rafts/long-lines
Mobile (ship)
Total
No of farm
238
108
3
1
350
Capacity (mt/y)
100,834
3,581
1,625
4,800
110,840
Table 8. Mariculture production by species for 2003 2007 (Source: TURKSTAT)

Species
Sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax)
Sea bream (Sparus auratus)
Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)
Mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis)
Others
Total
Annual production (mt)

2003
2004
2005
20,982
26,297
37,290
16,735
20,435
27,634
1,194
1,650
1,249
815
1,513
1,500
2 000
39,726
49,985
69,673
2006
38,408
28,463
1,633
1,545
2,200
72,249
2007
41,900
33,500
2,740
1,100
1,600
80,840
All of these parameters limit the availability of suitable zones for aquaculture.
Aquaculture is an activity in conflict with a number of other activities because of competition
for suitable areas with other sectors such as: tourism, environmentally protected areas, areas
for culture and archaeology, navigation routes and harbors, recreation, marinas and resorts,
and military installations.
In the beginning, marine farms were set up in the protected shallow bays with little
awareness of their environmental impact and technological and financial insufficiencies. As a
result of this, they caused organic pollution and negative visual impact, which resulted in
conflicts between aquaculture operators and other users, mainly in the tourism industry. These
conflicts have caused great harm to the aquaculture industry. In order to prevent such
conflicts and minimize environmental impacts, solutions with offshore mariculture systems
and eco-friendly technologies are given priority. In addition, integrated coastal zone
management (ICZM) models are being developed and implemented.
The MARA has stated that the aquaculture production will be increased to 250,000 tons
in 2020-2025 compared to the level of 139,000 tons in 2007 (AKBULUT, 2004). The
province of Mugla ranks first (58,987 tons) in the production of aquaculture species being the
first producer of trout (18,847 tons), seabass (27,979 tons) and sea bream (20,116 tons). After
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Mugla, Izmir is the second largest province in terms of production with 17,569 tons. These
two provinces represent 60% of the total aquaculture production in Turkey.
Aquaculture Production Trends

According to 2007 statistics, the total Turkey production of fishery was 772,000 mt.
Aquaculture contribution was 139,873 mt, where 59,000 mt were produced in inland waters
and 81,000 mt were farmed in marine environments. Aquaculture in Turkey started with carp
and trout farming in the 1970s and developed with gilthead sea bream/sea bass farming in the
Aegean and Mediterranean seas in the mid-1980s, followed by cage culture of trout in the
Black Sea during the 1990s and more recently tuna rearing in the Aegean Sea and the
Mediterranean Sea in the early 2000s.
Aquaculture is one of the fastest growing industries in Turkey having grown in volume
by over 20% for the past 10 years. During the 1990s production quantities of the 3 major
species, rainbow trout, sea bass and sea bream increased rapidly until 2000, followed by a
decline during the subsequent two years due to serious general economic crisis in the country
in general (Table 9).
Table 9. Aquaculture of commercially important species: 2000-2007 (mt).
(Source: MARA)
Species
Trout (inland water)
Carp (inland water)
Trout (marine water)
Sea bream
Sea bass
Mussel
Others
TOTAL
2003
39,674
543
1,194
16,735
20,982
815
79,943
2004
43,432
683
1,650
20,435
26,297
1,513
94,010
2005
48,033
571
1,249
27,634
37,290
1,500
2,000
118,277
2006
56,026
668
1,633
28,463
38,408
1,545
2,200
128,943
2007
58,433
600
2,740
33,500
41,900
1,100
1,600
139,873
The most important farmed species are trout, sea bream, and sea bass; other species
which are also farmed are bluefin tuna, molluscs, clam, carp, and eel. The VAT created by
aquaculture sector in 2007 was approximately 1,641 million TL out of which 68% was
achieved through fisheries and 32% through aquaculture (EUROFISH, 2008).
The limited species diversity is illustrated in table 8, where 3 species clearly dominate, all
of which are intensively cultured carnivorous species and are essentially luxury food items.
The extensive and/or polyculture of other freshwater species such as cyprinids and also
molluscs, crustacean and aquatic plant culture is very limited. Sea bream grow from 2-5 g to
portion size in 11-12 months, while sea bass needs 18-26 months. The Feed Conversion Ratio
(FCR) is around 1.7 for sea bream and 2.2 for sea bass. Trout are mostly cultured in concrete
raceways and circular ponds. It may take 12 to 24 months to grow rainbow trout to a portion
size of 200-250 g in traditional raceways; but it may be as short as 2-3 months in cages,
particularly in marine cages in the Black Sea.
287
It is also possible to produce large trout in cages. In the Black sea region rainbow trout is
grown in land based farms or freshwater cages during summer and transferred to sea cages in
November. They can be grown until the end of May and harvested before the critically high
summer temperatures. Trout sold for the domestic market is mainly marketed as fresh and
whole portion size, while rainbow trout produced in marine cages in the Black Sea is
marketed as Black Sea Salmon at a size of 0.7-3.0 kg. Therefore, trout farming in cages
presents an opportunity for development in the Black Sea region (EMRE and OKUMUS and
MALTAS, 2007) (Figure 10 and 11).
The aquaculture sector currently supports a total of 1,748 farms: 1,398 inland and 350
marine (Table 10, Table 11). More than two-thirds of these are small rainbow trout farms,
while sea bass and sea bream farms comprise 17%. One of the major characteristics of
Turkish aquaculture sector is the large number of small farms producing less than 10 mt per
year.
Many of these farms are small-scale family-operated and medium-sized, owner-operated
farms. Indeed the aquaculture business model in Turkey varies from small family farms with
multiple income sources to limited partnerships or corporations. The annual production
capacity of the sea farms varies between 50-3,500 mt/year, while in freshwater farms it is
generally much lower, ranging between 3-1,000 mt/year (Figures 12, 13 and 14).
Figure 10. Kent trout farm in Kayseri (Source: Kent Alabalk Inc.).
According to the Aquaculture Department of MARA-DGAPD there are currently 381

applications (64,860 mt/y) for new farms or for increasing the capacity of existing farms.
Freshwater aquaculture production capacity increased by less than 2% during 2003-2004, but
in 2007-2008 it increased by 18% (in terms of number of farms) and 55% in production
capacity. The development of marine aquaculture has been significantly slower as the number
of farms and total capacity has increased by 8% and 10%, respectively in 2007-2008.
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Hayri Deniz
Figure 11. Trout farm in the Black Sea (Source: Own elaboration).
Table 10. Evaluation of marine fish farms according to size in 2008.

(Source: MARA, 2008)
Size of farm
(mt)
<50
51-100
101-250
251-500
501-1000
>1000
TOTAL
Number of
farms
146
59
50
30
47
18
350
% of the
sub-sector
42,00
17,00
14,00
9,00
13,00
5,00
100
Total Capacity
(mt/y)
3,972
5,245
8,905
12.667
41,391
38,660
110,840
% of the
sub-sector
4,00
5,00
8,00
11,00
37,00
35,00
100
Table 11. Evaluation of inland fish farms according to size in 2008

Size of farm
(mt)
<10
11-20
21-40
41-50
51-100
101-150
151-200
201-250
201-500
501-1000
TOTAL
Source: MARA, 2008.
Number of
farms
607
192
296
44
82
26
19
23
33
41
1,398
% of the subsector
44,47
14,7
21,68
3,22
6,01
1,90
1,39
1,68
2,42
3,00
100
Total Capacity
(mt/y)
3,513
3,175
8,189
2,149
7,258
3,503
3,680
5,610
12,849
33,694
88,520
% of the
sub-sector
3,97
4,59
9,25
2,43
8,20
3,96
4,16
6,34
14,52
38,06
100
289
Inland aquaculture started in early 1970s and developed at a steady pace until the 1990s.
During the nineties there were rapid developments in terms of production volumes and
production systems. This development lasted until the economic crisis during 2001-2002
which hit the sector badly. After the crisis the sector recovered rapidly with the help of
production subsidies. In inland farming the province of Trabzon ranks the first with 65 farms.
Figure 12. Klc sea bass and sea bream farm in Mugla (Source: Kl Holding).
Figure 13. Land-based sea bream and sea bass farm in Mugla (Source: Own elaboration).
290
Hayri Deniz
Figure 14. Aqua-Dem bluefin tuna farm in Izmir. (Source: Own elaboration).
The provinces of Ordu, Sivas, Mugla, Samsun, Sakarya and Rize rank second with 20-30
farms each. The province of Mugla leads in terms of volume of inland fish farming with a
production of almost 11,000 tons/year followed by Kayseri with 4,000 tons in 2007. Trout
farming in Turkey refers to Oncorhynchus mykiss, commonly called rainbow trout due to a
red-colored stripe from the gills to the tail along the lateral line. It is essential to make the
difference between large trout and portion trout. Large trout also commonly named salmon
trout is raised in floating cages in the Black Sea, while portion size trout is farmed in all
regions of the country, from hatching to commercial size, in a freshwater environment
(FISHE, 2000). Farmed fish productions have been increasing rapidly and regularly, but
captured fish productions have been decreasing or more or less standing firm for three major
species because of over fishing and pollutions. On the other hand, most of wild sea bass, sea
bream and trout is sold to restaurants or hotels without statistical compilation.
There are 20 active marine hatcheries producing around 250 million sea bass and sea
bream fry annually. These hatcheries are modern, employing automated water quality control
and feeding systems and producing out of season fry. There have been shortages in sea bream
fry supply in recent years and sea bream fry imports (25 million fry) have been permitted
during the 2007 production. Some hatcheries also export sea bass and sea bream fry. The
leading company in Turkey has three hatcheries and total annual capacity of 200 million sea
bass and sea bream fry (Figure 15). Three other operators each have two hatcheries and
between them produce 130 million fry. The total production target of these hatcheries for the
2007 was around 332 million fry. Half of these marine hatcheries have also attempted to
produce other new Mediterranean species. There are 120 licensed trout hatcheries producing
around 250 million fry annually. Although based on the current trout production of around
50,000 mt, the estimated trout fry demand is close to 300 million (Figure 16).
291
Figure 15. Kl sea bass and sea bream hatchery in Aydn (Source: Kl Holding).
This is because most of the trout farms have small hatcheries or hatching systems to
produce their own eggs only. However, some big trout producers import eyed eggs, mostly
from the USA. Many of the trout hatcheries are old and in need of modernization and
upgrading. These hatcheries only operate seasonally and have incurred heavy losses due to
pathogens and water quality fluctuations.
This is a major issue that the government should be addressing through the establishment
of regional brood stock management and hatchery units (EU ACQUIS TURKEY, 2007). Live
fish import and export permits are issued by MARA (DG for Protection and Control in
consultation with DG General for Production and Development). Health certificates are
required to protect against major pathogens and products which arrive at designated airports
or ports.
Figure 16. Gmdoa trout farm in Mugla. (Source: MARA).
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Hayri Deniz
Structure of the Aquaculture Sector

