Differences From Other Styles

Both authoritative and authoritarian classroom styles are characterized by high levels of
control; however, authoritarian control is attained by having stringent rules and
regulations with little to no explanation or feedback from the students. The indulgent
(also known as laissez-faire) management style has a high level of student involvement
but involves little to no rules, where the teacher supports any move the students make. An
authoritative teacher compromises with students on some things to actively involve them,
but still enforces consequences for inappropriate behavior. The permissive style lacks
both involvement and control, and is characterized by a low level of teacher support and
little to no rules or regulations to control behavior.

Characteristics

Authoritative classroom management has several characteristics that help promote

student involvement and regulate behavior without being authoritarian. Authoritative
teachers communicate their expectations clearly, and they have high expectations for the
students, but they will explain why they have the rules and expectations. The
authoritative style encourages classroom discussion and questions that are relevant to
what the teacher is covering. Even when students are acting inappropriately, authoritative
teachers maintain a respectful, firm tone and provide students with a warning before
giving a punishment.

Behavior Management

Although authoritative style takes measures to reduce behavioral problems, they will still
crop up. The way that a teacher reacts to inappropriate behavior is also part of his
classroom-management style. An authoritative teacher that makes his expectations and
rules clear from the beginning will also make sure that students know there are
consequences for choosing not to follow the rules. Rules should be enforced both
promptly and consistently, and punishment should be fair according to the behavior, so
that students see it more as a natural consequence of their own choices than as the result
of the teacher getting angry.

Advantages

The high level of student involvement that comes with authoritative management often
fosters a high level of student self-motivation. Encouraging discussions helps to build
social competence. The mixture of lecturing and class discussions makes it easy for the
teacher to put variety into the class period, which increases attentiveness.

The process of maintaining a calm and productive classroom environment starts with the
teacher. The action and attitudes of a teacher toward a student who is misbehaving can
make the situation better or worse. Have you ever noticed that on a day that you are not
feeling well, the students are more poorly behaved? Students look to the teacher for
consistency and safety in the classroom. Some kids will become anxious and withdraw if it
appears that a teacher cannot handle behavior problems. Other students, however, will
retaliate if they feel a teacher is overreacting to a situation in a hostile and unnecessary way.
Effective Teachers are Both Warm and Demanding
Teachers manifest different personalities and teaching styles in the classroom and it is
helpful to categorize these approaches in terms of some basic dimensions. It has been said
that good teachers are both warm and demanding. Being warm means caring and emotional
support for students. Being demandingin the good sensemeans expecting something
from your kids, both in terms of academic work and behavior. Depending on whether the
warm and demanding switches are in the OFF or ON positions, we can describe four
fundamental teaching styles.
Authoritarian: Demanding ON, Warm OFF
Teachers in this category are quick to jump on every behavior that is not acceptable in the
classroom. Support and positive reinforcement, however, are rare. The authoritarian teacher
may use a loud voice to get the attention of her students. She may act shocked and angry
when students dont follow her directives. The benefit of this style is that the teacher
frequently gets the immediate compliance from her students. The cost of the authoritarian
style includes student anxiety and minimal long-term positive effects. No student enjoys a
teachers yelling. Although kids may comply out of fear, this teaching technique rarely
produces behavioral changes that last over time.
Permissive: Demanding OFF, Warm ON
Teachers in this category are often too nice. They want students to like them and they
want to be helpful, so they are warm and supportive but not very good at setting limits.
Permissive teachers may focus on effort while de-emphasizing the quality of students
productions. Disruptive behavior may be ignored or handled with weak, soft-spoken
reprimands or pleading. While warmth and support are good qualities, students still
appreciate discipline even if they dont show it. The cost of the permissive style is a
classroom that is out of control. Constructive learning does not flow well. While students
may describe a permissive teacher as nice and easy, when push comes to shove they do
not feel that they can trust her to take care of problem situations.
Detached: Demanding OFF, Warm OFF
The detached teacher tends to be neither warm nor demanding. She may sit at her desk
when students are working or grade papers when supervising the playground. Students
who need extra emotional support do not get it from her, and students who need firm
behavioral limits do not get that either. The detached teacher may miss important warning
signs from students who are having trouble, academically or behaviorally. Other students
may withdraw and feel unimportant. And still other kids may increase acting-out behavior.
Authoritative: Demanding ON, Warm ON
The authoritative teacher is the ideal, though this approach is easier said than done! This
teacher has a positive, kind and supportive relationship with her students, but they know
when she means business. Because she has an effective discipline plan and her classroom

is orderly, the students trust her and respect her. There is more time for academics. This
teacher feels empowered and energized because she sees positive growth and development
in her students. Her students feel safe as well as capable.

