S.K.

Tyagi, Former Chief Engineer

Consultant,
Alternate Hydro Energy Centre,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee
Roorkee – 247 667 (Uttarakhand)
´ Almost instant availability of service.
´ Very high reliability.
´ Quick response to rapidly changing load.
´ No standby losses.
´ No change in efficiency with age.
´ Less man power for O&M.
´ Running cost very little.
´ No fuel charges.
´ No problem of fuel transport or refuge disposal.
´ Dam or weir.
´ Inlet water ways.

´ Power House & Plant.

´ Tail race or outlet water ways.

´ Natural lakes at high altitude.

´ Substantial catchment area.

´ Favorable geographical, geological

and meteorological conditions.
´ Ground survey and aerial survey.

´ Many factors like terrain, condition of

rocks, slopes of ground, narrowness
valley.
(a) Water availability:-
(i) Essential data's required Daily, weekly, monthly flow over a year for
plant capacity and output for storage schemes one or more dry
periods of years.
(ii) Minimum water flow conditions.
(b) Water Storage:-
- Required to absorb wide variation in rainfall and equalize the flow of
water through-out year.
- Careful study of topography, geology, ecology and social conditions.
- Location nearest to power plant.
(c) Head of Water:-
- Features which effect head are topography, water flow, level of tail
race turbine discharge and flood.
- P & Q H relation
- All possible efforts are made to secure maximum possible head.
(d) Distance from Load Centre
(e) Access to site:- Roads & other facilities for transport.

BASED ON SOURCE OF WATER

- Run off river scheme

- Storage scheme

Based on head available

- Low Head

- Medium Head

- High Head

Head affect choice of Turbine

- Axial Flow reaction (Kaplan, Propeller) turbine for
low head (1 to 50 m).
- Mixed Flow Reaction (Francis) Turbine for medium
head (upto 300 m).
- Impulse Turbine for high head (above 300 m).
1. Dams
- Primary function to afford head, create storage.
- Principal type – concrete, masonry earth or a
combination.
- The concrete and masonry dams may be core type &
buttress type. Minimum upkeep & attendance.
- Earth dam with or without core (concrete or puddle day).

2. Head regulator
- Regulate supply of water to channel, tunnel or
penstocks.

3. Tunnel or channel
- Conveys water to the forebay with little loss of head.
- Semi-circular or trapezoidal – as these give more
hydraulic mean depth than rectangular.
- Power channels should be lined to prevent loss of water
due to seepage and erosion of channel banks.
- Trash rack at forebay to prevent entry of boulders & logs
which may damage turbine.

4. Forebay
- Meets hour to hour requirement of water demand of
station.
- Larger the forebay – easier the operation.

Screens/Trash Racks
Prevent entry to logs, fish, boulders or any other
foreign material.
Penstocks
- Follow the best and shortest route.
- Proper anchoring through out the route.
Surge Towers
- Facilitates stability in operation of Power Station.
- It protects channel or tunnel in case of sudden rise of
water pressure due to tripping of machine.
- Height comparable to the operating head.
Power House Building
- Covering for protection of equipment installed.
- Size according to the requirement of plant to be
handled.
- Height is mostly depend upon the length of shaft.
- It should have adequate space, apart from the main
machines, a repair shop, a store, office, control room,
test room, LT room, communication room and also a
retiring room and a lunch room for workers.
 Crane & Crane Girders
- Important part of the power house.
- Span the width of the power house.
- Should be able to travel for the entire length.
- Elevation of crane rail above working floor
depends upon the length of the shaft.
- Desirable capacity depend on the weight of
heaviest assembled part to be lowered in pit-
mostly rotor.

