Accepted Manuscript

Title: FAILURE OF THE CHASSIS OF ROLLER SKATES

FOR AGONISTIC FIGURE SKATING
Author: Giorgio Olmi
PII:
DOI:
Reference:

S2213-2902(14)00019-4
http://dx.doi.org/doi:10.1016/j.csefa.2014.08.002
CSEFA 62

To appear in:
Received date:
Accepted date:

30-7-2014
21-8-2014

Please cite this article as: Giorgio Olmi FAILURE OF THE CHASSIS
OF ROLLER SKATES FOR AGONISTIC FIGURE SKATING (2014),
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.csefa.2014.08.002
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FAILURE OF THE CHASSIS OF ROLLER SKATES FOR AGONISTIC FIGURE

SKATING

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Giorgio Olmi
Department of Industrial Engineering (DIN), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy

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Corresponding Author:

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Prof. Giorgio Olmi, Ph.D.

Department of Industrial Engineering (DIN)
University of Bologna

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Viale del Risorgimento, 2 - 40136 BOLOGNA (BO) - ITALY

Phone: +39 051 2093455, +39 051 2090474 (Lab.), +39 0543 374427 (in Forl)

Fax: +39 051 2093412

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E - mail: giorgio.olmi@unibo.it

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Abstract:
The subject of this work was to investigate the early failure, which occurred in the chassis of a roller skate
for figure skating. The paper deals with the preliminary analysis of the crack and with the integrated
approach, which had to be followed to overcome the problem. Literature in the fields of physiology and

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biomechanics was studied to correctly simulate the load distribution on the chassis. Finite element
simulation, experimental stress analysis and analytical modeling of impact phenomena had to be combined

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together to estimate the entity of dynamic loads and the corresponding state of stress. The analysis led to the
determination of the primary cause of failure, bending fatigue, and to the suggestion of a simple solution to

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improve and optimize the project.

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Keywords: figure roller skating, impact load, bending fatigue, strain gauge testing, structural optimization

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1. Introduction
Figure roller skating is nowadays a sport being practised by thousands of people at a professional or semiprofessional level. One of the most impressive figures in exhibitions and competitions consists in jumps:
during these evolutions the skater gets elevated up to 400 mm, just after the wheels drop down to the ground

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with a strong impact. From the mechanical point of view, the impact has a quite serious outcome, since a
high level of load is transmitted to the skate chassis. Moreover, its entity is quite difficult to estimate, as it is

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highly dependent on the skater mass, on the elevation and on the type of figure being performed. A further
important issue stands in the number of jumps that are repeated throughout an exhibition and especially

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during the many training hours that every professional skater usually undergoes. The question of mechanical
resistance is made more and more complicated by the increasing demand for lighter structures, due to the

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positive outcome on the technical quality of figures during competitions.

This paper deals with the development of the prototype of a novel skate chassis. This is intended to be used

in figure roller skating at a professional agonistic level. Its main feature consists in its lightness, thanks to the
reduced thickness and to the adoption of an aluminium alloy material, P-AlMgSi (6060) UNI 9006/1,

whereas the previous version had been made of commercial steel. This low weight, corresponding to a mass

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of just 144 g, led initially to a very positive outcome in terms of sport performance. However, unfortunately,
a failure occurred after just six months of use by a professional female figure skater. The occurrence of this

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failure, which consisted in a crack that nucleated and propagated under bending tensile stress and led to the
early disposal of the prototype, can be regarded as the primary motivation for this paper.
An image of the roller skate and of its chassis is shown in Fig. 1 (a), whereas the cracked component is
depicted in Fig. 1 (b, c). It can be observed that failure occurred at the lower part of the chassis, which
withstands a bending tensile stress due to the skater own weight in static and especially in dynamic
conditions. A Brinell hardness test was performed on the material of the cracked prototype and HB = 33 was
estimated. This value is well corresponding to that of a P-AlMgSi at the annealed state.
The subject of this study was therefore to determine the states of load and, in particular, of stress and strain,
occurring in the chassis in operation conditions, and to retrieve its points of weakness. This was the
preliminary step for the improvement of the project and for the development of a modified version of the
prototype. The main criticalities that had to be overcome can be summarized in the following points:

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A numerical model simulating the state of stress of the chassis can indeed be developed, however,
some difficulties arise (see the following points) that require a careful experimental validation.