Production from marine aquaculture totaled 80,840 mt (59%), whilst freshwater
aquaculture production was 59,033mt (41%) in 2007. Freshwater production is carried out
either in land-based units extracting water from rivers (the major type of production unit), or
in cages set in lakes and hydro-electric or irrigation dams. In contrast, marine aquaculture
production mostly depends on cage farming. There are 108 land based sea farms and 242 sea
cage farms. Marine aquaculture in Turkey (92% of sea farms) is located primarily on the
Aegean coast where geographical and hydrographical conditions suit the species cultured
(Figure 17).
Figure 17. Geographical distribution of Aquaculture production by provinces 2007 (Source:

EUROFISH).
There are only 12 farms on each of the Mediterranean and the Black Sea coasts. Along
the Aegean coast 63% of the total marine fish farms are situated in the province of Mugla,
23% in Izmir and 5% in Aydin. Thus, site availability for cages is a major constraint for
further development in the Aegean Sea, whilst in the Black Sea high summer temperatures for
trout and low winter temperatures for sea bass and a general lack of sheltered areas are the
main limitations. The province of Mugla ranks first (65,763 mt) in the production of
aquaculture species being the first producer of trout (12,268 mt), sea bass (29,221 mt) and sea
bream (24,259 mt). After Mugla, Izmir is the second largest province in terms of production
with 19,665 mt. These two provinces represent the 60% of the total aquaculture production in
Turkey (Figures 18 and 19).
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Figure 18. Distribution of marine fish farms by regions as a number. (Source: MARA).
Figure 19. Distribution of marine fish farms by regions as a capacity. (Source: MARA).
Three main production systems are employed in Turkey: concrete raceways, floating
cages and ponds. Raceways are used mainly for trout production, floating cages for sea bass,
sea bream, trout and tuna, whilst ponds are used mainly for carp and sea bass (Figure 20).
Concrete circular ponds are also employed for trout production. Fiberglass tanks are mostly
preferred in hatcheries and juvenile production. There is only one farm using a closed recirculated aquaculture system. Mussels are cultured on ropes suspended from floating rafts.
The cages used are mostly circular, made from High Density Polyethylene (HDPE), with
diameters () ranging from 12 to 66 m. Sea bass/sea bream farms are using 16-30 m, while
trout producers use cages smaller than 20 m, and the tuna farmers prefer over 50m. Small
wooden cages are only used in trout production in inland waters. Currently there are around
171 freshwater cage farms with a total capacity of 25,350 mt per year (Figure 21).
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Figure 20. Distribution of marine fish farms regarding the culture systems (number). (Source: MARA).
Figure 21. Distribution of marine fish farms regarding the culture systems (capacity, mt). (Source:
MARA).
Recently, big companies have started to established standard offshore sea bass/sea bream
production systems with an annual capacity of 2,000 mt consisting of 18 cages of 30 m and
automated feeding systems. Turkish aquaculture has limited species diversity. Currently only
the following species are cultured commercially: Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss); Sea
bass (Dicentrarchus labrax); Sea bream (Sparus aurata); Carp (Cyprinus carpio); Blue-fin
tuna (Thunnus thynnus) and Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovinciialis).
Diversification of Cultured Species

There are many major new or alternative Mediterranean species cultured in experimental
or pilot scales such as common dentex (Dentex dentex), common sea-bream (Pagrus pagrus),
common pandora (Pagellus erythrinus), sharpsnout sea-bream (Puntazzo puntazzo), white
grouper (Epinephelus aeneus), shi drum (Umbrina cirrosa), striped sea bream (Lithognathus
mormmyrus), meagre (Argyyrosomus regius), greater amberjack (Seriola dumerili), brown
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meagre (Sciena umbra), white sea-bream (Diplodus sargus), two-banded sea-bream

(Diplodus vulgaris).
Common dentex (Dentex dentex)
This is the first Sparid species farmed experimentally since 2002, and the first
larviculture production was carried out by Akuvatur (SAKA and TUNCER and FIRAT and
UCAL, 2007). In the last 3 years, 150 tons of Common dentex have been coming out to the
markets from Akuvatur. There are still some problems from the larval to end of the ongrowing stage. Selection of broodstock from wild stocks is not possible during the spawning
period and breeders are very sensitive to manipulation (Figure 22).
Figure 22. Cultured common dentex (Dentex dentex) (Source: Akuvatur Aquaculture Inc.).
Sharpsnout Sea Bream (Puntazzo puntazzo)

Recently, this species has become one of the most interesting candidates for new species
in Turkish aquaculture operations. Two companies, Pnar Marine Product Inc. and Akuvatur
Marine Product Inc., have been involved in the production of sharpsnout (Figure 23). Over
the past 3 years Akuvatur has produced about 30 tons of sharpsnout Sea Bream.
Figure 23. Cultured Sharpsnout Sea Bream (Puntazzo puntazzo) (Source: Akuvatur Aquaculture Inc.).
Striped Sea Bream (Lithognathus mormmyrus)

This species is also a new candidate fish for aquaculture in Turkey. Pinar Marine Product
is producing Striped Sea Bream. After 24 months of growth the fish reaches 200-250 g
weight. The achieved survival rate is 90%.
Brown meagre (Sciena umbra)
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Meagre is not a widely known species, and it therefore does not demand high prices in
the domestic market. With respect to the export laws, the provenance certificate and the
bureaucratic process is the main problem for producers and enterprises. Over the past 3 years
Akuvatur has produced about 5 tons of brown meagre (Figure 24).
Figure 24. New cultured brown meagre (Sciena umbra) (Source: Akuvatur Aquaculture Inc.).
In addition to the species mentioned above, there are other candidate species that are
being developed in Turkey such as common sea bream (Pagrus pagrus) (Figure 25), blue
spotted sea bream (Pagrus caeruleostictus) (Figure 26), red shi drum (Umbrina cirrosa)
(Figure 27), white grouper (Epinephelus aenaus) and leer fish (Lichia amia). Furthermore,
extensive farming of oyster (Ostrea edulis), clam (Tapes decussatus) and warty venus (Venus
verrucosa) is conducted in a few lagoons in Marmara Region. Production of tilapia fish has
been going on for a long time at ukurova University in Adana, although that they are not
included in the aquaculture records (BASCINAR, 2004).
Figure 25. New cultured common sea bream (Pagrus pagrus) (Source: Akuvatur Aquaculture Ltd.).
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Figure 26. New cultured blue spotted sea bream (Pagrus caeruleostictus) (Source: Akuvatur
Aquaculture Inc.).
Figure 27. New cultured shi drum (Umbrina cirrosa) (Source: Akuvatur Aquaculture Inc.).
Figure 28. Black Sea turbot (Psetta maxima) (Source: SUMEA).
Efforts are being made to develop the commercial production of species new to the Black
Sea as well. The target species are turbot (Psetta maxima) (Figure 28), sturgeons (Acipenser
spp.) and native sea going trout (Salmo trutta). Considerable progress has been achieved in
the hatchery phase for turbot, but there is a need for considerable investment for on-growing.
The Government of Turkey has set a target to promote aquaculture industry, including the
development of culture techniques for new species in the 8th national Development Plan
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(2001-2005). Black Sea Turbot was identified as the top priority species. To achieve the Plan,
the Government of Turkey requested a series of technical cooperation with the Government
of Japan (JICA, 2008).
A Technical Cooperation Project on Developing a Roadmap for Turkish Marine
Aquaculture Site Selection and Zoning Using an Ecosystem Approach to Management was
submitted to the FAO by MARA and it was accepted by FAO and completed in 2008. In
addition, a technical cooperation project on the conservation, restocking and developing
commercial aquaculture of sturgeon was submitted to the FAO in 2005. This project was
accepted by FAO in 2008 and it will be completed in 22 months. In the inland aquaculture
sector, some alternative salmonid species (such as brown and brook trout) are being reared as
an alternative species alongside rainbow trout.
Aquaculture Regulation
Article 13 of the Law states that those who wish to farm aquatic species for commercial
purposes are obliged to apply to MARA by informing the Ministry about the location,
characteristics and management of the facilities, and submit the enterprises project and plans.
Permission is issued by MARA if there are no adverse effects in terms of public health, the
national economy, navigation or science and technology. The provisions of the last paragraph
of Article 4 of the Fisheries Law 1380 are also applicable for production units to be
established in the sea and inland waters. According to Article 13 of the Fisheries Law, the
procedures and principles related to aquaculture are determined by the Aquaculture
Regulation, which was issued in 2004. This regulation was amended in 2007, and it sets out
rules for the following issues (GOZGOZOGLU, 2007):
Site selection for inland and marine farms.

Application and evaluation procedures for fish farming licenses.
Approving the projects and issuing licenses.
Improving production capacity, species etc, cancellation (closing down farms), site
changes and sales.
Other aquaculture activities (tuna fattening, organic farming, etc.).
Importing brood fish, eggs and fry.
Compulsory technical staff employment.
Fish health management.
Environmental impacts and protection.
Monitoring and control of farming activities.
Fish welfare.
MARA has 4 main DGs and staff compliment of about 40,000 in all branches. The DG of
Agricultural Production and Development is the one responsible for all aquaculture activities.
All aquaculture producers must have an aquaculture license of registration from the DGAPD
Department of Aquaculture. The details of the application, issuing and cancellation of the
aquaculture license are described in the Aquaculture Regulation, 2004. This Regulation was
amended in 2007 by adding fish welfare issue.
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Site Selection and Licensing of Farms

Entrepreneurs or applicants need to submit their applications either to central offices
(Aquaculture Department of DGAPD in Ankara) or Provincial Directorates of MARA with
all the relevant supporting documentation. For example, an application with detailed
information on the species, capacity, the production system along with a map of the area
(1/25,000 scale) has to be submitted. Applications for on-growing farms and hatcheries up to
two million fry/year capacity of the following species: trout, carp, sea bass and sea bream can
be submitted to the Provincial Directorates. Whereas, applicants for other on-growing species
(namely turbot, sturgeon, eel, algae, molluscs and crustacean species) and trout, carp and sea
bass/sea bream hatcheries with a annual capacity of more than two million have to apply
directly to the Aquaculture Department in Ankara. A team of experts from the central or
provincial office then visits the site and prepares a preliminary survey report. If the report is
positive, a preliminary license is issued for 8 months which can be extended for up to 4
months. Supporting documentations submitted for the preliminary license must include an
application letter, site map, the preliminary survey report and a water quality report.
Environmental Impact Assessment and Monitoring