HYDRO TURBINE
(i)Impulse (a) Pelton : High head
(b) Turgo : Medium head
( c) Cross Flow : Low head
(ii)Reaction (a) Mixed Flow- Francis : Medium head
(b) Axial Flow – Kaplan, Semi Kaplan,
Propeller, Tubular, Bulb : Low
head

Choice of Turbine
- Output, working head, nature of load and speed.
- For low head adjustable blade type Kaplan Turbine is
preferred.
- For medium head reaction type, having fixed blade, Francis
Turbine is preferred.
- For high head impulse that is Pelton Turbine is used.
Governors
- To adjust automatically the guide vanes and runner blades to
meet the load conditions and speed regulation.
- Should have a sensitive and positive control without any
danger of either over running or hunting.
- Principle performance characteristics are:-
- sensitiveness
- stability
- freedom from hunting
- speed regulation
- regulating time
- Type
- Hydro Mechanical Governor
- Electronic Governor
- Load Diverter – for machines below 100 kW

Speed and Efficiency of Turbine

- Principle factors affecting speed are head and output
required.
- For a given output the speed falls if the head is less.
- For a given head speed falls with increase in output.
- Large output and low heads, operate at low speed.
- With constant speed and constant head efficiency of reaction
turbine falls rapidly as the load is reduced.
- Desirable to operate reaction turbine near full load as far as
possible.
- Critical speed at which turbine operates most efficiently. If
this is increased without decreasing diameter of runner or
wheel, the efficiency is reduced.
- Performance of various units operating under different
conditions can be compared by a reference to specific
speed.
- Specific speed denotes the speed of geometrically similar
model of turbine designed to give an output of 1 B.H.P.
under head of 1 ft and 1 cusec water flow.
- Ranges of different type:-
Impulse ….. 3-6
Reaction (a) ….. 10-110 (Mixed Flow Francis)
(b) ….. 110-225 (Axial Flow, Kaplan,
Propeller)
 ELECTRICAL PLANT
- Generator
- Exciter
- Switchgear
- Transformer
- D.C. Battery and battery charger

GENERATOR
- A field or assembly of magnets arranged to produce
magnetic flux.
- An armature or assembly of electric conductors
arranged across the path of magnetic flux.
- The field and armature are mounted on mechanical
parts so that a relative motion is produced between
the magnetic flux and electric conductors.
- As the field poles are arranged alternatively positive
and negative, the polarity of induced emf is
alternating.

Hydro Generators
There are two types of generators namely synchronous
and Induction. The induction generator is also called
Asynchronous generator based on the super synchronous
speed at which it operates.
For decentralized power station or grid connected
power station with stand-alone operation synchronous
generator is obviously required. Only for grid connected
station Induction generator can be employed.
The most important requirement of a hydro generator is
its suitability to withstand runaway speed of the turbine.
The usual runway speed of different types of turbine is
mentioned below:-
.
 S. No. Types of Turbines Range of Runway Speed
Over rated speed (Nr/N)
1. Pelton 1.6-1.8
2. Turgo Impulse 1.6-1.8
3. Cross Flow 1.6-1.8
4. Francis 1.8-2.2
5. Full Kaplan 2.8.-3.2
6. Semi-Kaplan 2.5-2.8
7. Propeller 2.2-2.6
Whereas an Induction generator has to be designed to withstand runaway
speed for an indefinite time quite frequently a synchronous generator has to
withstand runaway speed continuously for a period of 15 minutes. This requires a
very robust mechanical design for both types of hydro generators.
Generators are selected keeping the capital cost of the plant and the cost of
Generation as paramount factors