Teachers must be teachable. They must possess the ability to listen, share, respect
others, laugh, cry, move on, teach and transfer information, ask for forgiveness,
admit when they make a mistake, know that they are not perfect and do make
mistakes, patience beyond measure, see and set boundaries, possess empathy,
disagree without being disagreeable, understand they cannot fix everything and
everyone, and most importantly to think outside the box.
The teacher has a significant role in the community. Teachers serve as a student
advocate in the school and with the social, legal and health agencies in the
community, confers with students and their families to provide explicit feedback on
student progress and assist families in guiding students in academic and personal
growth; proposes ways in which families can support and reinforce classroom goals,
objectives, and standards; use the community to provide students with a variety of
experiences to examine and explore career opportunities, work effectively with
school volunteers to promote student interest, motivation, and learning, recognizes
in students overt signs of child abuse and severe emotional distress, and take
appropriate intervention, referral and reporting actions; recognizes in students over
signs of alcohol and drug abuse, and takes appropriate intervention, referral and
reporting actions; work cooperatively with colleagues and other adults in informal
settings and formal team structures to meet students education, social, linguistic,
cultural and emotional needs, uses knowledge of continuous quality improvement to
assist the school community in managing its own school improvement efforts;
communicates with families including those of culturally and linguistically diverse
students to become familiar with the students home situation and background, and
develops short and long term personal professional goals relating to the roles of a
teacher.
1. enthusiastic
2. knowledgeable
3. innovative
4. enjoys children and her job as a teacher
5. creative
6 fair minded
7. disciplined
8. physically fit and stamina (very important to keep up with preschoolers)
9. college graduate in early childhood development
10. flexible (must be open to new ideas)
11. most of all patient
The teacher should be loving but firm - not stern with the children. This is part of
having good classroom management skills. The children need guidelines,
consistency, rules and boundaries in order to feel secure and they need to know
what consequences will be implemented if they choose not to follow the rules,
which are in place for the benefit of everyone. No one else mentioned this, and it
needs clarification. It seems as though mentioning effective discipline has become

passe, and gets glossed over. All of the positive attributes listed in the other
answers in this question are equally important, too, such as being kind and patient.

Middle Childhood Development

(9-12 years of age)
Ann Marie Termini, Ed.s., M.S., LPC
Middle childhood, the beginning of what is yet to come in regards to development. Children ages
9 -12 experience a period of tremendous physical, intellectual and social-emotional growth and
distinct developmental milestones. However, each child is unique and may develop at a different
pace. Consequently, individual differences among children become more apparent. This is the
first blog in a series that will address issues of middle childhood, and their reactions to family
separation and living arrangements after separation or divorce.
Growing Up is a term used literally for both male and female children that fall into the range
of middle childhood. For children, this time span is characterized by a growth spurt of significant
weight gain, muscle growth, and genital maturation. Girls tend to experience a growth spurt
earlier than boys but the spurt usually lasts longer for boys and they end up taller. Along with
the timing of the growth spurt, physical changes associated with puberty will also begin earlier in
girls than boys. Around the age of nine or ten, girls may show the beginning signs of puberty
such as the rounding of facial features and subtle signs of breast development. Usually by age
twelve, boys show a wide range of growth rates and outward signs of puberty. All children
during this age range generally develop oily skin that may be associated with acne, an increase of
sweating, body odor, and may experience aches in their joints due to rapid growth. As puberty
approaches, tweens become more aware of their body. Middle childhood may be filled with
insecurities and self-doubts. Children this age tend to become more self-conscious and even may
lose self-confidence due to physical changes and anxieties about fitting in with friends. Girls,
more than boys, tend to experience a significant decline in self-esteem. It is not uncommon for
children of this stage to have ambivalent and conflicting feelings about puberty, wonder when it
will happen, how it will occur and how to be prepared. They may feel conscious of their
sexuality and how they choose to express it.
Children in the age group of Middle Childhood face even more academic demands in school as
their attention span increases. Children can maintain their train of thought and continue to work
even after distractions, as early as age nine. They have a strong desire to complete tasks and
master skills. They are able to manage more than one concept at a time. Nine year olds are
beginning to become aware of right and wrong. At age ten, while they are still not able to
consistently distinguish right from wrong and rely on adult assistance, they begin to develop a
conscience. It is during this time that they believe that their own beliefs are correct and are
universally adopted by others. By age eleven, children are beginning to realize that others hold
different views from their own.
Towards the age of eleven, children are more adept at developing increasing capability for social
conscience, as well as abstract thinking. Children at this age are capable of understanding

