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A
RESEARCH METHOD
An Assignment Report
Based on Paper-I (Research Methodology)
[As per requirement for pursuing M.Phil. under The Global Open University, Nagaland]
Submitted by
1. Questionnaires
2. Interviews
4. Observation
5. Documentary analysis
6. Experiments
The following discussion looks at the main pros and cons of using these
methods, some of the main design features of each and some issues relating to
their administration.
Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a research instrument consisting of a series of questions
and other prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents.
Although they are often designed for statistical analysis of the responses, this is
not always the case. The questionnaire was invented by Sir Francis Galton.
open-ended, with very broad questions designed to elicit the sample's own
views rather than their responses to a re-specified range of answers, or
the same sequence [but of course this does not mean that they will choose
to answer every question].
4. The self-completion questionnaire may provide the respondent with time
to reflect on the questions before answering them [especially if they can
complete them in their own time].
5. Respondents may feel that they can say what they really think if the
questionnaire can be completed in privacy and anonymously [especially if
the researcher is known to them or might be thought to have a vested
interest in their answers].
3. Once you have sent out the questionnaire you have little control over the
situation. Suppose only a few completed ones are returned, i.e. what
researchers refer to as a low response rate. What can you do? You can try
several things to increase the likelihood of a good response rate:
i. Get a 'captive' population or sample to complete it, i.e. ask students to
complete it during a seminar or clients to complete it in your
presence;
ii. Explain at the beginning of the questionnaire (or in an accompanying
letter if it is a postal questionnaire) why their responses are important
and what use will be made of the data.
iii. Make the questionnaire as user friendly and attractive as possible by
using different font sizes, color printing, attractive layout and provide
as many opportunities as possible to tick boxes or ring code numbers
so that it can be filled in as quickly as possible.
iv. Distribute reminders perhaps with a second copy of the questionnaire.
Design Issues
Some of the key issues when designing a questionnaire are as given below:
5. An interview is also a useful method if the respondents are not very literate
or not used to expressing their views on paper.
6. It provides an opportunity to probe respondents' views in ways that might
be difficult to plan for in advance.
7. It provides the researcher with an opportunity to also observe and record
the non-verbal behavior of the respondent as well.
Design Issues
You should use this introduction to also reassure the interviewee about
confidentiality and ask them if they mind being recorded, etc.
4. Avoid very long questions.
You cannot expect the interviewee to remember what you asked them if you
speak in paragraphs.
5. Avoid multiple questions, e.g. How many students are taking the course
this year, are they mostly school leavers or have you also got some
mature students and how do the two groups compare in performance?
Again, interviewees will not usually remember all of the elements of the
multiple questions. Ask separate shorter questions.
6. Plan some prompts in case the interviewee looks blank when you ask a
question or asks you to clarify the question or just says ‘What do you
mean?’
There is an art to designing and asking good prompts; they help the
respondent to understand the question without ‘feeding’ him or her the answers
you want. Knowing when to ask a prompt is critical. How long can you cope with
silence before jumping in with a prompt. Jump in too quickly and you annoy the
person who was thinking about their answer. Allow the silence to go on too long
and the respondent begins to lose confidence.
7. Plan some probes.
The probe is designed to get the interviewee to expand on his or her initial
response to a question. Some experienced interviewers rely on a raised eyebrow
or encouraging noises such as ‘mmmhm?’ or ‘uh huh?’ But most of us usually ask
the respondents if they want to add anything or ‘Could you tell me a bit more
about …….?’ Or ‘I’m interested in what you said about…..’; ‘Why/what do you think
that……?’
Choosing a Research Method 15
Interviews
Administrative issues
1. Once you have explained what the interview is all about and why you are
interviewing the respondent try one or two 'warm-up' questions to
establish a good rapport.
2. Listen, listen, listen! You can lose rapport if you ask someone a question
which they have already answered when replying to an earlier question.
Also you may want to cross-reference the answer to one question again the
answers given to earlier questions, e.g. 'Earlier in the interview you said
that...'
3. Do not be afraid to leave out a question if you think it is not relevant to a
particular interviewee.
4. If your interviewee is talkative and giving you a lot of useful information do
not hesitate to change the sequence of your questions if you think it would
be appropriate (e.g. if the respondent has mentioned something that you
were not originally intending to ask about until later in the interview) but
remember to go back to the questions you have temporarily skipped when
the time is right.
5. Think about how you are going to end the interview. Don't let it simply 'trail
off' because you have both run out of time or things to say.
6. Even when you have switched off the tape recorder or put away your
notebook you need to stay 'switched on'. A common phenomenon in
interviewing is that people often give you very interesting and useful
information once the formal interview is over. Write it down as soon as you
can but don't foreclose the situation by either asking if you can switch on
your recorder again or by saying 'I'm afraid that I'm in a bit of a hurry!'
Focused group discussions
A focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people
are asked about their attitude towards a product, service, concept, advertisement,
idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where
participants are free to talk with other group members.
These are widely used in market research. The method is also sometimes
used in health promotion research and social work research. As an approach it
tends to be used in combination with other research techniques.
1. Group discussion produces data and insights that would be less accessible
without interaction found in a group setting -- listening to others’
verbalized experiences stimulates memories, ideas, and experiences in
participants.
2. A good medium for exploring a group of people's views without imposing
your own agenda on them too strongly.