The entrepreneur can prepare the full project documentation, which includes a farm or a
hatchery design and a feasibility report and an environmental impact assessment (EIA) report.
Approval is also needed from other related institutions depending on the nature of the project
(e.g., Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Ministry of Health, Maritime Affairs,
Department of Transport, State Hydraulic Works, Ministry of Culture and Tourism). If the
project is approved, the license (Fish Farming Document) is issued along with a Producer
Certificate. This process usually takes about 1 year. The rental contract period for marine
cage sites is granted for a maximum of 15 years which can be terminated earlier by the
government. According to the Aquaculture Regulation (2004) all the hatcheries have to
employ technical staff (graduates from related departments of universities) and one of them
should be assigned as a Technical Manager. The minimum compulsory employment for ongrowing farms depends on the production capacity of farms (Table 12).
Table 12. Fish Farm Technical Staff Requirements
Capacity (mt/year)
Technical staff
50-249
250-499
500-749
750-999
> 1000 mt
1
2
3
4
5
Source: MARA.
According to current EIA legislation those fish farms with annual capacity of less than 30
mt do not require an EIA. Some fish farms which have between 30-1,000 mt annual
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capacities may require EIA and this is determined by EIA commissions in each province.
Farms must submit an EIA report if they produce over 1,000 mt per annum. There are 12
farmer unions (9 for freshwater fish farming and 3 for marine fish farming), 6 aquaculture
associations and one Fisheries and Aquaculture Federation based in Izmir.
Conflicts between Other Coastal Sectors

The diversity of interests in coastal areas, and the complex mosaic of rights and economic
activities, renders these conflicts as the greatest challenges to management. Coastal areas
exhibit all those characters that make natural resource conflicts especially difficult to manage:
high levels of scientific uncertainty, multiple interests, high economic stakes, complex spatial
issues such as transnational impact, overlapping institutional responsibilities and the
management constraints associated with common property resources. All these in practice
hamper sustainable development of marine aquaculture.
Some of the project outputs shall contribute to minimizing these conflicts. There has been
steady growth in the economic significance and impact of aquaculture related activities in
Aegean and Mediterranean coastal areas of Turkey. The aquaculture had a significant impact
on the area, providing new employment opportunities and income into the local economy. It
also provides relatively inexpensive bass and bream into national market.
Effect of New Environmental Law

However, after amendment in Environmental Law and related Notification issues, most of
the current cage farms (approximately 85%) face either risk of closing down or have to move
offshore areas. This would cause serious socio-economic consequences including sharp drop
in production and more than 5000 job losses. Turkey had similar experience in the past when
farms were forced to move urgently somewhere in inshore areas. Today same farms are
facing the same problem. The project will help to secure sustainability of the offshore farms.
Large finfish farming companies tend to lease suitable offshore sites, while small farms are
having difficulties leasing sites and moving offshore. The project will develop ways of
bringing small farms together and leasing them common sites which will help the small farms
to survive.
Currently, various companies exhibit the tendency of increasing production capacity.
Although such tendency is not possible to do in inshore waters, moving offshore will provide
a better opportunity to achieve this objective. The advantages of this approach is to increase
the stocking density, while decreasing the on-growing duration and the incidences of disease
outbreaks.
Conflicting issues between ministries/institutions and legislation create problems in
getting fish farming licenses and management of the sector. FAO TCP on Developing a
Roadmap for Turkish Marine Aquaculture Site Selection and Zoning Using an Ecosystem
Approach to Management was carried out jointly by FAO and MARA in 2008. The project
main outputs were as follows:
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To train marine aquaculture farmers in the application of commonly agreed upon site
selection criteria and identification of relocation options, using the ecosystem
approach to mariculture management.
To prepare a draft pilot zoning plan for mariculture zones with short, medium and
long term options for present and future marine aquaculture enterprises in support of
a sustainable sector development.
To develop a road map of actions to define mariculture areas and to move farming to
offshore and open sea areas.
To hold a stakeholders workshop to increase awareness and social acceptability of
stakeholders active in the coastal marine environment, on the rightful place of
mariculture within this environment.
To prepare draft advocacy brochures to be posted in places of marine aquaculture
within the coastal environment and other leaflets as required in the process (Figure
29).
To write a project proposal for developing sound mariculture site location and
management built in a multi-stakeholder environment using participatory approaches
suitable for funding as UTF or other funding mechanisms.
The TUBITAK project on Environmental Impact of Marine Cage Fish Farms on the
Marine Ecosystem has been carried out jointly by MARA, MEF, TUBITAK, SUFED and
universities. This project outputs will also address environmental issues.
Figure 29. Advocacy brochures on importance of marine aquaculture (Source: MARA).
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Development of Turkish Aquaculture

There are many reasons to encourage the future development of the Turkish aquaculture
sector:
Consumption of fishery products in Turkey reached 8.20 kg per capita per year
(kg/c/y) in 2007, whereas in 1996 the consumption rate was about 7.60 kg/c/y. This
corresponds to an increase of about 1.5 kg/c/y over 10 years which is combined with
the growth in population of 10 million inhabitants over the same period amounts to a
total additional 120,000 mt consumed in Turkey in 2007. Due to the size of the
Turkish population, any slight increase in domestic consumption will substantially
impact the volumes of fish products consumed on the domestic market. The
additional volume consumed on the domestic market nearly matches the total
Turkish aquaculture production of 139,873 mt in 2007.
The production of seafood has become a strategic sector for Turkey since Turkey
cannot export any other product of animal origin to the EU other than fishery
products. The high external demand, especially from Italy, Spain and Greece has
acted as the driving force for the Turkish aquaculture sector.
The low cost of labor is a comparative advantage for the Turkish industry and
contributes to its profitability. Workforce in Turkey is cheaper than in other
competing Mediterranean producers countries with an average monthly salary of
250 for a skilled worker.
The industry imports raw materials paid for in US Dollars but exports final
production in Euro, increasing profitability because of the current depreciation rates
of the Dollar.
Payment terms and conditions are favorable for the producers. The average payment
period to suppliers is between 12-18 months. There is no regulation concerning the
payment conditions, and as reported this is the way the industry is used to work.
Government subsidies to aquaculture including subsidized energy supplies have
contradictory effects. Government facilities, as the policies applied by the
Agricultural Bank are really convenient for the development of the industry:
a) Credits for fry, feed, staff, maintenance, etc are given for an 18 months period
maximum.
b) Credits for cages, ponds, hatcheries, systems upgrade, change to recirculation
systems, equipment, etc are given for a maximum payoff period of 5 years.
c) For a credit less than 130,000 an 8.75% interest rate applies. For a credit over
this amount the interest rate is a 17.5%. These interest rates could be changed by
the bank. As reported by the bank representatives the unpaid rate of credits is
only 3%.
d) Governmental planning has thus resulted in a one-sided support to stimulate
production growth without other regulatory measures. Large production
increases and low prices especially on the domestic market have brought the
Turkish aquaculture industry to an unstable situation.
Other factors that are reported to influence the development of Turkish aquaculture
are the faster growth rates of marine species in Turkish waters compared with Greece
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or Italy, the non-compulsory insurances and the development of technical equipment

especially in inland aquaculture.
General View
The potential for development of the Turkish aquaculture industry will likely be
stimulated by the continued population growth which is expected to reach 76 million in 2010.
This growth will lead to additional demand either at the present or higher rates per capita
consumption. Some producers state that they have no surplus for export because all
production quantities go to fill the domestic demand especially for trout (EUROFISH, 2008).
At the same time, it can be seen that Turkish aquaculture products are beginning to be
exported to new markets such as USA, Canada and the Middle-East. Vertical integration is
another trend influencing the sector. The industry is increasingly moving towards integration
of production and processing facilities in order to optimize the value of the production. At the
same time, the sector is undergoing a process of concentration on fewer and larger units,
indicating the maturity stage which the industry has achieved. As an example of this, one
company accounts for 50% of the total Turkish production of fry, whereas, in marine
aquaculture, 20% of the producers account for 80% of the production. However, the
aquaculture sector in Turkey in general is not well structured despite the high level of
manpower and technology and the scale of the industry. Marine aquaculture facilities vary
from small units that are not highly competitive in the sector to full-blown industrial ventures
that compete in the global market. From the point of view of some stakeholders the Small and
Medium Enterprises (SMEs) should learn to work together and control the costs as some
SMEs are already doing. But working in partnership does not seem to agree with the tradition
of the Turkish mentality, and generally SMEs tend to work without advanced planning and to
produce without looking at the market.
FUTURE DEVELOPMENT CHALLENGES

One of the major challenges facing Turkish aquaculture today is the strong media and
public opinion opposing marine cage culture. The issue is directly related to the competition
for resource utilization and less with environmental impact or sustainable utilization of
coastal areas, since it is claimed that other activities such as the tourism and recreational
industry also have a negative environmental impact on coastal zones. As a consequence of
this conflict marine cages are forced to move offshore.
This new scenario is going to affect negatively mainly the SMEs as many of them cannot
afford investments and costs in changing the production system. But at the same time this
new scenario opens new opportunities for increasing production and investments using new
technologies. Another challenge is the human and industrial pollution of coastal zones, which
are seen by the aquaculture sector as a threat for its development. Climate change is seen as a
potential challenge as environmental conditions varies widely between species and also
between life stages of individual species.
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In general environmental conditions are seen as a major challenge for the development of
the industry. The cost to treat potential diseases can have a big impact on the profit margin of
the industry. The industry clearly sees this issue as a challenge in connection with the cost
efficiency performance of the activity. Turkish Government gives countdown to foreign
investments. There are some Greek, Norwegian companies such as Nereus, Selonda, Helenix
and Fjord Marine.
Framework for Regulation and Planning

Economic growth in Turkey during the last years has favored most sectors including the
aquaculture industry. From 2003 to 2007 direct foreign investment in Turkey has increased
rapidly. However, aquaculture stakeholders, generally, have a negative assessment, even if
the government is supporting the industry financially. The complaints concern the lack of
communication and coordination among authorities and with the industry as well as the need
for integration and harmonization of related policies and regulations. The institutional
structure of MARA is not considered as suitable for the industry.
One of the most common complaints is that there is no single unit with full competence
for aquaculture issues. This structural deficiency is considered as being damaging for the
industry due to the bad coordination of procedures among the different bodies involved in the
industry. Site selection for marine aquaculture is one of the main problems. According to the
Aquaculture Regulation requirements for the distance between cage farms have to take the
following criteria into account:
projected annual production capacity (minimum annual production capacities for a

cage farm is currently 250 mt/y);
water depth and current speed;
on offshore, open coast and outside the enclosed bays and gulfs, cage sites should
have minimum 40 m water depth and have an EIA.
According to current 2003 EIA legislation those farms with annual capacity of less than
30 mt do not require an EIA. Farms having annual capacities between 30 and 1000 mt may
require EIA and which is up to the province EIA commissions to decide. Farms aiming to
produce over 1000 mt per year must submit an EIA report (MEF, 2007).
In 2006 the Ministry of Environment and Forestry amended the Environmental Law to
exclude marine cages from environmentally sensitive areas, enclosed bays and near shore
areas. The amendment of the law and the implementing regulation was issued with no
previous consultation with the stakeholders. The definitions in these legislations were
considered too vague and the time limit given to farmers to move to new sites was short and
unrealistic.
This current situation has led the industry to a state of waiting for the final decision in
order to start moving in the right direction. Due to frequent changes in the legislation it is
reported that some companies had to move cages 3 or 4 times during 9 years upsetting
production schemes and affecting production and sales results.
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Research, Development and Innovation