complex issues such as justice and poverty. They use deductive reasoning to successfully
anticipate consequences. In other words, they are able to think about what could happen rather
than what did happen. By the end of their twelfth year, they are able to demonstrate the ability to
apply logic to specific, concrete situations as well as in arguments. Their decision making
abilities improve. They are increasingly able to organize their thoughts and their work. As school
work takes on more seriousness, many twelve year olds may start preparing for high school and
begin to excel at a specific subject. They may even begin to consider future careers.
As children advance though middle childhood, they move toward a growing independence from
the family and give peers even more importance. Children start to form deeper, more complex
friendships and peer relationships. Towards the later stages of this age group, group identity
becomes extremely important. Healthy friendships are important to a childs growth, but peer
pressure can be overwhelming. School relationships become more complicated, competitive and
changeable, especially for girls. Boys during this age range seem to care more about the details
of their activities than with whom it is with.
Having friends, especially of the same sex becomes emotionally important. Nine years olds often
intensely dislike the opposite sex while ten year olds are still not interested in the opposite sex.
They like to talk and share ideas and can be depended upon and trusted. By ages ten and eleven,
children may have one best friend and be in the beginning stages of being interested in the
opposite sex. Most young people this age become preoccupied with blending in and concerned
about their outward appearance.
They lose interest in family activities that they enjoyed and needed at age nine. They desire
privacy and separation from the family. Twelve year olds have a strong need to conform to peers;
friendships for boys are generally calmer, yet girls still may have the tendency to create conflict
amongst their friends. At twelve, interest is shown in the opposite sex, particularly girls more
than boys. Infatuations or crushes may first be experienced.
Regarding emotions, by the time they are twelve year olds, the ability to understand the elements
of caring, loving relationships have been acquired. That does not mean that it was an entirely
smooth ride to get to that point. Both nine and ten year olds are generally respectful and
affectionate towards their parents. They are responsible and can be depended upon and trusted.
Nine year olds may experience wide mood swings and be critical of self and others. To avoid
unpleasant tasks they may use physical complaints. They value fairness in self and others. Ten
year olds tend to display a happy and sometimes silly disposition. If they were previously
troubled by fears, they are now minimal. Their anger may escalate quickly but their reactions
differ according to the situation. By age eleven, children have a tendency to be egocentric,
critical and uncooperative. Their relationship with their mother is particularly troublesome.
Eleven year olds are full of worries. While they may display anger in a physical manner such as
fights, and slamming doors at home, their public behavior is respectable. Finally, around the age
of twelve, the emotions are slowing down. Twelve year olds are generally pleasant and good
natured. They tend to be equally out spoken about their like and dislikes.
As you can see from all of the physical, mental, and emotional changes that are occurring for
both males and females during middle childhood, simply getting through each day may not be

such a simple task. The following post will discuss the middle childhoods reactions when
dealing with additional issues such as divorce and family separation.
Late Childhood (9-12)

