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Amplitude Modulation :
DSB-SC :
u (t) =
m(t) cos 2 t
Power P =
Conventioanal AM :
u (t) = [1 + m(t)] Cos 2 t . as long as |m(t)| 1 demodulation is simple .
Practically m(t) = a m (t) .
()
()
Modulation index a = ( ) , m (t) =
| ( )|
Power =
SSB-AM :
Square law Detector SNR =
()
= 2a / a amplitude Sensitivity
Envelope Detector R C (i/p) < < 1 /
R C (o/P) >> 1/
R C << 1/
Cos (2 t + (t) )
( )
m(t) . dt
= 2 ( + 1)
98% power
/2
(SNR)
(SNR)
=
=
= (SNR)
= (SNR)
Digital Communication
Matched filter:
impulse response a(t) =
( T t) . P(t) i/p
Matched filter o/p will be max at multiples of T . So, sampling @ multiples of T will give max SNR
(2nd point )
matched filter is always causal a(t) = 0 for t < 0
Spectrum of o/p signal of matched filter with the matched signal as i/p ie, except for a delay factor ;
proportional to energy spectral density of i/p.
()=
( ) = |( )| e
o/p signal of matched filter is proportional to shifted version of auto correlation fine of i/p signal
(t) = R (t T)
(T) = R (0) which proves 2nd point
At t = T
( )
( )
||
P(f) =
cos
||
||
||
=Q
=Q
= 2Q
=Q
= erfc
Bit rate
erfc
FSK:For BPSK
=Q
Orthogonal signals are 3 dB poorer than antipodal signals. The 3dB difference is due to distance b/w 2
points.
For non coherent FSK
= e /
FPSK & 4 QAM both have comparable performance .
32 QAM has 7 dB advantage over 32 PSK.
Bandwidth efficiency S =
Symbol time
Band rate =
; S=
;S=
log
| [ ]|
|x(t)| dt =
|x(t)| dt = lim
|x[n]|
Shifting & Time scaling wont effect power . Frequency content doesnt effect power.
if power = neither energy nor power signal
Power = 0 Energy signal
Power = K power signal
Energy of power signal = ; Power of energy signal = 0
Generally Periodic & random signals Power signals
Aperiodic & deterministic Energy signals
Precedence rule for scaling & Shifting :
x(at + b) (1) shift x(t) by b x(t + b)
(2) Scale x(t + b) by a x(at + b)
x( a ( t + b/a)) (1) scale x(t) by a x(at)
(2) shift x(at) by b/a x (a (t+b/a)).
x(at +b) = y(t) x(t) = y
h(t)dt
S (t) = h(t)
h[n] = s[n] s[n-1]
u(t) * e
u(t) =
[e
- e ] u(t) .
Rect (t / 2 ) *
Rect(t / 2 ) = 2
min ( ,
) trapezoid ( ,
dx = 2 ;
x e
dx =
2 > 0
Laplace Transform :-
(s) e ds
x(t) =
x(t) e
X(s) =
ds
) = lim
x() = lim
( )
( )
ROC is a strip
7. if x(t) causal
8. if x(t) stable
Z-transform :x[n] =
X(z) =
x( )
dz
x[n]
( )
1) X(z)
Group delay
)
( )
)
( )
)
(
(x) = P { X x }
Properties of CDF :
() = P { X } = 1
(- ) = 0
(x X x ) = (x ) - (x )
Its Non decreasing function
P{ X > x} = 1 P { X x} = 1- (x)
PDF :Pdf =
(x) =
(x)
= x } (x = x )
Pmf = (x) =
Properties:
(x) 0
(x) =
() =
(x) * u(x) =
(x) dx
P{x <Xx }=
x (x) dx
= E {x} =
Variance = E { (
E{g(x)} =
) } = E {x } -
g(x)
(x) dx
(x) =
1
<
(x) =
<
Mean =
Variance = (
a) / 12
E{ x } =
(x) =
) /
X~N( )
Mean =
) /
dx =
x e
Variance =
) /
dx =
u(x)
(x) = ( 1- e
) u(x)
(x , y) = P { X x , Y y }
(x , ) = P { X x } = (x) ;
( , y) = P { Y < y } =
(-, y) =
(x, - ) =
(-, -) = 0
(x y) dy ;
(x) =
(y) =
(x, y) dx
/
x =
(y/x) =
(y)
( )
( )
( )
(t ) } = R (t , t ) (t ) } = R (t , t ) -
(t )
(t )
(t )
(t )
C (t , t ) = 0 R (t , t ) = (t ) (t ) Un correlated
R (t , t ) = 0 Orthogonal cross correlation = 0
R (0) = E { x }
R ( ) = R (- ) even
| R ( ) | R (0)
Cross Correlation
R ( ) = R (- )
R ( ) R (0) . R (0)
2 | R ( )| R (0) + R (0)
P.S.D
S (j) =
R ( )e
R ( )=
( )e
d
d
S (j) = S (j) | ( )|
( ) d
Power = R (0) =
R ( ) = k ( ) white process
Properties :
S (j) even
S (j) 0
10
Control Systems
Time Response of 2nd order system :Step i/P :
C(t) = 1-
e(t) =
= lim
(sin
sin
t tan
tan
sin
tan
Sin
tan
(1 + t)
11
C(t) = 1 T=
>
>
>
Rise time t =
Peak time t =
/
Max over shoot %
=e
100
Settling time t = 3T
5% tolerance
= 4T
2% tolerance
.