There are 4 MARA Research Institutes (Trabzon Central Fisheries Research Institute,
Mediterranean Fisheries Research, Production and Training Institute, Egirdir Fisheries
Research Institute and Elazg Fisheries Research Institute). There are 13 Fisheries Faculties
and 5 Departments at the Agriculture Faculties providing undergraduate and graduate
education in fisheries and aquatic sciences. The State Planning Organization (SPO) has
supported comprehensive national projects in various fields but stopped their direct funding in
2006 by transferring funds to TUBITAK. TUBITAK is a scientific planning forum that helps
to organize and support research activities. Fisheries research projects carried out in Turkey
are generally funded primarily by the government (partly by MARA), TUBITAK or from the
researching institutions' budget.
Turkey has significant know-how and research capacity in aquaculture related areas but
this is not well organized. Aquaculture RandD activities are mainly performed by various
Fisheries Faculties. MARA research institutes have the capacity to perform aquaculture
research or collaborate with other institutions in collaborative research programmes. Each
year, 600 students graduate from these faculties, but the numbers employed by the sector are
very limited, mainly in marine aquaculture. Faculties conduct aquaculture program studies as
MSc and PhD thesis providing finance either from universities research funds or from
TUBITAK. Currently, neither MARA nor the private sector is directly supporting university
studies, which are mostly limited in duration (to that of MSc or PhD studies) and intended
only for publication in scientific journals (Figure 30).
The Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences (TrJFAS) is a refereed academic
journal which is published by Central Fisheries Research Institute of Turkey and Japan
International Cooperation Agency (JICA). It is published biannually (April and November) in
English. It aims to address research and needs of all working and studying personnel within
the many varied areas of fisheries and aquatic sciences. The Journal publishes English
language original research papers, critical review articles, short communications and technical
notes on applied or scientific research relevant to freshwater, brackish and marine
environments. The Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences has been accepted to
"SCIENCE CITATION INDEX in 2008.
Figure 30. An international and national journal has been published by MARA.
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MARA organizes its own RandD activities through the Directorate General for
Agricultural Research (DGAR) and fisheries research institutes. Dissemination and extension
services are the weakest link of the R and D activities. There is also a lack of partnership
between stakeholders, producer associations and public institutions, which is considered as
the major constraints for development of an environmentally sound and economically viable
aquaculture sector.
Few private processing companies have the resources for innovation, preferring instead to
mimic successful applications elsewhere. Within the catching sector, there is limited finance
availability for new investments that may even prove to be more efficient such as for example
to test a new vessel design or test the potential of using fish aggregating devices. The
situation is different in more prosperous sectors, most notably aquaculture and BFT ranching.
However, potential investors still need to be convinced of the long term sustainability of the
business, especially in the context of falling international prices, increased competition for sea
areas from alternative users and increased pressure from the environmental lobby.
On this basis there would appear to be a strong case for development of public sector
funding of research activities with the objective of increasing the public benefit from
sustainable usage of marine and fresh water resources. Research, Development and
Innovation will be needed for the infrastructure development in moving marine cages
offshore. The impact on the industry will be costly if the cages have to be moved offshore.
The regional impact of such an operation has not yet been assessed.
Difficulties of the Licensing Procedure

To apply for a production license is a long and tedious procedure. It may take around two
years to obtain the final permission to establish an aquaculture facility. There are many
institutions involved in the procedure of getting a license including: MARA, Ministry of
Environment and Forestry, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Ministry of Public Work and
Settlement, Ministry of Interior, Under-secretariat for Maritime Affairs, and State Planning
Organization. Furthermore, licenses have a validity duration between 10 and 15 years which
is not considered long enough for an industry that works with long term plans. In inland
aquaculture, the 10-15 years license period is considered inadequate. The price for water is
high for an average inland farm facility, which has to pay 24,000 per year to obtain a 1,000
l/second flow of water. The stakeholders feel that the legislation was not made taking into
consideration the requirements of the producers. The demand for drinkable water is expected
to grow in the coming years following the population growth. Some companies are now
facing water scarcity since the government is directing water supplies, mainly in the cities, for
human consumption.
EU Harmonization
Twinning projects with the EU have been reported as highly beneficial for the industry.
Since 2002 the EU has developed 66 twinning projects with Turkey in different economic
areas. The TR-03-AG-01 (Alignment on EU Acquis in terms of fishery policy) Twinning
Project is financed by the Pre-accession Program which aims to assist Turkey in meeting the
criteria for EU membership through bilateral co-operation projects focusing on the transfer,
implementation and enforcement of European legislation. The Fisheries Twinning Program
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supports Turkeys legal and institutional alignment to the EU acquis in terms of fisheries
policy. The overall objective of this project is to enhance the sustainable contribution of the
fisheries sector to the national economy and prepare the sector for Turkeys accession to the
European Union.
Integrated Coastal Management (ICM)

Tourism is the main sector conflicting with the development of marine aquaculture
especially on the Aegean coast and in particular on in the provinces of Mugla, Aydin and
Izmir. Currently, around 90% of the existing 242 sea cage farms are located on the coasts of
these 3 provinces and the great majorities (65%) are found on the coast of Mugla, near
Bodrum, Fethiye, Marmaris and Datca. These provinces are also the heart of tourism sector,
and important for nature conservation, historical and cultural areas. Aquaculture, tourism and
recreation all require similar standards of water and environmental quality and the arising
conflicts of interest are inevitable. In Turkey tourism is generally associated with hotels and
second home areas which are reportedly many of them are only occupied during one month in
the summer. Conflicts with aquaculture are also associated with the infrastructure that is
directly related to the operations of the aquaculture sites. Recreational activities create
conflicts of interest with yachts and pleasure boats, divers, windsurfers, swimmers and
recreational fishery.
Many hold the view that the problems and conflicts with aquaculture can be resolved by
revising the public support schemes for aquaculture development in the critical areas
involving all the stakeholders and improving communication between the MARA, MEF,
Ministry of Culture and Tourism, and Undersecretariat for Maritime Affairs, the Authority for
Protected Areas and all the authorities potentially involved in developing Coastal
Management Plans integrating aquaculture as one of the activities in the areas.
Coherence of Government Programs-Necessity of Additional Program

The aquaculture industry considers that the government should give priority to support
the marketing of aquaculture products in order to increase internal demand, and exports by
supporting the creation of a Turkish brand. Support for the development of organic
aquaculture should also be considered as a priority. Fish health research is among the topics
to be given priority as cases of mass mortality in some fish farms are reported. It seems
particularly necessary to work on disease control in order to avoid situations, which give a
bad image to the industry.
Food safety issues have been reported as an obstacle for the growing consumption of
aquaculture products in Turkey. Consumers are reluctant to buy fish products especially in
summer, because the cold chain is not sufficiently established along the trade chain. Most of
the fishery products are sold in open markets on the street, and consumers are skeptical about
the hygiene conditions at which these products are sold.
New species are considered to hold a good potential for Turkish aquaculture. The
programs to develop the commercial production of new species not only in the Aegean or in
the Mediterranean but in the Black Sea as well would be welcomed by the industry. Among
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the potential new species are turbot, sturgeons and native sea going trout. Considerable
progress has been achieved in some of these species but the commercial stage is still far
away. In terms of infrastructure development, industry representatives attach importance to
the establishment of new storage facilities, processing facilities, piers and slipways. In inland
aquaculture, availability of fish fry is considered as priority for public support following
scarcity especially of trout fry.
Public Awareness
To improve the public perception of aquaculture products, the industry believes that there
should be a promotion campaign on the health benefits associated with farmed products.
However, some companies have reported the perception of a bad image of the aquaculture
products among the consumers. The stakeholders are aware that the visual impact of the
marine aquaculture activities is one of the main arguments used by the tourism industry
against the aquaculture sector. Therefore, one of the concerns is to help improving the image
of the industry by making the farms less obtrusive and to maintain the attractiveness of the
environment. Furthermore, it is considered necessary to explain the real environmental
impacts in order to demonstrate the sustainability of the activity. Producers also believe that
food safety and especially traceability must be improved.
As a general comment producers doubt that all the links of the trade chain are sufficiently
committed to food safety and quality. Visual impacts, water impact and nutrient discharges
are the most important environmental concerns for the aquaculture sector. All these issues
which are rapidly exploited by the media, are affecting the image of the industry.
As reported during many interviews, the information provided by the media lack
scientific accuracy and there are those who suspect that this type of information is controlled
by the tourist industry.
One of the most powerful holdings in Turkey controls 65% of the Turkish media and has
large real estate investments. It has been referred to as one of the main players in the stream
of information aiming at eliminating the aquaculture industry from tourist areas.
Interactions between Aquaculture and Other Coastal Sectors

The traditional impacts of bio-chemical pollution, organic pollution and eutrophication or
habitat modifications are not seen as a problem by the aquaculture industry from the point of
view that these problems have been solved. Waste management would need more attention by
the industry, as minimization of waste is not seen as a priority.
The three Rs (Reuse, Recycling and Recovery) are not practiced in Turkish aquaculture
also because there is not a complementary industry supporting these activities. Only large
corporations exploit organic waste to produce pet food and there are pilot projects to make
fertilizers from organic waste.
309
Market Aspects in Aquaculture Products in Turkey

Essential aspects of the market as structure, competition, growth, analysis of demand,
analysis of competitiveness, prices at the different stages on the trade chain, legal factors and
requirements, market demands, market drivers, etc, were unknown elements both in terms of
the domestic or the export markets. Lack of market information is seen as one of the main
constraints for the aquaculture market development. On the domestic market low per capita
consumption is the main problem. This situation could be overcome using promotion
activities. The sources of information of the state on aquaculture industry and markets are the
suppliers, trade fairs and some internet sites. The Turkish Aquaculture and Fisheries
Magazine published by SUFED, Yunus-Dolphin published by SUMEA, Aqua Culture
published by Mugla Fish Farmer Association, and Fisheries published by Aquaculture
Engineer Association are seen as good information on the state of play of the industry. An
important challenge facing the aquaculture and fisheries industry alike is to improve the
distribution chain especially in the central part of Turkey, which would contribute
substantially to gain consumer confidence for fishery products in general.
In order to avoid taxes, the wholesale chain sales are not declared, resulting in poor
statistical reporting and insufficient knowledge of the trade chain. Therefore the industry is
demanding more controls on sales in order to predict future situations and to adopt production
strategies according to the market demands. Concerning the strategy to increase exports of
Turkish aquaculture products, the industry believes that the best option is to increase the
value of the production focusing on the quality of the exported products instead of the
quantity.
The industry is starting to export to new markets. USA, Canada and especially Russia
have been reported to represent excellent opportunities. However, the price of aquaculture
products for Middle East countries is considered too high. Aquaculture industry in Turkey is
also aiming at producing more processed products but it is necessary to upgrade the
processing technology also to be able to comply with the EU legislation and to meet its
stringent requirements on food safety and hygiene.
Consumer Aspects Regarding Aquaculture Products in Turkey