In the years from 9 to 12, most children will begin a rapid phase of transition from childhood to
adolescence. The term Puberty refers to a stage of biological maturation where a boy or girl
becomes capable of reproduction. Although some children will begin the changes of puberty
before age 9, most will begin the process of rapid growth and physical change in the years
between 9 and 12. For some children, noticeable changes do not begin to occur until age 13 or in
rare cases until age 14 or later. On average, girls will begin puberty at age 10 or 11 and boys will
begin at age 11 or 12. There are a number of noticeable physical signs that a boy or girl has
begun puberty. Overall physical growth will accelerate with some boys and girls growing several
inches taller per year.
For girls these changes include breast development, the appearance of hair in the genital (pubic)
and underarm areas. The sweat glands in the genital and underarm areas become active. This is
also the time when most girls will begin menstruating (see below). A girls internal reproductive
organs (ovaries, uterus, vagina) grow rapidly during puberty. The external genitalia (clitoris,
labia) will also increase in size. The average age of first menstruation for girls living in North
America is about 12 years but it is quite normal if a girl has her first menstruation several
years before she reaches the age of 12 or if she has her first menstruation several years afterward.
A girl who has begun puberty will experience vaginal lubrication that accompanies sexual
arousal.
The physical changes of puberty are similar for boys. They will begin to grow hair in the
underarm and genital areas. The penis and scrotum will begin to grow larger and many boys will
begin growing facial hair that becomes courser and darker over time. A boy who has begun
puberty will sooner or later experience ejaculation which may occur while he is asleep
(commonly referred to as a wet dream). A boy going through puberty will experience erections
much more frequently than he did in the past.
Puberty is typically the time where the nature and frequency of masturbation in both boys and
girls changes compared to earlier in childhood. The focus of masturbation becomes geared
towards pleasure and orgasm. Many girls and boys who did not masturbate earlier in their lives
will begin to do so during puberty. While nearly all adolescents will experiment with some form
of masturbation, some will masturbate regularly and some will do so infrequently or not at all.
Unless an adolescent is masturbating so frequently that it interferes with basic aspects of his or
her life (e.g., school, family and social life) it does not cause physical or psychological harm.
It is important for parents and educators to make sure that children are fully aware of what
changes to expect when puberty begins well before the changes actually begin to happen. After a

long period of gradual and predictable growth, during puberty a young persons body begins
growing very quickly and in very different ways than it did before. These changes can be
confusing and traumatic, particularly if a boy or girl does know they are coming. The first major
step a parent or educator can take in assisting a young person through puberty is to make them
fully aware of the changes that will occur. Not only should boys and girls be fully aware of the
changes that will occur in their own bodies but they should also be provided with opportunities
to learn about the changes that occur in the opposite sex.
The biological aspects of puberty, while certainly profound, tell only half the story. The
emotional/psychological aspects of puberty (many of which are linked to biological maturation:
e.g. increases in testosterone) are equally significant, particularly as they relate to sexuality. As
they go through puberty, it is typical for young people to develop a heightened, at times
seemingly obsessive, preoccupation with their physical appearance. Anxiety over physical
appearance can lead to feelings of inadequacy.
Relationships with peers are also likely to change. Whereas, in the years leading up to puberty,
there is a tendency for children to interact mostly with same sex peers, as youth approach the
teen years they begin to increase social interaction with the opposite sex.
It is during this period that feelings of attraction may take on an overtly sexual component. The
crushs that younger children often have will, with the beginning of puberty, evolve into more
adult like attractions that may include feelings of sexual attraction. Socially, youth entering
puberty will be taking more pronounced steps into adult gender roles and in so doing they may
begin dating or more likely in their words hanging out, or going with, or go together.
Typically, in the 9 to 12 age group such relationships do not involve sexual intercourse. Youth of
this age are much more likely to be kissing and hugging, while breast and genital touching are
less likely but not uncommon.
For most young people it is likely that the basis of their sexual orientation will have been formed
well before puberty. However, as youth begin to experience the more direct sexual attraction and
fantasy that accompany puberty, lesbian, gay, and bisexual youth are likely to become more
concretely aware of their sexual orientation. In other words, these youth are at the time in their
lives where their homosexual or bisexual orientation is leading them to the developmental task of
establishing to themselves, and perhaps to others, a self identity as gay, lesbian or bisexual. This
may cause added stress to the experience of puberty for homosexual and bisexual youth. It is also
not uncommon for heterosexual youth, particularly in early adolescence, to have some same
gender sexual attractions or fantasies. This is not unusual and such attractions should be not seen
as necessarily indicative of a youths sexual orientation.
Most youth in the 9 to 12 age group will not have experienced sexual intercourse. At present, the
median age of first intercourse for males and females in Canada is 17. That is, half of Canadian
teens will have intercourse before age 17 and half will have it after age 17. About 5% of boys
and 1% of girls will have had intercourse by their 12th birthday. By the age of 14, about 30% of
males and 20% of females will have had sexual intercourse at least once. These figures on the