The way how the vertical load gets distributed over the chassis is unknown and of not easy estimation.

The entity of load in impact condition is also quite difficult to determine by a theoretical approach

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Connections
to the wheels

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(numerical or analytical tools).

(a)

(b)

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Connections
to the boot

(c)

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Fig. 1: (a) Figure roller skates and detail of the chassis; (b, c) photos of the cracked component

2. Load distribution and finite element model of the chassis

With the aim of overcoming the just mentioned critical issues, a literary review was performed regarding the
physiology and the biomechanics of the lower limb, with particular reference to the mode of load
transmission. Regarding this point, the most widely accepted theory is that by Kapandji [1], according to
which the plantar vault may be compared with an architectural vault supported by three arches. This theory
has been confirmed also by subsequent studies in the biomechanics and medicine fields [2-4]. The vertical
load withstood by the vault acts at three points indicated as A, B and C, which lie at the corners of an
approximately equilateral triangle (Fig. 2 (a)).
The bodys weight is therefore distributed along three directions, towards points A, B and C, which are
usually indicated as pressure concentration points. The amounts of load being transmitted to the three

Page 4 of 15

concentration points, and then to the ground, are proportional to the heel height, which depends on the
geometry of the roller skate boot. Considering the most usual height for professional skates, about 50 mm
(Fig. 2 (b)), the vertical load transmitted by the body gets concentrated mainly at the front zone of the sole,
i.e. at points A and B. Under this hypothesis, the analysis of Refs. [1-4] yields useful information in terms of

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the percentage amounts of the loads acting at the three points

The static load due to the athletes weight was initially considered: in the present case the total mass was 54

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kg, corresponding to a force of about 530 kg. According to [1-4], considering that weight acts on just one leg
during figures, the loads were so estimated: 118 N (22.3% of the total) acting on A, 235 N (44.3%) on B and

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177 N (33.3%) on C. These forces acting on concentration points are then transmitted by the foot sole to the
boot and by the boot to the chassis. Figure 2 (c) depicts a plant view of the chassis, with the superposition of

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the foot sole and of related concentration points: it is interesting to observe that the line connecting the
forward concentration points (the most loaded: A and B) intersects the chassis at the crack location. The

model was constrained, considering the actual hyperstatic connections between the chassis and the two

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couples of carriers.

(b)

50 mm

(a)

C
(c)

Fig. 2: (a) Load distribution according to the vault theory [1]; (b) shape of the boot and heel height; (c)
Concentration points and related locations with respect to the chassis plant

A sketch of the outcome of the finite element model (FEM) of the chassis is shown in Fig. 3 (a): from a
qualitative point of view, it can be emphasized that, considering the load distribution discussed above, the
peak value for stress has been found at the crack initiation point. However, at this stage, it was not possible

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to process the data, as the model needed validation and the impact load still had to be evaluated. It was
anyway an important step, since the model could be used to individuate the optimal location of strain gauges,
to be applied to an identical not cracked prototype, as close as possible to the most loaded area (i.e.: the crack

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location).

3. Experimental procedure

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Two electrical strain gauges, auto-compensated for aluminium alloy, were bonded at the front zone of the
chassis at both sides, very close to the crack location. The procedure of strain gauge instrumentation and the

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state of strain at the bonding location are sketched in Fig. 3 (b, c). Strain gauges were connected to form two
quarter Wheatstone bridges by three-wire connection. The decision of making use of strain gauges is

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supported by many papers in literature [5-16], dealing with on fields tests by instrumented components or
specifically developed load cells. Especially in the case of dynamic loads, the execution of tests in the field is

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often the only option to get a reliable estimation [6-7, 9, 11, 13, 16].

(a)

(c)

(b)

Fig. 3: (a) Outcome of the FEM model of the chassis; (b) Application of electrical strain gauges; (c) strain
predicted at the gauge location

The experimental campaign was divided into two sessions: in the first one the load consisting in the athletes
own weight, was statically applied, with five replications. This session led to a validation of the numerical
model.
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The second session was framed within the training of the professional skater, with the aim of measuring the
impact load. The measuring chain (Fig. 4 (a)) consisted of long cables (5 m) between the strain gauge sensor
and a connector block. The platform output was connected to a DAQ Card, inserted into a laptop slot. A
LabView program was specifically developed to assist the acquisition phases, to record the data and to set

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and control the sampling frequency. Regarding this issue, a frequency of 5 kHz seemed to be reasonably
suitable for the full acquisition of the impulsive peak of strain. Dynamic tests were performed, acquiring

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analogical signals by the two strain gauge quarter bridges: strains were independently and simultaneously
recorded on two channels. For processing the data, averages between the two acquisitions were then

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computed. The athlete was asked to perform a series of jumps with and without run-up and the strains were
consequently acquired. During all the tests the reference elevation from the ground of h = 400 mm was

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approximately reached.