Annual per capita fish consumption is low in Turkey. Availability of fisheries products
and dietary traditions appear to be the main factors limiting the consumption of fish. In order
to increase consumption of seafood products on the domestic market the aquaculture sector
believes in the need for consumer information and education. Promotional campaigns are
seen as a real necessity for the industry. These campaigns should benefit consumers by
providing them better information about the fish products they buy. Labeling with
information of the commercial names, production method and origins should help ensuring
that consumers are not misled, as for example when fishmongers sell most of the aquaculture
products as wild catch. Particularly, fish larger than 600 g are reported as being commonly
sold as wild caught since most people do not know where the fish is coming from.
The marine aquaculture industry doubts the influence of tourism as potential market for
aquaculture products mainly for two reasons: tourists visiting Turkey come with a mediumlow purchasing power and prefer to go for cheaper options other than fish, especially in
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Hayri Deniz
tourist areas where prices are higher. The hotel trade industry believes that prices of
aquaculture products are too high and they do not offer aquaculture species on a general basis
to their clients. Tourism in Turkey is quite seasonal, where tourists come mainly in the
summer time. Their fish product consumption should therefore be concentrated only on these
months but the aquaculture industry has not recorded any special pattern regarding higher
sales during the summer season. The potential impact of increased tourist consumption in the
summer months on sales of aquaculture products should be easy to see, since the catching
sector has a traditionally low production patterns during the summer, leaving the aquaculture
sector as the only potential supply source for an increased demand for seafood (EUROFISH,
2008).
MARKETING
As described in detail above, official figures indicate that total fishery production was
772,323 mt in 2007, of which marine fisheries represent 67%, aquaculture 18%, inland
fisheries 6% and the remaining 9% from other marine organisms. Pelagic species dominate
marine landings and 60-70% of the total landings (by volume) are anchovy. Marine fish
landings can be broadly categorized by their distribution through the following marketing
channels:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Fish shipped directly to a fish market for an auction sale in the name of the boat.
Fish sold directly on a boat to a local or distant commission agent.
Fish shipped directly to a processing plant.
Fish shipped to a cold store in the name of the boat.
The highest quantity of fish, primarily anchovy, is caught along the East Black Sea coast.
Although large amounts of fresh anchovy are distributed to major markets nationwide, losses
are high due to poor handling, packing and transport. With sustained large catches, many
vessels therefore prefer to sell some of their fish to fishmeal factories. The total value of
marine landings, based on 2007 data, was at TRY 675 billion . A landing from inland waters
was around 43,321 mt in 2007 which is 5.6% of total production in 2007 (Figures 31 and 32).
The estimated first hand sale value of inland fisheries in 2007 was 60 million .
Marketing and Aquaculture Producers Organizations

Producer organizations were organized according to the Co-operatives Law (No. 1163),
Agricultural Unions Law (No. 5200) and Association Law (No.5253) and related regulations.
But their legal status and organization types partly comply with the provisions of the EU
legislation. Agricultural Producers Union (APU) is responsible for implementing regulation
on the establishment procedures and principles of APUs and implementing regulation on
inspections of APUs and central union of agricultural producers. Producer Union should have
a minimum of 16 producers and a minimum production capacity based on product and
product group. Fisheries Cooperative is established with a main status signed by at least 7
311
partners of the cooperative. Fishery co-operatives, fishery cooperative associations, the

Central Associations of Fishery Cooperatives (SUR-KOOP) and Central and Regional
Fishery Advisory Committees have an important role to play as representative stakeholder
organizations.
Currently there are 552 fisheries cooperatives recognized under the Fisheries Cooperative
Law 1163, with a total membership of 28,385. Note that a co-op can be established as long as
there are at least 7 signatories to the memorandum of incorporation (DENIZ, 2006). A
minimum of 7 or more cooperatives that have the same objectives can establish a central
union. There are 14 regional unions of fisheries cooperatives within Turkey, comprised of
reportedly 552 cooperatives and one central union in Ankara. According to 2007 data from
the SPO, only 23% of fishermen in Turkey are members of a cooperative. It is reported that
many of these cooperatives are usually not run according to their founding principles and
objectives and are not well managed. Since their emergence in the 1940s fishery cooperatives
have failed to provide the right institutional support for the sector, primarily because of
unfair competition, insufficient aids and subsidies, lack of solidarity and education, lack of
leadership, wrong identification and planning, unqualified and uninspired business
management (UNAL, 2006). There is also one Turkish Fish Promotion Association. To
improve the public perception of aquaculture products the industry believes the promotion of
the health benefits associated with farmed products. However, some companies have reported
the perception of a bad image of the aquaculture products among the consumers. The
stakeholders are aware that the visual impact of the marine aquaculture activities is one of the
main arguments used by the tourism industry against the aquaculture sector. One of the
concerns is therefore to help improving the image of the industry by making the farms less
obtrusive and to maintain the attractiveness of the environment. Furthermore it is considered
necessary to explain the real environmental impacts in order to demonstrate the sustainability
of the activity.
Figure 31. Fisheries imports and exports in 2002-2007 (mt) (Source: MARA).
312
Hayri Deniz
Figure 32. Fisheries imports and exports in 2002-2007 ($) (Source: MARA).
Producers also believe that food safety and especially traceability must be improved. As a
general comment producers doubt that all the links of the trade chain are sufficiently
committed to food safety and quality. Transport operators, distributors and agents do not have
appropriate food control systems in the opinion of aquaculture producers.
Traceability, Labeling and Certification

Given below is the current Turkish legislation in respect of fish health and hygiene:
Law No. 5179 and related regulations concerning production, consumption and
inspection of foodstuff; The objectives of this law are:
a) to ensure food safety, appropriate nutrition for the public and optimal hygienic
production, processing, preservation, storage and marketing of all kinds of
foodstuffs and materials and substances that enter in contact with food,
b) to define the characteristics concerning the safety of all kinds of raw, semiprocessed and processed foodstuffs, food processing aids and substances and
materials that come in contact with food, in order to protect the interests of the
producers and consumers and the public health,
c) to identify the minimum technical and hygienic requirements for businesses that
produce or sell foodstuffs; determine the procedures and principles concerning
services related to an inspection of foodstuffs.
Fisheries Law (No. 1380) and Implementing Regulation on Fisheries (1995);
Aquaculture Regulation (2004);
Law No. 3285 on animal health and sanitation; and
Implementing Regulation on Wholesale and Retail Fish Markets 2004. These
regulations include: criteria for establishment of markets; management and operation
of fish markets; control and inspection of markets; and, minimum and general
technical requirements for markets and associated facilities.
Law 1734 on animal feed; The purpose of this law is to stipulate the provisions for
the preparation, manufacture, import, export, marketing and sale of animal feeding
313
stuffs supplied to the market with a view to enabling rational livestock nutrition and
to developing animal husbandry.
Law No. 3285 on animal health and sanitation control; the aim of this law is to
prevent the transmission of diseases from animals and animal materials to
humans and other animals. This law also addresses the fight against contagious
animal diseases.
Traceability
The issue of quality assurance (QA) is not the nature and scope of the regulations but
rather the lack of effective monitoring of the implementation of those regulations. For
companies that already export to the EU, the inspection and certification procedures operated
by MARA are considered effective, especially in the context of client relations and
maintaining quality control and product specifications. QA and hygiene standards inside the
main fish markets should be enforced by the market management, who usually engage staff
that are expected to clean the market every day after the market closes. Fish samples are
subject to microbiological, chemical and physical analysis and these services are provided by
accredited laboratories.
In Istanbul Market, one laboratory is located inside the market. The main problem in
promoting QA through the marketing chain is the activities of unregistered businesses and the
ease with which they can operate within the fishery sector. Such activity presents a threat to
formal businesses, domestic consumers and the business interests of Turkey in export
markets.
The quality of fresh fish throughout the marketing chain could also in many cases be
improved simply by the increased use of ice. While a number of steps may be taken, the
priorities should be a strengthened inspection service, consumer education, the importance of
enforcing product standards and providing assistance to all actors in the distribution chain to
improve their handling of the product from the farm to the plate.
The application and enforcement of market legislation is considered to have an important
role in the future development of the sector, particularly as the country has the EU as a major
market and it is harmonizing its legislation with the fisheries acquis. Factories with an
existing EU number will need to implement the new EU regulations related to HACCP and
market standards with investments in new technology to meet these standards. This should in
turn drive quality improvements in the domestic market particularly where processors operate
in both markets.
Local consumers will also benefit once MARA inspectors start enforcing the updated
legislation. The introduction of market standards legislation should encourage greater
transparency in the market place. Also, the market pressure on producers for better quality
products will ultimately contribute to improved environmental management of capture
fisheries.
It will also have an impact on the FIS, as through the use of sales notes the collection of
statistical data will be improved, thereby improving the traceability system. Assistance is also
required to improve hygienic and sanitary control and enforcement, monitoring and control of
the quality of imports, electronic auction facilities in key markets/landing sites and
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Hayri Deniz
technological investment to ensure compliance with the latest EU traceability requirements.

There is no any obligation for traceability related seafood yet and available data.
Quality Schemes for Aquaculture Species