age of first intercourse among youth are important for parents/caregivers and educators to
consider because they clearly point to the need for youth in the 9 to 12 age group to receive
broadly-based sexual health education.
It is clear that if sexual health education is to meaningfully assist youth in promoting and
enhancing their sexual health it must provide relevant information, motivation, and behavioural
skills before they become sexually active. For example, information and skills geared towards
helping youth delay first intercourse that is initially provided when they are age 14 will be too
late for many. More importantly, since approximately a quarter of youth do have intercourse by
the time they are 14, it is vital that those youth who do become sexually active at this point are
fully educated and equipped to protect themselves against unintended pregnancy and sexually
transmitted diseases. As children enter puberty they enter a period of heightened sexuality.
Nearly all youth at this phase of development are preoccupied to some extent with sexuality. As a
result, 9 to 12 is a critical period for the provision of sexual health education.
Developmental outcomes

Physical changes associated with puberty

Psychological/social changes associated with puberty

Full understanding of rights and responsibilities related to sexuality and

relationships.

Common behaviours

Dating (i.e., going with)

Physical intimacy (kissing, petting)

Masturbation

Preoccupation with sexuality (e.g., frequently makes references to sexuality)

Interest in sexual media

Concerns

Premature initiation of adult sexual activity

Difficulty adjusting to homosexual or bisexual orientation

Difficulty with body image

Difficulty with social skills

Learning objectives

Complete knowledge of the physical and psychological aspects of puberty.

Broadly-based sexual health education, including delay of first intercourse

and contraception/safer sex.

Social skills education related to rights and responsibilities in relationships

and mutually satisfying interpersonal relationships.

Development of media literacy skills to understand, interpret, and evaluate

media sexuality messages and imagery.

Growth and Development, Ages 9-12

Advocates For Youth
Updated on Jul 23, 2010

Human development is a lifelong process of physical, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional

growth and change. In the early stages of lifefrom babyhood to childhood, childhood to
adolescence, and adolescence to adulthoodenormous changes take place. Throughout the
process, each person develops attitudes and values that guide choices, relationships, and
understanding. Sexuality is also a lifelong process. Infants, children, teens, and adults are sexual
beings. Just as it is important to enhance a child's physical, emotional, and cognitive growth, so it
is important to lay foundations for a child's sexual growth. Adults have a responsibility to help
young people understand and accept their evolving sexuality. Each stage of development
encompasses specific markers. The following developmental guidelines apply to most children in
this age group. However, each child is an individual and may reach these stages of development
earlier or later than other children the same age. When concerns arise about a specific child's
development, parents or other caregivers should consult a doctor or other child development
professional.
Physical Development
Most young people aged nine to 12 will:

Experience a growth spurt with significant weight gain, muscle growth, and
genital maturation [Growth spurt begins earlier for girls; lasts longer for boys,
who end up taller].

Enter puberty, a time when hormones produced in the pituitary gland trigger
production of testosterone in males, estrogen/progesterone in females [This
usually begins earlier in girls (nine to 12) than in boys (11 to 14).] During
puberty
o

Skin becomes more oily and may develop pimples.

Sweating increases and youth may have body odor.

Hair grows under arms and on pubis and, in males, on face and chest.

Body proportions change [hips widen in females, shoulders broaden in

males].

Joints may ache due to rapid growth.

In males, genitals mature, scrotum darkens, voice deepens, sperm is

produced, and erections, ejaculation, and wet dreams are more
frequent.

In females, genitals mature, breasts develop, vaginal lubrication

increases, and ovulation and menstrual cycle begin.

Masturbate [both males and females] and may have fantasies about others
and about sexual intimacy

Cognitive Development
Most young people aged nine to 12 will:

Move toward independence as they progress to middle/junior high school

Continue developing skills in making decisions as they become more

independent

Begin to consider future careers and occupations

Shift their school focus from play-centered activities to academics

Begin to look to peers and media for information and advice [Friends greatly
influence them.]

Develop increasing capability for social conscience and for abstract thought,
including understanding complex issues such as poverty and war

Take on increased responsibility, such as family jobs and babysitting

Emotional Development
Most young people aged nine to 12 will:

Want to blend in and not stand out from their peers in any way, particularly
as to gender roles and sexuality

Feel concern about outward appearance [They want to look like "everyone
else."]