Delay time t =
Damping actor
No of oscillations =
t 1.5 t
t = 2.2 T
Resonant peak
=
Bandwidth = (1
= tan
)
(
=
; =
2
< <
+ 2)
Step i/p : e
= lim
( ) = lim
( ) = lim
= lim
(positional error)
= lim
=
= 1/
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
= lim
( )
( ) ( )
12
/
/
Sensitivity S =
sensitivity of A w.r.to K.
Open loop:
S =1
Closed loop :
S=
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Stability
RH Criterion :
Vector Calculus: A. (B C) = C. (A B) = B. (C A)
A(BC) = B(A.C) C(A.B) Bac Cab rule
( . )
Scalar component of A along B is
= A Cos
=A.a = | |
Vector component of A along B is
.a =
= A Cos
( . )
| |
Laplacian of scalars :( . )
. ds =
Divergence theorem
(
)
.
=
Stokes theorem
A = ( . )
. = solenoidal / Divergence loss
.
source
= irrotational / conservative/potential.
= 0 Harmonic .
Electrostatics : Force on charge Q located @ r F =
13
(
|
)
|
. < sink
.R
=
(
. a (depends on distance)
a -
E=
)
a .
D independent of medium
Gauss Law : Total flux coming out of any closed surface is equal to total charge enclosed by surface .
=
D . ds =
= . dv
= .D
Electric potential
a . dr a =
. d (independent of path)
= -
Potential @ any point (distance = r), where Q is located same where , whose position is vector @ r
V=
|
|
V(r) =
E = 0, E = - V
For monopole E ; Dipole E
V ;
V
Electric lines of force/ flux /direction of E always normal to equipotential lines .
Energy Density
=
=
D. dv =
dv
Continuity Equation
.J = -
where
Boundary Conditions :=
Tangential component of E are continuous across dielectric-dielectric Boundary .
Tangential Components of D are dis continues across Boundary .
=
;
= / .
14
.d = -
. ds
ds
E=-
s
Motional emf =
( B).
H=J+
=-
/ ; E.H = 0
=
=
E H in UPW
- E=0
1+
1+
+1
( + ) = + j.
E(z, t) =
|| =
= + j
attenuation constant Neper /m .
For loss less medium = 0; = 0.
phase shift/length ;
= / ; = 2/ .
=
= / = tan loss tanjent
=2
Tan
cos(t z) ;
/.
| | <
/
tan 2
= / .
Free space :- ( = 0,
15
= 8.686 dB
| N | = 20 log
, =
=0,=
; u = 1/
Here also E & H in phase .
, = 2/
< = 12
= = ; u = 2/ ; = 2 / ; =
Skin depth = 1/
=
2e / =
Skin resistance R =
Poynting Vector :(
) ds =
S
] dv
(z) =
| |
dv
cos
a
(s) ds
=
S
Direction of propagation :- (
a a =a
a a =a
Both E & H are normal to direction of propagation
Means they form EM wave that has no E or H component along direction of propagation .
Reflection of plane wave :(a) Normal incidence
Reflection coefficient =
=
coefficient =
16
wave in medium 2.
<
occurs @
:-
= n
Since || < 1 1
-r
-r
=0;
=0
= (R + )( + C) = + j
V(z, t) =
e
cos (t- z) +
e
cos (t + z)
= 1/
C , u = 1/
=
=
= C
= 1/
i/p impedance :=
C; u=
C
=
;u
= 1/C , u /
= 1/L
VSWR = =
CSWR = -
Transmission coefficient S = 1 +
| |
SWR =
=
=
=
|
=S
) (
<
=j
tan l
/S
Shorted line :- = -1 , S =
17
>
= -1 , S =
tan l.