4. Experimental results and discussion

The static test led to the determination of an average (among the 5 replications) strain of 55 m/m at the

strain gauge location: this value is the same as that yield by the FEM model at the same zone. This was a

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very promising result, regarding the assumptions on load distributions.

The impact tests led to quite repeatable results: one of the outputs of the campaign is shown in the graph in

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Fig. 4 (b), where the averaged (between the outputs of the two channels) measured strain is plotted vs. time.
Two results are significant regarding this graph: the entity of the peak, 400 m/m and the duration of the
impact, approximately 0.13 s.

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300
200
100
0
0.00
-100

1.00

2.00

3.00

(b)

4.00

Time [s]

5.00

6.00

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Strain
[micron/m]
Strain [microstrain]

400

h = 400 mm
(a)

yA

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maximum
elevation

impact
conditions

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(c)

Fig. 4: (a) Experimental testing and related measuring chain; (b) strain plotted vs. time during a jump and

related impact; (c) a sketch of the roller skate: parameters and conditions for the analytical model

Regarding the first issue, comparing the values of 400 m/m (impact) and of 55 m/m (static condition), it

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can be argued that the impact leads to an increase of the strain state by an (impact) factor of 7.3 [17]. The
total incremented vertical load was therefore initially roughly estimated, multiplying the static load of 530 N

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by the same factor, with the assumption of a perfectly linear relationship. The value of 3.855 N is yield as the
result of this computation.

The following step consisted in a more proper calculation of the impact force by an analytical model. Figure
4 (c) shows a scheme of the impact phase: mA indicates the combination of the masses of the skate and of the
athlete, whereas mB stands for the mass of the ground. The impact force Fi can be estimated [17-18] as in Eq.
(1), where y A , y A and yA respectively indicate acceleration, speed and displacement of the skate and of the
whole athletes body. The equivalent stiffness, resulting by the combination of those of the boot and of the
chassis is indicated by k.

ky A
mA
Fi t
1
1

m A mB
yA

(1)

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With the assumption that the mass of the ground is much greater than that of the skater (mb >> ma), Eq. (1)
may be simplified as in Eq. (2).

Fi t yA m A ky A

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(2)

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Moreover, under the hypothesis that the impact between the skate wheels and the ground is fully elastic, the

y
0

k
dt m A 2 y A 0
y max T
2
m
A

(3)

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T
T

k
I y Fi t dt yA m A ky A dt m A y A T y A 0
m
A
0
0

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impulse Iy along the (impact) vertical direction can be computed as follows, Eq. (3):

According to [18], it can be reasonably supposed that the impact force Fi has a sinusoidal trend, with
equation F(t)=Fmax.sin(t), where =/T and T represents the impact duration. Assuming a linear trend for

the displacement yA, the integral of yAdT over the impact duration can be approximated as ymaxT/2, where

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ymax stands for the maximum elongation. Moreover, according to the elastic impact model y A (T) = - y A (0).
The peak of the impact force, Fmax (corresponding to ymax) can be then computed, according to [18], as the

Fmax .

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product between /2 and the impulse yield by Eq. (3).

k
I y mA 2 y A 0
ymaxT
2
2
2
m

(4)

Considering Eq. (4), it can be observed that the second term contains the impact duration T and the
maximum elongation ymax. The equation can be simplified again, observing that these two terms are
reasonably very low. On the other hand, the first term contains three significant terms: the inverse of T, the
mass of the skater, and the speed just before the impact. The conclusion is that the second term can be
neglected with respect to the first one.

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Fmax .

m A 2 y A 0 m A y A 0
2
T

(5)

Considering and elevation of 400 mm, the speed term, evaluated by the well known formula

2 gh , is equal

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to 2.8 m/s. Introducing the value of T=0.13 s, the impact force is finally evaluated in Eq. (6): it is interesting

1
1
m A y A 0 54 2.8 3.655 N
T
T

(6)

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Fmax .