Become self-conscious and self-centered

Have ambivalent, conflicting feelings about puberty and about sexual desire
and want to be independent and to conform

Care greatly about relationships with peers, friendships, dating, and crushes
and give peers more importance than family

Relate to both same-gender and opposite-gender peers and may develop

sexual feelings for others as a new dimension within relationships

Develop the capacity to understand the components of a caring, loving

relationship

Experience feelings of insecurity and begin to doubt self-concept and

previous self-confidence [Girls, especially, often experience a significant drop
in self-esteem.]

Struggle with family relationships and desire privacy and separation from
family [They test limits and push for independence.]

Experience mood swings, especially evident in family relationships

Develop infatuations or "crushes" and may begin dating

Sexual Development
Most young people aged nine to 12 will:

Have an emerging sense of self as a young adult

Feel conscious of their sexuality and how they choose to express it

Understand jokes with sexual content

Feel concerns about being normal, such as whether it is normal to

masturbate, have wet dreams, etc.

Feel anxious about puberty, when it will happen, how it will occur, how to be
prepared, etc.

Feel shy about asking questions of caregivers, especially regarding sexuality,

and may act like they already know all the answers

Value privacy highly

What Families Need to Do to Raise Sexually Healthy Youth

To help nine- to 12-year-old youth develop a healthy sexuality, families should:

Help young people understand puberty and the changes they are going
through and that these changes, including menstruation and nocturnal
emissions (ejaculation), are normal.

Respect young people's privacy while encouraging open communication.

Convey that growth and maturation rates differ from person to person.

Help young people understand that, while they are maturing physically, they
still have lots of emotional and cognitive growth ahead and that sexual
intercourse is not healthy, appropriate, or wise at this time in their lives.

Acknowledge that abstinence is normal and healthy, that sexual development

is healthy and natural, and that, as they grow older, there will be many ways
to express sexuality that do not include sexual intercourse.

Discuss the important relationship between sexual and emotional feelings.

Be open to conversations about contraception and condoms and respond

honestly and accurately when young people ask about them.

As discussed in Chapter 12 "Nutrition through the Life Cycle: From Pregnancy to the
Toddler Years", all people need the same basic nutrientsessential amino acids,
carbohydrates, essential fatty acids, and twenty-eight vitamins and mineralsto maintain
life and health. However, the amounts of needed nutrients change as we pass from one
stage of the human life cycle to the next. Young children require a higher caloric intake
relative to body size to facilitate physical and mental development. On the other hand,
inactive senior citizens need fewer calories than other adults to maintain their weight and
stay healthy. Psychological, emotional, and social issues over the span of a human life
can also influence diet and nutrition. For example, peer pressure during adolescence can
greatly affect the nutritional choices a teenager makes. Therefore, it is important to weigh
a number of considerations when examining how nutrient needs change. In this chapter,
we will focus on diet, nutrition, and the human life cycle from the remainder of childhood
into the elderly years.

Changes during Childhood

Early childhood encompasses infancy and the toddler years, from birth through age three.
The remaining part of childhood is the period from ages four through eight and is the
time when children enter school. A number of critical physiological and emotional
changes take place during this life stage. For example, a childs limbs lengthen steadily,
while the growth of other body parts begins to slow down. By age ten, the skull and the
brain have grown to near-adult size.Beverly McMillan, Human Body: A Visual Guide
(Sydney, Australia: Weldon Owen, 2006), 258. Emotional and psychological changes
occur as well. Childrens attitudes and opinions about food deepen. They not only begin
taking their cues about food preferences from family members, but also from peers and

the larger culture. All of these factors should impact the nutritional choices parents make
for their children. This time in a childs life provides an opportunity for parents and other
caregivers to reinforce good eating habits and to introduce new foods into the diet, while
remaining mindful of a childs preferences. Parents should also serve as role models for
their children, who will often mimic their behavior and eating habits.