Synchronous Generators
As the name suggests the Synchronous generator runs at Synchronous
speed corresponding to the system frequency and number of poles of the
machine. An Excitation system to give DC Excitation to the field is required
for this type.
Synchronous Generators can operate independently or in parallel with
similar other sets or with grid. Special synchronizing equipment are however
required for synchronizing the generator. They are costlier than induction
generators.
The Synchronous Generator has ability to supply reactive KVAR to the
Grid and can therefore regulate the power factor. This is another important
advantage of having a Synchronous Generators.
 Induction Generators
The Induction Generator operates only at super synchronous speed-a speed
well above synchronous speed corresponding to the supply frequency. The
generator voltage, frequency and speed are all dictated by the electrical system
with which is connected. Hence AVR for the generator and speed governor for the
turbine are both redundant. The synchronizing equipment is not required to
synchronize the induction generator with the grid. The generator can be simply
switched ON with the grid at the proper speed. The Induction generator draws its
excitation current from the grid eliminating separate excitation equipment.
However, this imposes additional burden on the grid to supply excitation current
thereby causing stability problems unless the grid is at least 10 to 15 times
stronger than the induction generator connected with it.
Another important point to be considered is compatibility of voltage dips of
the grid with the pull out torque of the generator which should be substantially
high of the order of well over 200 % - 225 %.
The generation voltage preferred is 415 v for decentralized power station up
to 1000 KW and 3.3/6.6/11 KV for above 1000 KW for grid-connected power
stations. The criteria are the overall economy of the entire electrical system
consisting of the generator, switchgear, transformer, protection system etc.

STATOR

- Built up of welded steel plates made in three or four segments.

- Circular steel frame for supporting core and winding.
- The core is laminated to prevent losses.
- The coils are in the form of bars or diamond form coils laid in slots.

ROTOR

Types

1. The distributed pole type in which the windings are embedded in slots
in the face of cylindrical wheels so that pole pieces are integral with the
wheel.
- used for high speed generator.
- greater strength and compactness.
2. The salient pole type in which winding surrounded, individual pole
pieces mounted on the periphery of the wheel.
- Majority of water wheels have salient pole type fields.
- Field poles are laminated to prevent hysteretic and eddy current.
- A water wheel is subjected to run away speed of 150 to 200 percent
of normal speed. Generator rotor is designed to withstand this speed
safely.
 BEARINGS
- Thrust bearing.
- Lower guide bearing.
- Upper guide bearing.
- The thrust bearing is designed to carry the weight of
all rotating parts i.e. runner rotor, exciter armatures
etc. and also unbalanced thrust of water.
- Generally the bearings are oil lubricated. Oil is filled
in the housing of the bearing and proper oil level is
maintained for the safe running of bearings.
- In some machine oil is supplied under pressure with
the help of pumps.
- Cooling is done through water piping system.

BRAKES
• To bring the machine to rest after shutting downs of
the machine as without brakes slight leakage
through the gates might cause machine to rotate
indefinitely.
• It also constitutes an additional safe-guard against
run away speed.
• The braking units are utilized for jacking purposes
also.

VENTILATION
- Disposal of electrical losses which appear
as heat presents serious problem.
- Generator is provided with fan blades
mounted on rotor.
- The systems directing the cooling air are
axial circumferential – but all take air at
one or both ends.

PERFORMANCE OF GENERATORS
- Efficiency of generator is the ratio of its
useful output to its total input.
- Depends upon size, speed, load, power
factors.
EXCITATION SYSTEM
- An external direct current source is required to maintain
necessary magnetic flux in the field winding of the alternator.
- The amount of excitation depend upon the speed, load, and
power factor.
- Excitation requirements are more with low speed lagging power
factor and heavy load.
(a) Conventional
- Main exciter
- Pilot exciter – permits the smooth regulation of main exciter
terminal voltage from zero to rated voltage.
- With the vertical water wheel generators – these are
vertically mounted type.
- The armature of main and pilot exciter with their
commutator are mounted on extension shaft coupled
directly to the rotor shaft.
- The magnetic system consisting of yoke, main poles, inter-
poles are supported on thrust bearing frame.
- These are mostly open circuit self ventilated.
(b) Static Excitation
(c) Brushless Excitation—AC exciter with rotating diodes
(d) Self Excited, Self Regulated Excitation System (SESR)

AUXILIARY POWER REQUIREMENT

• The total power requirement is normally 1 to 5 percent.
• For Intake gates, compressors, cranes, dewatering and
drainage pumps, workshop, test lab., air conditioners,
lighting etc.
• This is obtained from station transformers and unit
auxiliary transformers.