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to remark that this value is well consistent to the previously roughly estimated, with a discrepancy of 5%.

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The numerical model was then integrated by the experimental data and used to simulate the distribution of
stress under the impact. The maximum value for von Mises equivalent stress was retrieved at the crack
location (Fig. 5 (a)). In particular the estimated value was around 65 MPa, which is not particularly high, but

can be consistent with the fatigue failure of a component in P-AlMgSi alloy.

Considering that an average number of 4 leaps per min is usually performed during training and that the

training sessions for a professional athlete take place every day (6 days per week) for at least four hours, a

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total of over 200,000 jumps (i.e. fatigue cycles) can be reasonably expected in a six-month time.

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As mentioned in the Introduction, HB = 33 was retrieved on the cracked component. This outcome makes it
possible to estimate a ultimate strength (u) around 100 MPa. Even though aluminum alloys do not have a
true fatigue limit, a common practice is to take the fatigue strength at 5108 cycles as the pseudo fatigue limit
value [19]. According to [19-20], the bending fatigue limit (f) of these alloys is 0.4 times the ultimate
tensile strength: around 40 MPa, being lower than 65 MPa. A difficult point stands in the estimation of the
aluminium alloy response in the finite life field. However, following the approach for steels [19], it is
possible to estimate an approximated S-N curve, which is interpolated between 0.9u at 1,000 cycles and f
at 5108 loops. This curve is plotted in Fig. 5(b) in the bi-logarithmic scale: despite the rough approximation,
it is interesting to notice that the expected life for a stress level of 65 MPa is around 300,000 cycles, a
duration being of the same magnitude of order as the observed one.

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0.9 u

100

65 MPa

Stress [MPa]

65 MPa

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(a)

(b)
New
holes

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10
1.E+03 1.E+04 1.E+05 1.E+06 1.E+07 1.E+08 1.E+09
Cycles

(c)

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Fig. 5: (a) State of stress of the chassis with peak value at the cracked location, (b) approximated S-N curve

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of P-AlMgSi in the finite life domain; (c) improved and optimized project

Finally, the validated model made it possible to improve the project: the thickness at the cracked location

was increased to reduce stress under the bending fatigue limit. On the other hand, holes were added at the
central and real sides of the chassis, in order not to increase the mass of 144 g (Fig. (5 (c)). As it is visible in

Fig. 3 (a) and 5 (a), this area exhibits very low values of stress, a possible reason standing in the occurrence

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5. Conclusions

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that it is located under the vault between the three concentration points.

This paper dealt with the analysis of a novel chassis for figure roller skates, made of P-AlMgSi alloy, which
experienced a premature failure. An integrated approach had to be used to overcome the several criticalities
of the study. In particular, a careful literature review was necessary to get a reliable estimation of the load
distribution of the chassis, according to the vault theory. A finite element model of the chassis was necessary
to determine the stats of stress and strain in the structure. Experimental stress analysis was used to calibrate
the model and to study dynamic conditions: the results were also integrated into an analytical model to study
the impact of skate wheels to the ground. The research led to the individuation of the primary cause of
failure, standing in bending fatigue, due to the high number of jumps (i.e.: fatigue cycles) being performed
during figure skating training. A solution to the problem was suggested, which led to an improved and
optimized project of the chassis with positive outcomes (from the technical and mechanical points of view)
in its use.
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Acknowledgements
The author would like to gratefully acknowledge Prof. Alessandro Freddi of the University of Bologna for

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his support in the interpretation of the experimental data.

References

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[1] A.I. Kapandji, The Physiology of the Joints: Lower Limb (Volume 2) (5th Edition), Churchill
Livingstone, 1988.

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[2] P.R. Cavanagh, M. M. Rodgers, A. liboshi, Pressure Distribution under Symptom-Free Feet during
Barefoot Standing, Foot & Ankle International, 7(5) (1987) 262278.

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[3] D. Daentzer, N. Wlker, U. Zimmermann, Observations concerning the transverse metatarsal arch, Foot
and Ankle Surgery, 3 (1997) 1520.

[4] K.-J. Chia, D. Schmitt, Mechanical energy and effective foot mass during impact loading of walking and
running, Journal of Biomechanics, 38 (2005) 13871395.