=j
l < / 4 capacitive
< l < /2 inductive
=
Matched line : ( = )
=
= 0 ; s =1
No reflection . Total wave
impedance inverter @ l = /4
=
impedance reflector @ l = /2
ye
where k =
= 0; = 0 =
k <
Evanscent mode ; = ; = 0
k >
Propegation mode = =
= k
18
u = phase velocity =
=u/ =
( )
= / W
=-
TE Modes :- (
( )
= 0)
cos
cos
= / 1
>
Dominant mode
sin
19
Energy gap
=
/
/
- KT ln
.
.
+ KT ln
)/
No. of electrons n = N e (
)/
No. of holes p = N e (
Mass action law n = n = N N e
Drift velocity
= E (for si
1
(KT in ev)
/
cm/sec)
Hall voltage
Conductivity = ; = R .
Max value of electric field @ junction
. Hall coefficient R = 1/ .
=-
= -
charge density = qN = ne
N .n
= -
N .n
= qA x N = qA x N
EDC
J =-qD
= KT/q 25 mv @ 300 K
ln
= x +x =
= 12.9
Depletion capacitance C =
; C =
.A.
/
C =C / 1+
C = 2C
Forward current I =
= Aq n
= Aq n
Saturation Current
Diffusion capacitance C =
20
= Aq n
/
/
1
1
+
/D ;
=
/D
=
,
=
= mean transist time
I = .g C I.
Drift velocity of e
Poisson equation
Transistor :
=
+
= +
cm/sec
=E=
Active region
(1- e / )
Common Emitter :
= (1+ )
+
=
Collector current when base open
Collector current when = 0
>
or
- 2.5 mv / C ;
=h
=h
) when
>
; h =
C
R
= h =
= - 0.25 mv / C
h = - (1+ h ) ;
-h
;h =
; h
h
C
=h
=
=
=h +h
=h -
=
=
21
For S =
S =
= S.
+S
S =
+ S
Self bias S =
R =
=1+
0 < s < 1+ =
1+
R > 10 R
; R =
- 2 (R + R )] [ 0.07
. S] < 1/
<
|/
r
= h /g
r =h -r
r =r /h
g = h - (1+ h ) g
For CE :
=
=h
C = C + C (1 + g R )
For CB:
=
22
= (1 + h )
= (1 + )
>
>
(1- e
Multistage Amplifiers :
* =
2 /
1 ;
.
Rise time t =
t = 1.1 t
+t
= 1.1
= 1.1
.
.
Differential Amplifier :
= h + (1 + h ) 2R = 2 h R 2R
|
g =
CMRR =
= g of BJT/4
R ,
Darlington Pair :
= (1 + ) (1 + ) ;
R =(
g = (1 + ) g
DC value of
C RR
1 ( < 1)
[ if
&
23
B.W =
/Q
used .
For every
i =
>
[(
there will be
triode region (
i =
24
[(
] saturation
induced channel
i =
<
) -
Continuous channel
are ve
PMOS
induced channel
>
<
Pinchoff (Saturation)
For n-channel
i -
=0]
=0
MOSFET as Amplifier :
For saturation
>
To reduce non linear distortion
i =
g =
)
(
=-g R
Unity gain frequency
JFET :
i = 0 Cut off
0,
< < 2(
0 ,
2 1
Triode
Saturation
Zener Regulators :
25
Load regulation = - (r || R )
Line Regulation =
.
take
&
Slew rate SR =
= -
== -
26
dt ;
=
.
dt ;
= A.
=
(HPF)
Differentiator
=-
ln
ln
100 %
Power Amplifiers :
1+
R
..
+
= [ 1+ D ]
Where D =
+D +
. . +D
D =
=
-i
if i = 0, it will consume more power
=i
Class AB operation :
Class C operation :
flows for < 180 ; Q located just below cutoff ; = 87.5%
Very rich in Distortion ; noise interference is high .
Oscillators : For RC-phase shift oscillator f =
f=
27
h 4k + 23 +
where k = R /R
> 29
| 29 R 29 R
f=
|h |
| |
|A|
|h |
|
|A|
28
MatheMatics
Matrix : If |A| = 0 Singular matrix ; |A| 0 Non singular matrix
Scalar Matrix is a Diagonal matrix with all diagonal elements are equal
Unitary Matrix is a scalar matrix with Diagonal element as 1 ( = ( ) =
)
If the product of 2 matrices are zero matrix then at least one of the matrix has det zero
Orthogonal Matrix if A =
.A = I
=
A=
Symmetric
A= Skew symmetric
Properties :- (if A & B are symmetrical )
A + B symmetric
KA is symmetric
AB + BA symmetric
AB is symmetric iff AB = BA
For any A A +
symmetric ; A skew symmetric.