3. Provides opportunities to explore the thinking behind the kinds of
responses which might have been given to a questionnaire but without
opting for the more expensive option of follow-up one-to-one interviews.
4. In the early stages of a project it can be a useful means of identifying issues
or areas of interest that could be followed-up using more quantitative
research methods.
5. It provides the researcher with an opportunity to cross-check responses,
e.g. 'Does everyone agree with that?'...Does that reflect your experience as
well? ..etc.
Choosing a Research Method 18
Focused Group Discussions
1. The researcher has less control over a group than a one-on-one interview,
and thus time can be lost on issues irrelevant to the topic.
2. Difficult to follow-up the views of individuals during the group discussion,
especially on topics which may be sensitive.
3. A fundamental difficulty with focus groups (and other forms of qualitative
research) is the issue of observer dependency: the results obtained are
influenced by the researcher, raising questions of validity.
4. Moreover, the number of members of a focus group is not large enough to
be a representative sample of a population; thus, the data obtained from
the groups is not necessarily representative of the whole population, unlike
in opinion polls.
5. This method can be heavily affected by the dynamics of the group,
especially if some members of the group are senior to others. One or two
people can easily dominate the proceedings if they have clear views and
are articulate. It is possible as a facilitator to counter this tendency but it
takes experience and self-confidence.
Design Issues
4. Introduce yourself (if they do not already know you) and explain the
purpose of the session, how long it will take and what you will do with the
information.
5. Get them to briefly introduce themselves (if they do not know each other).
6. Decide how you will record the discussion. Will you tape it? Take notes?
Get a colleague to take notes?
Good chairing skills are essential (a) to ensure that the discussion is dominated
by one or two and (b) to find out if there is a consensus within the group on a
particular issue or theme and (c) to judge when to move on to the next theme or
issue.
Observation
Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a human),
consisting of receiving knowledge of the outside world through the senses, or the
recording of data using scientific instruments.
Observation plays a role in the second and fifth steps. However the need
for reproducibility requires that observations by different observers be
comparable.
Choosing a Research Method 22
Observation
Design Issues
1. The first key question is: 'Are you going to be a participant or detached
observer? What are the advantages to either role in this particular setting?
2. Linked to that question is: 'Are you going to observe your own practice or
the practice of your colleagues and are you going to observe your students
or a colleague's?'
3. Are you going to tell the group that you will be observing them?
4. Do you want a narrative description of what is happening or do you want to
design a specific observation schedule. The former approach is often
described as 'naturalistic' and used by social anthropologists and some
sociologists. Some form of observation schedule is more often used by
psychologists and educational researchers. Look at the different kinds of
schedule in the recommended reading before making up your mind on this.
5. What specifically do you want to observe:
a. Do you need to describe the setting? [the layout of the room, where
people are sitting, the equipment used, etc)
b. Do you need to describe the people involved?
c. Do you need to describe every event and activity over a specific time
period or just a sample of events, or select the ones you are
interested in?
d. Are you just interested in the interactions between the tutor and the
students or are you also interested in the interactions between the
students?
e. Will it be useful to time each event or activity? What will this tell
you? How will you use this data?
Choosing a Research Method 24
Observation
1. Unlike most research instruments and data sources, documents are not so
prone to being influenced by the researcher.
2. Documents enable the researcher to investigate the background and
context of the situation and the specific problem they are interested in.
3. A useful means of evaluating the extent to which the rhetoric (or the policy)
is actually put into practice [but of course you also need other means and
other sources for evaluating practice].
4. Documentary analysis is a useful means of analyzing the 'official' view and
accessing the 'official' record of events, decisions and plans.
5. Some documents [e.g. student assessments] can provide a measure of the
impact of changes introduced during the Action Research process.
Choosing a Research Method 26
Documentary Analysis
Design Issues
The application of the special treatment to the experimental group but not
the control group;
Will this classical experimental design still work when the subjects of the
experiment are people rather than wheat seeds?
The experiment is still the norm in medical research and is widely used in all
forms of psychology, research into health care and, to a lesser extent, research
into social care. One particular form of the experimental design, the randomized
controlled trial (through which, for instance, new drugs and forms of medical
treatment are tested) is still generally regarded in those disciplines as the 'gold
standard' of research. It is used to test new drugs and forms of medical treatment
and to evaluate the effectiveness of new interventions in health and social care
[Gomm & Davies (2000) p.xi].
In each case the experiment is designed in such a way that it reduces the
likelihood that the prior knowledge of the subjects, the practitioners and the
researchers taking part in the trial might unduly influence the results of the
experiment.
However, in many social situations it is simply not practical (or sensible) to try
to control all of the possible variables that might influence the outcomes of a
specific change or intervention. Indeed, in some instances it would also be
unethical to use a controlled experiment if, for instance, the subjects were not in a
position to give their informed consent to participation in the experiment or if
participation meant that they might suffer or be treated unfairly or if the
Choosing a Research Method 29
Experiments
Where the researchers establish a pilot or study group (the subjects of their
research) who experience the change or intervention and a reference or
comparator group from whom data are collected using the same research
instruments even though they are not experiencing the change or intervention.
Ultimately the central question for any researcher opting for a quasi-
experimental design will be: 'Am I comparing like with like?' If the answer is: 'I
believe so' then the follow-up question will inevitably be: 'How do I know?’