Changes during Puberty

The onset of puberty is the beginning of adolescence, and is the bridge between the
childhood years and young adulthood. Medically, adolescence is defined as the period
between ages eleven and fourteen for girls and between twelve to fifteen for boys. For the
purpose of discussing the influence of nutritional choices during the life cycle, this text
will follow the 2010 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, which divides the adolescent
years into two stages: ages nine to thirteen, or puberty, and ages fourteen to eighteen, or
late adolescence. We will discuss puberty first. Some of the important physiological
changes that take place during this stage include the development of primary sex
characteristics, or the reproductive organs, along with the onset of menstruation in
females. This life stage is also characterized by the appearance of secondary sex
characteristics, such as the growth of facial and body hair, the development of breasts in
girls, and the deepening of the voice in boys. Other physical changes include rapid
growth and alterations in body proportions.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and Daphne R.
Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and Health
Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 17071. All of these changes, as
well as the accompanying mental and emotional adjustments, should be supported with
sound nutrition.

Changes in Late Adolescence

The Dietary Guidelines defines the next phase of the human life cycle, late adolescence,
as the period from ages fourteen to eighteen. After puberty, the rate of physical growth
slows down. Girls stop growing taller around age sixteen, while boys continue to grow
taller until ages eighteen to twenty. One of the psychological and emotional changes that
takes place during this life stage includes the desire for independence as adolescents
develop individual identities apart from their families.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and
Daphne R. Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and
Health Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 17176. As teenagers
make more and more of their dietary decisions, parents or other caregivers and authority
figures should guide them toward appropriate, nutritious choices.

Changes in Young Adulthood

The next phase, young adulthood, is the period from ages nineteen to thirty. It is a stable
time compared to childhood and adolescence. Physical growth has been completed and
all of the organs and body systems are fully developed. Typically, a young adult who is
active has reached his or her physical peak and is in prime health. For example, vital

capacity, or the maximum amount of air that the lungs can inhale and exhale, is at its
peak between the ages of twenty and forty.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and Daphne R.
Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and Health
Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 19293. Proper nutrition and
adequate physical activity at this stage not only promote wellness in the present, but also
provide a solid foundation for the future.

Changes in Middle Age

Nutritionally speaking, middle age is defined as the period from age thirty-one to fifty.
The early period of this stage is very different from the end. For example, during the
early years of middle age, many women experience pregnancy, childbirth, and lactation.
In the latter part of this life stage, women face perimenopause, which is a transition
period that leads up to menopause, or the end of menstruation. A number of physical
changes take place in the middle-aged years, including the loss of bone mass in women
due to dropping levels of estrogen during menopause. In both men and women, visual
acuity declines, and by age forty there can be a decreased ability to see objects at a close
distance, a condition known as presbyopia.Elaine U. Polan, RNC, MS and Daphne R.
Taylor, RN, MS, Journey Across the Life Span: Human Development and Health
Promotion (Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company, 2003), 19293. All of these are signs of
aging, as the human body begins to change in subtle and not-so-subtle ways. However, a
middle aged person can remain vital, healthy, and near his or her physical peak with
proper diet and adequate exercise.

Changes in the Older Adult Years

The senior, or elderly, years are the period from age fifty-one until the end of life. A
number of physiological and emotional changes take place during this life stage. For
example, many elderly adults face serious health challenges, such as cancer, heart
disease, diabetes, or dementia. Both men and women experience a loss of muscle mass
and strength and undergo changes in body composition. Fat deposits build up in the
abdominal area, which increases the risk for Type 2 diabetes and cardiovascular disease.
The skin becomes thinner and may take longer to heal after an injury. Around age
seventy, men begin to experience bone loss when estrogen and testosterone levels begin
to decline.American Medical Association, Complete Guide to Prevention and Wellness
(Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008), 512. Healthy nutritional choices can help
to prevent or manage disability and chronic conditions.

In addition, disorders of the nervous system can have profound effects. Dementia is the
umbrella term for changes in the normal activity of the brain. Elderly adults who suffer
from dementia may experience memory loss, agitation, and delusions. One in eight
people over age sixty-four and almost half of all people over eighty-five suffer from the
brain disorder Alzheimers disease, which is the most common form of
dementia.American Medical Association, Complete Guide to Prevention and Wellness
(Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2008), 421. Neurological disorder and

psychological conditions, such as depression, can influence attitudes toward food, along
with the ability to prepare or ingest food. They might lead some adults to overindulge to
compensate for stress or emotions that are difficult to handle. Other adults might eat less
or pay less attention to their diet and nutritional needs. Elderly adults may also need
guidance from dietitians and health-care professionals to make the best dietary choices
for this stage of life.