For companies that already export to the EU, the inspection and certification procedures
operated by MARA are effective, especially in the context of quality control and product
specifications. Some companies have created labels in order to differentiate their brand from
the other companies, especially on the domestic markets. The quality of fresh fish throughout
the marketing chain is one of the most important aspects for the producing companies, as it
has been reported that this issue is one of the weakest points of the value chain. Companies as
Kl, Pinar, Akuvatur and Bagci have their own quality label with identification of each fish.
But, they are not using their quality labels for every product. For the aquaculture production
companies it is important that the production conditions are monitored and protected from
any potential negative effects. Increasing importance, not only for the big companies, is being
given to traceability systems in order to assure that the product has been produced according
to the company standards.
According to the Fisheries Law and other relevant regulation all processing plants have to
be registered. Those exporting to the EU have to be approved by MARA. According to
MARA figures, there are 160 licensed and 17 unlicensed factories. According to the latest
Consolidated List there are 101 processing facilities approved for export to the EU
(EUROFISH, 2008). Due to the growth of the aquaculture sector in recent years many
packing plants have also been established to handle fresh aquaculture products. The main
market for frozen products is the EU and in particular Italy. There are strong opportunities for
growth on the domestic market given the low level of fish consumption in large parts of
Turkey, the drive to supply a low cost protein to low income segments, and the opportunity to
freeze anchovy and other pelagic fish to ensure availability throughout the year. The
aquaculture sector has shown an interest in processing systems, as they would like to increase
the value of the production: cutting, filleting, drying, smoking and freezing are mentioned as
the most probable options.
As the consumption of processed fish products especially in the form of prepared meals
increases in the European Union, Turkish producers see this situation as a potential market for
processed products from Turkey. Still production companies do not have a clear idea about
how to incorporate a processing plant into the production scheme. Investments in processing
have been reported as necessary especially for inland aquaculture companies. Support from
Spain as one of the leading markets of fishery products in the EU would be considered as
advantageous. Dried, smoked and cured products are not very popular so the domestic market
for these products is very limited. Marinated anchovy is produced for domestic consumption
and export. Although smoked and dried fish products have lost ground to other processed
fish, there are now several small-scale producers servicing the market, producing and
exporting smoked trout, eel, and salmon.
Canned products of fisheries are produced both by large scale factories exporting goods
to foreign countries as well as by small family enterprises. Fishery products like tuna,
mackerel, trout, bonito, anchovies and sardines are produced by the Turkish industry and they
are easy to find in the local markets. One company, based in Canakkale and founded in 1983,
315
invested in the sector and became in short time one of the canning leading producers in
Europe. With 2,000 employees, it has an annual production capacity of 60,000 tons of fish
and 30,000 tons of shelled sea food. Its market share in Turkey for canned tuna fish is 80%.
Organic Aquaculture
There are some enterprises to produce organic aquaculture. For instance, Pnar Deniz
Urnleri A.. has been producing mussel and trying to get organic certification. In addition,
MARA DG of Agricultural Research is preparing the national project for organic aquaculture.
Organic production has a high priority for MARA. Organic Production Regulation which was
prepared in line with related Council Regulation 2092/91, amended by Council Regulation
392/2004 in force now. Agricultural Bank is giving the low interest credit reduced 70% than
the normal standards of interest. Organic aquaculture in Turkey is almost non-existent yet.
Certification is needed so that the products produced can legally be sold with the organic
label. Although organic products are increasing in demand, their share on Turkish production
is still close to zero. Investments in order to turn conventional aquaculture production into
organic production is seen as a good opportunity to differentiate from the competitors and
achieve market shares on the new market for demanding consumers willing to pay more for a
better product. Turkey could also be seen as a good base for production of cheaper organic
products aimed the export markets.
CONCLUSION
Turkey has access to the aquaculture resources of Aegean, Black and Mediterranean
water bodies. The country is also endowed with rich inland waters and river systems with
significant aquaculture potential. As a result of geographic and climatic variations, both in
terms of marine and inland waters Turkey offers a wide range of species to the aquaculture
sectors. Aquaculture in Turkey started in the second half of 1970. Today Turkey is the 5th
largest aquaculture producer in Europe and 3rd largest excluding shellfish production. It is
also the 2nd largest producer in Europe of seabass and sea bream and rainbow trout which
leaves Turkey with a positive trade balance of more than 120 million Euros regarding fishery
products. Turkish aquaculture industry has increased rapidly over the last years. In 1990
aquaculture production in Turkey was around 6,000 mt (Figure 33). In 2007, aquaculture
production both at sea and in inland waters reached almost 129,000 mt. Moreover, since 2001
Turkish aquaculture production has doubled in production volume and the Turkish
government has set a target to reach an aquaculture production of 250,000 mt in 2020 (Figure
34 and 35). Key farmed species in Turkish aquaculture are seabass, sea bream, trout and tuna,
but the MARA is currently giving priority to the farming of alternative species and on the
diversification of farming methods to achieve the 2020 target.
Currently Turkish marine aquaculture is facing strong opposition from other coastal
activities to the further expansion of coastal aquaculture activities. This situation is a
consequence of the lack of Integrated Coastal Zone Management. As a consequence marine
cages will have to be moved offshore.
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Hayri Deniz
Figure 33. Development trend in aquaculture during 19942007.
Figure 34. Fisheries and aquaculture trend and future projection in Turkey.
This new scenario will mainly negatively affect SMEs but at the same time it will open
new opportunities for increasing production and investment in new technologies. Most of the
production of marine farming species and aqua feed production is carried out in the Aegean
region because it offers the best suitable conditions for farming activities, with sheltered
coastal waters and ideal growing temperatures year round. Most fish farms, especially seabass
and sea bream farms, are concentrated on this coast. The production potential of Turkish
aquaculture can be better exploited through improvements in management and handling. The
317
interest for increasing production sizes for processing has been expressed as an idea for
cooperation with foreign partners.
400000
350000
300000
250000
200000
150000
100000
2020
2019
2018
2017
2016
2015
2014
2013
2012
2011
2010
2009
2007
2008
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
1996
1995
1994
1993
1992
1991
1990
1989
1988
-50000
1987
1986
50000
Figure 35. Marine aquaculture trend and future projection in Turkey.
It is also suggested that the development of ecologic/organic production could help

Turkey improve exports to western markets. Furthermore, the development of the south east
Mediterranean coast of Turkey is seen as an area for future investments which could be
interesting for foreign partners considering the good potential for inland and marine
aquaculture in the area. Regarding inland aquaculture specifically, there still is scope for
development of the sector by making adaptations through species and production methods
diversification.
Consumption of seafood on the Turkish domestic market is expected to grow thanks to
growing population and expected higher per capita consumption. It is expected that the
demand for prepared and ready to eat meals will increase in the urban areas. There is also a
potential for export of processed fish products to the EU.
REFERENCES
Akbulut, B. Aquaculture in Turkey. CFRI, SUMEA Yunus Research Bulletin, 4:4, December
2004.
Bascinar, N. Aquaculture in the world and an overview to the future of Turkey. CFRI.
SUMEA Yunus Research Bulletin, 4:4 December 2004.
Deniz, H. and Karasubenli, A.. Environmental policies in force and its effect on aquaculture
in Turkey, MED Black Sea ICM 08.
Deniz, H. (2001). Environmental impact of aquaculture in Turkey and its relationship to
tourism, recreation and sites of special protection. Proceedings of the seminar of the
CIHEAM Network on Technology of Aquaculture in the Mediterranean (TECAM)
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jointly organized by CIHEAM and FAO, Zaragoza (Spain) 17-21 January 2000. Cahier
Options Mediterraneennes,55, 159-173.
Deniz, H. The 1st Workshop on Developing a Roadmap for Turkish Marine Aquaculture Site
Selection and Zoning Using an Ecosystem Approach to Management , 16 -17 July 2008,
Izmir, Turkey, 2008.
Deniz, H., Aquaculture development and its partnership between science and producer
associations in Turkey, Report and Proceedings of the EIFAC Symposium on
Aquaculture Development Partnership between Science and Producers Associations.
Wierzba, Poland, 26-29 May 2004, held in connection with the European Inland Fisheries
Advisory Commission, twenty-third session. Wierzba, Poland, 26 May-2 June 2004.
EIFAC Occasional Paper. No 37. Rome, FAO. 2006. 136p.
Emre, Y. and Okumus, I. and Maltas, O., Trout farming, Marine Aquaculture in Turkey 2007.
EUROFISH Report, Survey of the fish industry in Turkey within the special focus on
cooperation and investment possibilities, 2008.
Fiche, F. Rainbow trout sector in Turkey: Trends and opportunities, EASTFISH, 2000.
Technical assistance to support the legal and institutional alignment of the fisheries sector
to the EU Acquis, General Directorate for Protection and Control Ministry of Agriculture
and rural Affairs Government of Turkey and European Commission, February 2007.
Gozgozoglu, E., The fishery industry in Turkey, EASTFISH.
JICA Final Report on aquaculture economy study for the Flatfish Culture Project,
2008.Gozgozoglu, E., Aquaculture Legislation, Marine Aquaculture 2007.
MARA - DGAPD Aquaculture Sector Report, 2008.
MEF - Communiqu on Fish Farms No 26413.
Okumus, I. and Deniz, H., Past, present and future of the marine aquaculture, Marine
aquaculture in Turkey, TUDAV, 2007.
Saka,S. and Tuncer,H. and Firat, K. and Ucal,O. Culture of European Seabass (Dicentrarchus
labrax), Gilthead sea Bream (Sparus aurata) and other Mediterranean Species, Marine
Aquaculture 2007.
nal, V. Profile of Fishery Cooperatives and Estimation of Socio-Economic Indicators in
Marine Small-Scale Fisheries; Case Studies in Turkey. 2006.
INDEX
A
A. gulednstaedti, 198
A. nudiventris, 106, 198
A. ocellaris, 155, 175
A. persicus, 114, 198
Abu Al Abyad, 110
Acanthopagrus latus, 106, 109, 121, 122
Acipenser persicus, 106, 121
Acipenseridae, ix, 19, 191
aeration, ix, 62, 87, 88, 89, 98, 99, 101, 115, 156,
181, 261, 262, 272
Aeromonas, 24, 29, 30, 197, 204, 207, 208
Aeromonas hydrophila, 24, 29, 30, 204, 207, 208
Aeromonas hydrophila,, 24, 204
Aeromonas veronii,, 24, 204
African catfish, 118, 122, 126, 181, 257, 262, 274
agricultural fertilizer, 88
Agriculture, 32, 37, 45, 107, 108, 115, 117, 119, 129,
130, 131, 132, 139, 140, 143, 144, 152, 155,
157, 181, 188, 209, 257, 259, 261, 263, 270,
273, 274, 275, 305, 318
alkaline phosphatase, 172
Al-Oula Marine Consulting Company, 103
Al-Wafra, 108, 141
Amphilina foliace, 24, 204
Amphiprion, 15, 155, 175
Anisakis sp., 24, 204
aquaculture cage, ix, 87, 92, 95, 96, 99
Aquaculture History, 105
aquariums, 12, 88
Aquatic Animal Health, 8, 19, 132, 191
Arabian Gulf, ix, 50, 53, 87, 89, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95,
96, 97, 98, 100, 101, 257, 259, 266, 273
Arabian Sea, 91
Arava, 156, 163, 173
Arava valley, 156, 163, 173
Ardag, 162, 165
Aristichthys nobilis, 172, 185, 192, 218

aromatase, 171, 172, 189
Artemia, 20, 49, 61, 63, 125, 143, 165, 166, 191,
200, 262
Artemia uromia, 200
ASMAK, 110, 112
Australia, 240
Azarbayejan, 197
B
B. grypus,, 192
B. sharpeyi, 114
B. xanthopterus,, 192
Bahrain, 93, 95, 103, 104, 105, 106, 109, 111, 112,
113, 119, 121, 123, 126, 127, 128, 129, 132,
134, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 143, 145, 146,
147, 152
Bandar Khyran, 109
Barbus sharpeyi, 20, 106, 121, 191
barramundi, 2, 158, 163
Berkeh Khalaf, 107
Bighead, 42, 124, 126
biofilter, 3, 178, 181
biofiltration, 156, 178, 179, 180
Botirocephalus sp., 24, 204
breeding, viii, 50, 54, 73, 74, 78, 81, 82, 83, 88, 104,
106, 107, 109, 110, 117, 119, 128, 129, 171,
172, 174, 209, 216, 217, 218, 219, 220, 228,
229, 233, 234, 238, 243, 245, 247, 249, 250,
262
Breeding, 49
breeding grounds, 104
Busheher, 26, 29, 205, 208
bycatch, 103, 110
C
Canada,, 197, 233
cannibalism, 169, 183, 184, 185
320
Index
capture fisheries, 103, 152, 250, 313