Diagonal elements of skew symmetric matrix are zero
If A skew symmetric
symmetric matrix ;
skew symmetric
If A is null matrix then Rank of A = 0.
Consistency of Equations : r(A, B) r(A) is consistent
r(A, B) = r(A) consistent &
if r(A) = no. of unknowns then unique solution
r(A) < no. of unknowns then solutions .
Hermition , Skew Hermition , Unitary & Orthogonal Matrices :-
29
=
then Hermition
=
then Hermition
Diagonal elements of Skew Hermition Matrix must be purely imaginary or zero
Diagonal elements of Hermition matrix always real .
A real Hermition matrix is a symmetric matrix.
|KA| =
|A|
, K ..
, .. .
A + KI
+ k , + k , .. + k
(
) (
k) , (
k)
, ..
for
Complex Algebra :
30
( )/(
a)
f(z) = f( ) + ( )
dz =
(
+ + ( )
+ . Taylor Series
( )
if
= 0 then it is called Mclauren Series f(z) =
a (
) ; when a =
If f(z) analytic in closed curve C except @ finite no. of poles then
+
= (a) /
= lim
( )
(a)
((
a) f(z) )
(c) = 0 .
Langranges Mean Value Theorem :If f(x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b) then there exists atleast one value C in (a, b)
such that
(c) =
( )
( )
Cauchys Mean value theorem :If f(x) & g(x) are two function such that
(a) f(x) & g(x) continuous in [a, b]
(b) f(x) & g(x) differentiable in (a, b)
(c) g (x) 0 x in (a, b)
Then there exist atleast one value C in (a, b) such that
(c) / g (c) =
( )
( )
( )
( )
31
(x). dx =
(x). dx +
a<c<b
(x)dx =
(a x)dx
(x). dx
(x). dx = 2
(x)dx
f(x) is even
= 0
f(x) is odd
(x). dx = 2
(x)dx
if f(x) = f(2a- x)
if f(x) = - f(2a x)
= 0
(x). dx = n
(x). dx =
x (x). dx =
(x)dx
if f(x) = f(x + a)
(a +
x). dx
(x). dx
/
sin x =
cos x =
sin x . cos x . dx =
if f(a - x) = f(x)
(
)(
(
)(
)(
(
(
)(
)(
)(
)
).
)
).
if n even
).(
(
if n odd
)(
)(
) (
)(
)(
)
).(
).
(a) = 0 and
(a) < 0
(a) = 0 and
(a) > 0
Constrained Maximum or Minimum :To find maximum or minimum of u = f(x, y, z) where x, y, z are connected by (x, y, z) = 0
Working Rule :(i) Write F(x, y, z) = f(x, y, z) + (x, y, z)
(ii) Obtain
= 0,
=0 ,
=0
32
Laplace Transform :
L { t f(t) } = ( 1)
( ) = s f(s) - s
()
f(0) - s
(0)
(0)
f(s)
(s) ds
(u) du f(s) / s .
Inverse Transforms :
t sin at
= Cos hat
= Sin hat
()
Numerical Methods :Bisection Method :(1) Take two values of x & x such that f(x ) is +ve & f(x ) is ve then x =
+ve then root lies between x & x otherwise it lies between x & x .
f(x )
=x
( )
( )
Pi cards Method :-
33
=y +
(x y )
= f(x, y)
y = y + (x- x ) (y ) +
(y) + .
(y)
= f(x, y
( )
= y + [f(x , y ) + f(x + h, y )
( )
= y + [f(x , y ) + f(x
,y
( )
)]
:
:
Calculate till two consecutive value of y agree
y = y + h f(x + h, y )
y
( )
finally compute K = (
+4
finally compute K = (
+2
+2
k = h f(x +h , y + k )
k = h ( f (x +h , y + k ))
34
k = h f(x + , y +
approximation vale
y =y +K.
k = h f (x +h , y + k )
Trapezoidal Rule :(x). dx =
[ ( y + y ) + 2 (y + y + . y
)]
[ ( y + y ) + 4 (y + y + . y
) + 2 (y + y +
.+ y
)]
[ ( y + y ) + 3 (y + y + y + y + . y
)+ 2 (y + y +
.+ y
)]
General form is
(y) dy = (x) dx + C .