CABLING AND G.T. CONNECTIONS

• The cables are laid in trenches or on cable racks.
• The generator and step up transformers are connected
by a specially designed bus duct which carries very
heavy current.

CONTROL ROOM
• The control gear, protective relay and metering &
recording panels are installed in separate room.
• The arrangement is either linear or semi-circular.
• Some panels may desk type.
VOLTAGE REGULATION

To overcome following difficulties, automatic voltage

regulators are used:-
- If large electrical load is switched off, the rise of
speed of the turbine causes dangerous rise in
voltage due to the action of alternator and exciter.
- This refers to an alternator operating at high power
factor where regulation of standard machine (i.e.
percentage rise above the rated voltage when full
load is thrown off as about 25% to 30% at 0.8 p.f.
and 12 to 15% at unity p.f. assuming the speed and
excitation to remain constant.

ELECTRICAL PROTECTIVE SYSTEM

- To take care abnormal electrical condition resulting
from undue speed variation faulty operation of gates,
electrical fault, mechanical fault occurring during
operation.
- Automatic over speed, under speed, over voltage, over
frequency relays.
- Generator differential relay.
- Over all differential relay not only shut off the machine
but release CO2 also into the generator barrel.
- A circuit breaker is provided to open the exciter circuits
automatically upon the operation of alternator relays.
- When load is thrown off the speed rise is quicker and
the voltage rise is so rapid that over voltage relay will
operate. This relay may be set to operate at 35 to 40
percent above normal voltage.
TRANSFORMER
- Step up transformer of adequate capacity for stepping up
generation voltage to transmission voltage.
- The transformer may be self cooled, water cooled or forced oil
cooled in order to dissipate losses of transformer, which may
appear in the form of heat.
- The transformer oil should have following qualities:-

- High resistivity & dielectric strength

- Low viscosity
- High flash and burning point
- High thermal conductivity & specific heat
- Chemical neutrality towards metals and insulating material
- Chemical stability at high temperature
- Moisture even in very small quantity reduces dielectric strength
- Drying and purifying of oil is done by centrifuging through stream
line filter machine.

SWITCHGEAR
Main functions:-
- To localize the effects of faults by operation or protective
equipment and so automatically disconnect the faulty plant
from system.
- To break efficiently short circuits without giving rise to
dangerous conditions.
- To facilitate re-distribution of loads, isolation and
maintenance on the system.

ISOLATORS
- A short of knife switch for isolating circuit breakers,
generators, transformers, arresters and other equipment.
- It acts as section switch in conjunction with double bus bar
and single circuit breaker.
- It is not designed to work under load.
- It consists of single pole knife with an eye to receive a switch
hook mounted on porcelain insulator and suitable metal base.
CIRCUIT BREAKER
The selection involves following factors:-
- normal voltage
- normal current
- abnormal current
- interrupting duty
- operation arrangement of terminals
- space available
- accessibility for repairs
- altitude of installation
- temperature

A breaker is rated on the basis of:-

- r.m.s. voltage of circuit
- the normal temperature rise over ambient temperature
- normal frequency of current at normal voltage.
- short time rating based on the maximum r.m.s. current the
breaker will carry safely for 1, 2, 3 or 5 secs. without
excessive heating.

Type of Circuit Breaker:-

(1) Air Blast Circuit Breaker
- Air under pressure is used to assist in the making
and breaking of the circuit and also afford desired
degree of insulation.
- Auxiliary contacts are provided to open after and
close before the main contacts so as to relieve the
main contacts of the burning action.
(2) Oil Circuit Breaker
- These are arranged to break under oil.
- In small breaker all the 3 poles are arranged in one
tank.
- In medium an large breaker each pole has a
separate tank.
- Auxiliary contacts as described as above are
provided.
- When heavy currents are interrupted by the breaker,
the pressure generated due to heat of the arc is
enormous and consequently the tank must be made
very sturdy.
- A vent is provided to escape the gases.
(3) SF6
 BUS BAR ARRANGEMENT
- Single bus bar
- Sectionalized single bus bar
- Single ring bus bar
- Duplicate bus bar system
1. Single Bus Bar
- This is seldom used as there is no standby.
- Work on the bus bar cannot be undertaken without interrupting
supply.