carotenoid, 73, 176
Caspian Salmon, 121
Caspian Sea., 19, 29, 30, 106, 191, 197, 198, 207,
208
Caspian trout, ix, 19, 191, 192, 201
Caspian trout (Salmo trutta caspius),, ix, 19, 191,
192, 201
catfish, 9, 24, 37, 42, 88, 110, 120, 138, 183, 189,
205, 262
Caviar, 198, 207, 271
Certification, 129, 150, 267, 312, 315
challenges, vii, viii, ix, 16, 50, 54, 134, 180, 192,
202, 252, 300, 303
Chanos chanos, 114, 121, 263
Chinese carps, 113, 114, 161, 193, 201, 218
Chlorella, 49
Choharmohal-va-Bakhteyari, 197
Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum, 36, 175, 185
Cochlodinium prykricoides, 199
Color Enhancement, 176
Common carp, 107, 121, 124, 126, 193, 238, 261,
280
continental shelf, 42, 91
Conversion efficiency, 197
coral colonies, 178
Corynosoma stroumosum ., 24, 204
CPUE, 104
crawfish, 88
crayfish (Astacus leptodactylus), 194, 200
Cryptocaryon, 71
Ctenopharyngodon idella, 30, 106, 121, 126, 192,
208
Cucullanus sphaerocephalus,, 24, 204
Cultured Brood Stock, 72, 74, 75, 78
current intensity, ix, 87
Cyclopeeze, 65, 74, 75
CyHV3, 155, 173
Cytophaga, 22, 202
D
Dactylogyrus sp., 24, 204
denitrification, 181
Denmark,, 74, 197
desalination, ix, 87
design significant wave height, 98
diadromous, 104
Diclybothrium armatum,, 24, 204
Diplostomum spataceum,, 24, 204
disease outbreak, 11, 20, 21, 23, 43, 71, 132, 149,
173, 194, 202, 203, 300
Dissolved oxygen, 66
E
E. coioides, 12, 106, 108, 109, 110, 112, 118, 139,
192
E. polyphekedion, 109
E. tauvina, 108, 109
Economy, 127
Edwardsiell sp., 24, 204
Edwardsiella tarda,, 24, 204
eggs, viii, 49, 50, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 65, 73, 74,
76, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 83, 106, 108, 116, 129,
134, 138, 145, 196, 230, 238, 239, 258, 262,
291, 298
Eilat, 1, 2, 4, 155, 156, 162, 168, 169, 178, 179, 181,
184, 187, 188
enclosed bays, 88, 275, 304
engineering design, 88
Environment, 87, 119, 120, 129, 131, 137, 139, 155,
181, 207, 299, 304, 306
Environmental, 26, 38, 84, 85, 91, 101, 130, 139,
150, 151, 183, 255, 256, 298, 299, 300, 301,
304, 317
environmental parameters, 87, 182, 242, 260
Epinephelus aeneus, vii, 1, 36, 169, 186, 294
Europe, 30, 127, 138, 173, 175, 187, 207, 208, 212,
233, 237, 239, 275, 283, 284, 315
extreme waves, 95, 100
F
F. indicus, 20, 26, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 114, 117,
118, 119, 120, 134, 139, 191, 193, 199, 202,
205, 265, 266
F.vannamei, 191
fadrozole, 172
FAO, 51, 84, 103, 104, 106, 109, 111, 112, 113, 114,
115, 116, 117, 123, 127, 128, 136, 140, 144,
151, 152, 200, 207, 211, 213, 246, 253, 263,
266, 298, 300, 318
FCR, 65, 135, 265, 286
Feed, 66, 73, 74, 75, 130, 137, 138, 176, 186, 243,
261, 269, 286
Feed Composition, 66, 75
feeding behavior, 64, 85, 151, 239
Feneropeneaus semisulcatus, 20, 191
Fenneropenaeus indicus, 106, 121, 122, 265
fertilization, 50, 54, 73, 74, 82, 83, 86, 171, 239, 266
fetch length, 95
FFC, 109, 263, 264, 265, 266
filamentous, 22, 174, 202
finfish, 34, 36, 41, 42, 104, 111, 112, 116, 120, 129,
135, 138, 141, 280, 283, 284, 300
Index
fingerlings, ix, 19, 64, 66, 82, 85, 106, 108, 110, 113,
114, 116, 117, 119, 138, 140, 142, 151, 165,
173, 191, 192, 194, 197, 201, 216, 218, 219,
220, 226, 231, 238, 239, 240, 241, 242, 243,
251, 260, 261, 262, 263, 266
Finland,, 197
Fish Consumption, 136
fish farming, ix, 1, 32, 38, 88, 107, 108, 127, 129,
130, 137, 138, 139, 144, 194, 218, 226, 250,
259, 274, 290, 298, 300
fisheries, 32, 35, 37, 44, 45, 54, 88, 105, 108, 111,
113, 115, 127, 129, 130, 131, 136, 137, 139,
140, 142, 143, 151, 152, 176, 193, 207, 210,
211, 218, 222, 226, 237, 246, 247, 250, 251,
253, 274, 276, 277, 279, 280, 286, 305, 306,
307, 309, 310, 311, 313, 314, 318
fishing, 32, 41, 42, 44, 50, 53, 54, 57, 58, 103, 104,
118, 119, 128, 131, 156, 192, 209, 210, 216,
217, 218, 222, 233, 235, 237, 238, 239, 240,
241, 243, 246, 249, 250, 251, 253, 281, 290
Flavobacterium psychrophilum, 23, 29, 204, 207
Flavobactria, s, 24, 205
Flexibacter, 22, 29, 202, 208
floating breakwater, 96, 98, 100
flushing of the ambiant water, 87
Food Safety, 132, 133
formulated feeds, 49, 57, 62, 64, 244
French strain, 171
G
GCC, 104, 132, 137, 138
Gemma, 65, 75
genotype, 172, 173
Gilan, 22, 24, 30, 194, 195, 196, 208
gillnet, 54
Gilthead seabream, 121, 122, 124, 126
Gnathanodon speciosus, 109
Golstan, 194, 195
Gonad, 55, 72
Gonado Somatic Index (GSI), 55
Grass carp, 121
gravid females, 55
Green tiger shrimp, 121, 122
grow-out, viii, 49, 50, 62, 64, 65, 66, 67, 69, 70, 72,
74, 82, 83, 107, 108, 119, 155, 165, 166, 169,
183, 196, 197, 213, 228, 235, 242, 243, 249,
261, 265
Growth, 18, 64, 68, 85, 150, 153, 229, 231, 232, 254,
257, 263, 273, 274, 282
Guilan, 106, 113, 114, 125
Gulf of Aqaba, 156, 162, 165, 178, 183
Gulf Standards Organization, 132
gynogenetic, 172
321
H
H. nobilis, 110
habitat, 103, 197, 229, 238, 239, 308
Haliotis mariae, 108, 117, 122
Hamor, 20, 191
harmful algal blooms, 103
hatching rates, 50, 59, 82, 83
HCG, 50, 78, 80, 81, 82, 262
Health, 16, 19, 20, 26, 33, 71, 84, 132, 133, 134,
149, 202, 205, 248, 291, 299
Hebrew University, 155, 181
Hormonal Induction, 78
Hormuzgan, 107
Huraidha-Assir, 110
Huso huso, 24, 29, 106, 121, 198, 204, 207
hybridization, 173, 189
Hypophthalmychthis molitrix, 192
hypothalamus, 171
Hypothalmichthys molitrix, 106, 121
I
Ichthiophtirius multifiliis, 23, 203
Ichthiophtirius multifiliis,, 24, 204
IFRTO, 107, 151
indoor hatchery, 80
Industry, 37, 103, 194
inheritance, 175
Iranian Fishery Organization, ix, 20, 191
Isochrysis, 49
Israel, vii, ix, 1, 2, 3, 4, 155, 156, 157, 162, 163, 165,
166, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 177, 178,
179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 185, 186, 187, 188,
189
IVO, 130, 132
J
juveniles, ix, 36, 38, 49, 54, 61, 62, 64, 65, 71, 72,
78, 83, 107, 108, 109, 111, 112, 116, 119, 120,
129, 135, 138, 141, 142, 144, 145, 146, 162,
165, 166, 209, 226, 227, 229, 233, 238, 240,
263, 265
Juveniles, 64
K
Khozestan, 194, 196
KHV, 20, 24, 28, 175, 187, 205
Kinneret, 156, 157, 158, 160
Koi, 24, 155, 173, 175, 187
Kolahi Fisheries, 107
322
Index
Kuwait, vii, viii, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 49, 50,
51, 53, 54, 56, 57, 66, 70, 71, 82, 83, 84, 85, 87,
93, 95, 101, 103, 104, 105, 108, 111, 112, 113,
116, 119, 121, 123, 125, 126, 127, 128, 130,
133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 143,
144, 145, 150, 151, 152
Kuwait Institute for Scientific Research, viii, 11, 49,
54, 84, 85, 87, 101, 103, 108, 138, 143, 151,
152
kyphosis, 166
L
Lacotococcus garveiae, 21, 202
Larval Rearing, 61, 84, 146
latitude, 91, 92, 257
Law, 129, 130, 131, 133, 134, 139, 298, 300, 304,
310, 311, 312, 313, 314
L-carnitine, 176, 177, 184, 185
Legislations, 150
Leptorhynchoides plagicephalus,, 24, 204
Lernea sp., 24, 204
LH-RH, 50, 80, 81
Litopenaeus vannamei, 30, 107, 126
live food organisms, 61
Liza sp, 121, 264
Longitude, 93
lordosis, 166
Lorstan, 197
Lutjanus argentimaculatus, 106, 121
M
Macrobrachium rosenbergii, 107, 121, 126, 262
Macrobracium rosenbergii, 200
Malachite Green, 174
Management, 19, 20, 71, 84, 86, 139, 140, 151, 188,
190, 200, 202, 266, 269, 298, 300, 307, 315,
318
Mangrove snapper, 121
Mariculture, viii, ix, 1, 8, 11, 12, 36, 49, 54, 87, 106,
112, 118, 137, 141, 143, 146, 155, 157, 159,
160, 162, 163, 165, 169, 178, 181, 263, 285
Mariculture and Fisheries Department, viii, 11, 12,
49, 54
marine aquaculture, ix, 36, 37, 87, 100, 140, 141,
209, 212, 213, 215, 216, 220, 222, 228, 241,
246, 247, 248, 257, 280, 287, 292, 301, 304,
307, 308, 309, 311, 315, 317
marine environments, 88
Marine fish, 223, 253, 310
marine power, 87
Marine shrimp, 137
Market, 127, 135, 309, 313
maturity, 54, 55, 56, 171, 229, 261, 263, 264, 303
Maturity, 55
Mazandaran,, 21, 194
Mean size, 58
mean wave period, 95, 96
Megaflow, 162, 183
Mega-flow system, 168
metamorphosis, 169, 189
methionine, 172
Microalga, 61
Microgeophagus ramirezi, 176, 185
Middle East, vii, viii, ix, x, 31, 33, 34, 103, 104, 105,
125, 134, 145, 151, 152, 257, 309
milt, 50, 55, 58, 72, 73, 82, 83, 171, 262
monitoring, viii, 3, 27, 34, 35, 38, 45, 132, 133, 139,
140, 141, 145, 149, 174, 218, 244, 245, 246,
250, 313
Monodon baculovirus, 26, 205
mortalities, viii, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 20, 25, 30, 41, 61,
64, 71, 196, 202
mullet, vii, 1, 2, 4, 6, 12, 25, 30, 45, 46, 71, 85, 109,
110, 117, 118, 119, 120, 122, 125, 126, 141,
156, 178, 180, 201, 263, 264, 278
municipal wastes, ix, 87
mycelium, 174
N
Nannochloropsis, 49, 61
Natural spawning, 77, 78, 108
Natural Spawning, 75
necrosis, 19, 20, 25, 26, 34, 42, 43, 46, 71, 169, 173,
191, 205
Non-Indigenous, 125
North Africa, vii, ix, x, 44, 46, 103
Norway, 109, 119, 151, 197
nylon wires, 88
O
O. spilurus, 108, 109, 116, 119, 260, 264
Obhur, 109
Olithodiscus, 178
Oman, 91, 101, 103, 104, 105, 106, 108, 109, 112,
113, 116, 117, 120, 122, 123, 125, 126, 127,
128, 130, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139,
141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 151, 152, 199
Oncorhynchus mykiss, ix, 19, 29, 30, 33, 36, 37,
106, 191, 207, 208, 216, 217, 237, 285, 290,
294
oocytes, 55, 56
Oreochromis niloticus, 37, 39, 84, 86, 108, 121, 122,
126, 152, 173, 174, 184, 274
organic culture, 173, 183
Index
ornamental fish, 12, 20, 24, 28, 104, 111, 118, 125,
128, 138, 145, 155, 156, 163, 174, 175, 177,
183, 204
Ornamental fish, 157, 164, 177
outbreaks, viii, 12, 16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 27,
28, 30, 47, 173, 191, 199, 202, 205, 206, 208,
245
overfishing, 31, 88, 103, 198
oysters, 42, 88, 125, 178, 179, 212, 213, 220, 232,
241, 251
P
Pampus argenteus, viii, 16, 17, 18, 49, 50, 53, 66, 67,
68, 75, 84, 85, 86, 108, 121, 150, 151
pathology, viii, 6, 37, 41, 215, 218, 246
Pathology, 71
pearl oyster, 20, 104, 107, 125, 145, 191
Pearl oyster, 121
Pelvicachromis pulcher, 177, 185
Per Capita, 136
periphyton, 174, 186
Persian, 12, 20, 24, 26, 29, 30, 101, 105, 114, 121,
126, 129, 143, 191, 192, 198, 199, 201, 204,
207, 208
Persian Gulf, 20, 26, 143, 191, 199, 201
Persian sturgeon, 24, 29, 30, 198, 201, 204, 208
Persian sturgeon (Acipenser persicus, 24, 29, 30,
204, 208
Picnic seabream, 121
Pike-perch, 121, 239
pituitary, 171, 239, 262
Poecilia reticulata, 175, 176, 177, 184, 185
pollution, ix, 2, 19, 20, 27, 35, 38, 45, 87, 88, 130,
139, 145, 178, 187, 191, 192, 197, 198, 222,
237, 260, 272, 281, 285, 303, 308
polyethylene, 88, 107
polysaccharides, 172
pond, 3, 54, 88, 116, 130, 153, 156, 173, 178, 179,
180, 181, 183, 188, 196, 203, 249, 265
Price, 135, 163, 188
productivity, vii, 107, 116, 134, 140, 169, 174, 182,
243, 257
Pseudotracheliastes stellatus,, 24, 204
Q
Qatar, 93, 95, 96, 100, 101, 104, 105, 109, 111, 112,
113, 117, 122, 124, 126, 127, 128, 129, 131,
132, 133, 134, 136, 137, 139, 141, 142, 143,
144, 145, 151
quality of marine water, ix, 87
Quinaldine, 36, 66, 74
Quriat, 109, 116
323
R
Rachycentron canadum, 111, 122, 153
Rainbow trout, 29, 114, 192, 196, 207, 216, 237,
284, 294, 318
Rainbow trout farming, 196
recirculating systems, 156, 180, 181, 182, 183
recirculating-tank technologies, 88
RECOFI, 104, 118, 145, 152
red drum, 2, 156, 166, 173, 189
Reproduction, 175, 177, 184, 253, 256
return periods, 92, 94, 95, 96
Rhabdosargus sarba, 110, 111, 122
Rutilus frisii kutum, ix, 19, 121, 191
Rutilus rutilus, 121, 201, 217
S
S. aurata, 4, 5, 6, 7, 107, 108, 109, 112, 116, 118
S. canaliculatus, 109, 110, 112, 117, 118, 119
S. parasitica, 174
Sabaki tilapia, 109, 116, 121
Saccostrea cucullata, 108, 122
salinity, ix, 2, 55, 59, 84, 87, 105, 106, 116, 117,
165, 166, 185, 260, 264, 274, 285
Salmo trutta caspius, 106, 121
salmon, 32, 47, 64, 65, 66, 74, 88, 106, 189, 239,
282, 290, 314
saltwater plants and animals, 88
Saprolegnia, 23, 24, 174, 203, 204
Saprolegnia spp., 24, 204
saprolegniosis, 23, 174, 204
Saudi Arabia, x, 93, 95, 96, 103, 104, 105, 109, 110,
112, 118, 119, 120, 122, 125, 126, 128, 131,
132, 133, 136, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 144,
145, 151, 152, 257, 258, 259, 260, 261, 262,
263, 265, 266, 267, 273, 274
Scotland, 8, 197
Sea bass, 42, 46, 284, 285, 294
seafood, x, 88, 104, 134, 142, 145, 182, 210, 231,
252, 257, 267, 282, 302, 309, 310, 314, 317
seawater, 6, 58, 59, 66, 72, 74, 91, 105, 108, 109,
137, 169, 180, 184, 185, 187, 232, 264
Seaweeds, 121
Seed, 137, 241
Sefid-Rud, 107, 198
semisulcatus, 26, 30, 37, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110,
111, 114, 120, 121, 122, 150, 152, 192, 199,
201, 205
sex differentiation, 171, 184, 186
sex ratios, 171
Sex ratios, 55
sex-reversed, 173
324
Index
shellfish, viii, x, 27, 88, 129, 157, 180, 205, 212,