[5] G. Olmi, A. Freddi, Crack initiation and propagation in a press column under compressive load, The

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Archive of Mechanical Engineering, 52(4) (2005) 324340.

[6] N. Petrone, Acquisition and analysis of ground reaction forces and foot orientation of in-line skates

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during track speed skating, In: XXI Congress, International Society of Biomechanics. Journal of
Biomechanics, pp. 398, Elsevier, Taipei (2007).
[7] G. Olmi, A. Freddi, D. Croccolo, In-Field Measurement of Forces and Deformations at the Rear end of a
Motorcycle and Structural Optimisation: Experimental-Numerical Approach Aimed at Structural
Optimisation, Strain, 44 (2008) 453461.
[8] G. Olmi, Investigation on the influence of temperature variation on the response of miniaturised
piezoresistive sensors, Strain, 45 (2009) 6376.
[9] G. Pellicioli, N. Petrone, Experimental Strain Analysis of the Mast of a 420 Sailboat During Sailing,
Strain, 46 (2010) 482492.
[10]

G. Olmi, A new loading-constraining device for mechanical testing with misalignment auto-

compensation, Exp. Techniques, 35(6) (2011) 6170.

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[11]

N. Petrone, Field acquisition of ski boots flexural behaviour for the correct definition of standard

laboratory tests, In: 19th International Conference on Ski Trauma and Safety. Keystone, Colorado
(2011).
G. Olmi, A Novel Method for Strain Controlled Tests, Exp. Mech., 52(4) (2012) 379393.

[13]

D. Croccolo, M. De Agostinis, G. Olmi, A. Tizzanini, Analysis of the Stress State in Brake Caliper

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[12]

Mounts of Front Motorbike Suspensions, Adv. Mech. Eng., (2013) Article number 525010.

D. Croccolo, M. De Agostinis, P. Mauri, G. Olmi, Influence of the engagement ratio on the joint

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[14]

strength of press fitted and adhesively bonded specimens, International Journal of Adhesion and

[15]

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Adhesives, 53 (2014) 8088.

D. Croccolo, M. De Agostinis, P. Mauri, G. Olmi, Effect of the Engagement Ratio on the Shear

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Strength and Decoupling Resistance of Hybrid Joints. In: Adhesives: Mechanical Properties,
Technologies and Economic Importance, Nova Publisher, 2014.

G. Olmi, An experimental investigation on a crack propagating from a geartrain housing in an

[16]

asphalt milling machine, Engineering Failure Analysis, 38 (2014) 3848.

R.C. Juvinall, K.M. Marshek, Fundamentals of Machine Component Design (4th Edition), Wiley &

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Sons ltd, 2005.

[17]

W.J. Stronge, Impact Mechanics, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 2000.

[19]

Y.-L. Lee, J. Pan, R. B. Hathaway, M. E. Barkey, Fatigue Testing and Analysis (Theory and

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[18]

Practice), Elsevier ButterworthHeinemann, Burlington, USA, 2005.

[20]

G. Niemann, H. Winter, Maschinen Elemente, Band. 1, Sprinter-Verlag Berlin, Heidelberg, 1981.

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Figure Captions

Fig. 1: (a) Figure roller skates and detail of the chassis; (b) a photo of the cracked component

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Fig. 2: (a) Load distribution according to the vault theory [1]; (b) shape of the boot and heel height; (c)

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Concentration points and related locations with respect to the chassis plant

Fig. 3: (a) Outcome of the FEM model of the chassis; (b) Application of electrical strain gauges; (c) strain

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predicted at the gauge location

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Fig. 4: (a) Experimental testing and related measuring chain; (b) strain plotted vs. time during a jump and

related impact; (c) a sketch of the roller skate: parameters and conditions for the analytical model

Fig. 5: (a) State of stress of the chassis with peak value at the cracked location, (b) approximated S-N curve

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ce
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of P-AlMgSi in the finite life domain; (c) improved and optimized project

Page 14 of 15

FAILURE OF THE CHASSIS OF ROLLER SKATES FOR AGONISTIC FIGURE

SKATING

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Giorgio Olmi

Highlights:

A high impact load is transmitted to the chassis during figure skating jumps.

The largest amount of load acts at the forward part of the chassis.

Strain gauge in-field tests were used to estimate the impact loads.

Fatigue failure is due to the high number of jumps performed in training sessions.

The project underwent structural optimization without weight increment.

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