2. Sectionalized Single Bus Bar

-Reasonable measure of security in case of break-down.

3. Single Ring Bus Bar

-This extended form of single bus.
-Make possible to isolate any section for repair
4. Duplicate Bus Bar System
The advantage of spare bus are:-
(i) Cleaning, repairs, modifications and extensions
may be undertaken without interruption to the
supply.
(ii) Feeders which have undergone repair may be
tried out separately by a test set before putting
into the service.
(iii) Feeders may be isolated from the system for
maintenance.
(iv) A supply from an inter-connected system may
be received and distributed without running in
parallel.
(v) The bus bars may be used to best advantage,
as non adjacent sections which are lightly
loaded may be paralleled through spare bus
and run as one section.
(vi) To take full advantage of this system, provision
should be made for synchronizing and
paralleling the two sets of bus bars.
 Switchyard Equipment
Generally following equipment are to be installed in switchyard as per
requirement and provisions in the single line diagram.
•Transformers.
•Circuit Breakers.
•Current Transformers.
•Potential Transformers.
•Lightning Arrestors.
•PLCC Equipment.
1.Wave trap
2.Coupling capacitor or CVT
•Isolators.
•Isolators with earth blades.
•Bus bar system, insulators and hardwares.
•Main and Auxiliary structures
•Fence all around
•Earthing network.
 GRID CONNECTION :
Level of voltage:
415 V
11 KV
33 KV
66 KV
132 KV

The voltage is selected through following two empirical formulae.

L kVA
1. Economical Voltage V=5.5 1.6 + 150

Where L =Length of line in Km.

kVA =Power per phase required to be transmitted.

2. Economical Voltage V = 5.5 L + 3P

1.6 100

Where L =Length of line in Km.

P =Power in kW per phase

The above formulae gives an idea of voltage, but final selection is made after detailed studies.
TRANSMISSION LINES
Transmission lines are essential for three purposes.
•To transmit power from a hydro generating site to a grid substation. These may be very long
and justified because of the subsidy aspect connect with the project.
•For bulk supply of power to load centers from large HEP and steam stations. These are likely
to be relatively short.
•For interconnection purposes, that is, for transfer of energy from one system to another in
case of emergency or in response to diversity in system peaks
•Frequent attempts have been made to set up definitions of “transmission lines, distribution
circuit and substations.” None has proved entirely satisfactory or universally applicable, but for
the purposes of accounting the Federal Power Commission(USA) and various state
commissions(USA) have set up definitions that in essence are read as follows:
•A transmission system includes all land, conversion structures and equipment at a primary
source of supply; lines, switching and conversion stations between a generating or receiving
point and the entrance to a distribution center or wholesale point, all means and equipment
whose primary purpose is to augment, integrate or tie together sources of power supply.
•The power flow analysis of the transmission network should be got done through computers
before finalization of the transmission line parameters, particularly terminating substations,
conductor & its configuration.

PRINCIPLES OF LAYOUT

(i)The design of the individual units should be such

that the risks of failure are reduced to minimum.
(ii)Barriers and partitions should, if possible,
separate each unit so that a faulty unit will not
interfere with its neighbors. Complete sub-division
avoids as far as practicable any serious trouble
spreading and damaging the adjoining units or
sections.
(iii)Layout should be such that any section may be
isolated without unduly affecting the service.
(iv)To provide easy and safe access for
maintenance and general routine inspection.
(v)Provisions should be made for handling oil and
dealing with fires.