213, 215, 220, 224, 249, 251, 252, 275, 283,
284, 315
Shrimp farming, 199
Siganus javus, 106, 121, 122
Silver carp, 238, 239
Silver Pomfret, 49, 81
silver pomfret hatchery, 60
single point mooring, 90
skeletal deformity, 165, 166
skin, 3, 6, 7, 9, 12, 14, 17, 24, 25, 71, 173
Skrjabinopsolus semiarmatus,, 24, 204
Soybean meal, 172
Spawning, 50, 54, 55, 75, 81, 84, 85, 151, 153, 229,
230, 273
sperms, 58
Stizostedion lucioperca, ix, 19, 191, 192, 217, 239
stocking density, 42, 59, 61, 116, 118, 152, 173, 185,
230, 261, 264, 274, 300
Streaked Rabbitfis, 121
Streptococcosis, 30, 34, 208
Streptococcus iniae, 3, 7, 9, 21, 30, 202, 208
striped bass, 6, 8, 156, 158, 162
stripping, 57, 58, 81, 82, 181, 262
Sturgeon, 24, 110, 114, 120, 143, 144, 147, 148, 151,
192, 197, 204, 207, 260, 271, 272
Sturgeon farming, 110
sturgeons, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 106, 192, 198, 200,
201, 204, 206, 207, 297, 308
surface skimmer, 62, 63, 64
survival, 35, 49, 57, 61, 64, 72, 73, 84, 106, 150,
153, 165, 166, 169, 172, 173, 176, 177, 184,
185, 197, 212, 245, 249, 263, 264, 265, 266,
273, 274, 295
Systan-va-Balochestan, 205
T
Tehran, 19, 23, 29, 30, 106, 143, 191, 197, 208
Tetraselmis, 178, 179
Thunnus albacares, 109, 122
tidal variation, ix, 87, 96, 98, 100
tilapia, 4, 8, 37, 86, 88, 108, 109, 110, 112, 116, 117,
118, 125, 128, 129, 135, 137, 141, 142, 155,
156, 157, 158, 171, 173, 174, 180, 181, 183,
184, 186, 188, 189, 190, 219, 260, 261, 262,
263, 264, 274, 296
Tilapia, 105, 108, 110, 112, 116, 117, 118, 119, 122,
124, 125, 126, 128, 135, 137, 151, 152, 161,
173, 188, 189, 239, 260, 261, 262, 264, 273,
274
Trade, 37, 127, 134, 207
Trichodina sp.,, 24, 34, 204

tropical fish, 88, 174
U
UAE, 93, 95, 96, 98, 100, 103, 104, 105, 110, 111,
112, 113, 116, 119, 120, 122, 124, 125, 126,
127, 128, 129, 131, 132, 133, 135, 136, 137,
138, 139, 141, 143, 144, 145
Uronema, 11, 13, 14, 16, 17, 18, 71, 85
V
Velamugil seheli, 109, 141
Veterinary, 17, 19, 27, 29, 30, 33, 130, 132, 191,
205, 206, 207, 208, 246
Veterinary Organization, 130, 132
Vibrio alginolyticus, 26, 43, 47, 205
Vibrio anguillarum,, 26, 205
Vibrio harveyi,, 26, 205
Vibrio parahemolyticus 26, 205
Vibriosis, 16, 34, 43
VNN, 20, 28, 34, 43, 169, 205, 206
W
water depth, 55, 91, 92, 93, 116, 304
water filtration, 88, 239
water quality, 12, 23, 24, 27, 28, 88, 178, 181, 186,
187, 201, 202, 204, 206, 218, 243, 244, 260,
264, 290, 291, 299
water source, 88
water temperature, ix, 12, 22, 23, 24, 49, 55, 57, 66,
67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75, 77, 78, 83, 87, 117, 166,
169, 173, 175, 177, 197, 202, 204, 283
wave and current induced forces, 87
wave climate, 87
Weibull distribution, 94
white spot viral disease (WSD), 19, 191
Whitespotted Rabbit fish, 121
wild fisheries, 20, 88
Wild Stock, 54
World aquaculture, 104
Y
Yemen, 103, 104, 111, 112, 120, 122, 124, 125, 127,
129, 131, 132, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 142,
143, 144, 145
Z
Zobaidy, 51, 84, 85
zooplankton, 36, 50, 169, 240

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING

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ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

AZAD ISMAIL SAHEB

Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

Copyright 2012 by Nova Science Publishers, Inc.

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