Sol:
(
(
Sol : Put y = Vx
)
)
& solve
Sol : Put
35
x=X+h
y=Y+k
(ii)
(
(
Sol : Let
Put ax + by = t
/b
General form
.
I.F = e
. ( . ) dx + C .
Sol : y(I.F) =
General form M dx + N dy = 0
N f(x, y)
If
N
x
then
. dx
Sol :
+ (terms o N containing x ) dy = C
( y constant )
( )
= x
= x
36
( )
( )
if f (a) = 0
e
if
(a) = 0
sin (ax + b) =
= x
f(- a ) = 0
sin (ax + b)
=x
( )
f(- a ) 0
sin (ax + b)
sin (ax + b)
x = [ (D)] x
( )
f(x) = e
f(x)
dy) =
dx dy
This theorem converts a line integral around a closed curve into Double integral which is special case of
Stokes theorem .
Series expansion :Taylor Series :f(x) = f(a) +
f(x) = f(0) +
( )
( )
x +
(1 + x) = 1+ nx +
e = 1+x+
( )
(x-a) +
(x
a) + +
( )
x + +
x + | nx| < 1
( )
( )
(x
a)
+ ..
Sin x = x -
- ..
Cos x = 1 -
- ..
Digital Electronics
37
Noise margin :
or
Power Dissipation
=
or
=
DAC
FSV =
1
Resolution =
Accuracy = LSB =
Analog o/p = K. digital o/p
ADC
* LSB = Voltage range / 2
=
* Resolution =
* Quantisation error =
OR
Programmable
Programmable fixed
PROM
PAL
Fastest ADC :
38
clock pulses .
Flip Flops :
a(n+1) = S + R Q
=D
=J + Q
=T + Q
Excitation tables :J
0 0
0 0
0 0
1
0
1
0
1 1
0 0
1 1
1 1
0 x
1 x
1 1
0 1
1 0
0 0
1 1
0 0
1 x
1
1
1
1
I0
C
I3
39
10
I2
11
I3
1C 1
3
_
C
0
A
01
I1
I1
I
AB 00
I0
_
OC 0
(2, 5, 6, 7)
Decoder :
Microprocessors
40
Software interrupts
RST 0
RST 1
2
:
:
7
S1
S0
Halt
write
Read
fetch
0000H
0008H
0010H
0018H
0024H
both edge level
Edge triggered
003CH
0034 H
level triggered 002C
Non vectored
Vectored
0038H
HOLD & HLDA used for Direct Memory Access . Which has highest priority over all interrupts .
Flag Registers :S
41
X AC X P X CY
Sign flag :- After arthematic operation MSB is resolved for sign flag . S = 1 -ve result
If Z = 1 Result = 0
AC : Carry from one stage to other stage is there then AC = 1
P : P =1 even no. of ones in result .
CY : if arthematic operation Results in carry then CY = 1
For INX & DCX no flags effected
In memory mapped I/O ; I/O Devices are treated as memory locations . You can connect max of
65536 devices in this technique .
In I/O mapped I/O , I/O devices are identified by separate 8-bit address . same address can be used
to identify i/p & o/p device .
Max of 256 i/p & 256 o/p devices can be connected .
8155 programmable peripheral Interface with 256 bytes RAM & 16-bit counter
8255 Programmable Interface adaptor
8253 Programmable Interval timer
8251 programmable Communication interfacing Device (USART)
8257 Programmable DMA controller (4 channel)
8259 Programmable Interrupt controller
8272 Programmable floppy Disk controller
CRT controller
Key board & Display interfacing Device
Call on carry
9 18 states
CM
Call on minus
9-18
42
CP
Call on +ve
CPE
: - 6/ 12 T states
Jump on Carry
7/10 T states
Jump on zero
Jump on Positive
Jump on Minus
PCHL : Move HL to PC
6T
PUSH : 12 T ; POP : 10 T
SHLD : address : store HL directly to address 16 T
SPHL : Move HL to SP 6T
STAX : R store A in memory 7T
STC : set carry
4T
XCHG : exchange DE with HL 4T
43
44
DCR, INR effects all flags except carry flag . Cy wont be modified
LHLD load HL pair directly
RST 12T states
SPHL , RZ, RNZ ., PUSH, PCHL, INX , DCX, CALL fetching has 6T states
PUSH 12 T ; POP 10T