Changing Needs and Nutrition

Nutritional needs continue to change at each stage of life. It is important to adjust your
diet and physical activity to meet these changing needs and ensure health and wellness
throughout your life. Parents must continue to help their school-aged children and
adolescents establish healthy eating habits and attitudes toward food. Their primary role
is to bring a wide variety of health-promoting foods into the home, so that their children
can make good choices. As children become adults, they must be mindful of the choices
they make and how those choices affect their health, not only in the present but also in
the future.

Age Group: 9 12 years

Development Information: 9 12 years
Development (Written by Virginia K. Molgaard, edited by Laura Miller, Iowa State University;
University Extension, December 1993)
Physical Development

Continue to grow taller and bigger

Girls begin breast development between the ages of 9 and 13

Girls begin menstruation (average age of 12.75)

Boys testes begin to enlarge between the ages of 9.5-13.5

Skin changes can occur (can cause acne and be embarrassing)

These changes can be embarrassing and/or uncomfortable for your child.

Your child may begin to feel self-conscious regarding their bodies.

Talk with your child about changes that will happen and listen to your childs
feelings about these changes

Emotional Development

Mood swings can be common during this age (happy to angry in one minute!)

Preteens and young teens may feel emotions more intensely than adults

Your child is more likely to be impulsive an adult would be

Preteens and young teens may be uncomfortable with these new emotions
(just as uncomfortable as you are)

Cognitive Development

Increase in abstract thinking- your child will be able to think about what could
happen rather than what did happen

Your child can fantasize and speculate

Your child is now more likely to question your rules and values rather than
follow them because you said so

Things may often seem unfair to your child

Social Development

Friends become very important

Friends can be both supportive and negative influences

Participation in secret clubs or groups is normal

Your child may keep secrets from you- this is normal and should not be
problematic unless you see signs of dangerous behaviors

Spends less time with family and may be embarrassed to be around parents
(this is normal and a form of independence)

Let your child know that you still want to spend time together AND that you
want them to learn to be independent

Your child may lose self-confidence or self-esteem during this time (because
of physical changes and worries about fitting in with friends)

Individual Issues

No child develops the same way or at the same time as another child

If your child has always reacted badly to change in his or her life, this time
period may be more challenging for him/her

Remember to be involved with your child. Your opinion and support still
matter.

Health Information: 9 12 years

Mental Health (from U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, National Institute of
Mental Health, www.nimh.nih.gov)
Signs of Depression

Persistent feelings of sadness, emptiness, or anxiousness

Feelings of hopelessness and/or gloom

Feeling guilty, worthless, helpless

Irritable or restless

Losing interest in activities/hobbies that used to be enjoyable

Decrease in energy, feeling of fatigue

Difficulties concentrating, making decisions, and remembering details

Changes in sleep patterns- either insomnia, waking up too early, or sleeping

too much

Changes in eating patterns loss of appetite or eating too much

Thought of suicide, attempts of suicide

Aches, pains, cramps, stomach problems that are persistent and are not
eliminated with treatment

Signs of Anxiety Disorders

Constant worry accompanied by physical symptoms such as headaches,

fatigue, muscle tension, difficulty swallowing, irritability, sweating, hot
flashes, and trembling. (Generalized Anxiety Disorder)

Persistent and unwelcome thoughts or images. Need to engage in rituals.

May need to check things repeatedly or may be obsessed with things like
cleanliness. (Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder)

Sudden feelings of terror or panic accompanied by physical symptoms such

as racing heart beat, sweating, weak/faint feeling, dizzy feeling, numbness in
hands, and feeling of nausea. (Panic Disorder)

Persistent thoughts and memories of frightening events in the past. May have
sleep problems, feel detached/ numb, or be startled easily. (Post Traumatic
Stress Disorder)

Persistent and intense fear that one is being watched, judged, and made fun
of by others. Fear of being embarrassed in front of others. Physical symptoms
can include: blushing, sweating, trembling, nausea, and difficulty talking.
(Social Anxiety Disorder)

Immunizations (from AAP)

11 12 years old

Tdap (Td Booster every 10 years following this dose)

HPV (Doses 1-3 of 3, females only)

MCV4 (Dose 1)

Annual Influenza doses

Safety Information: 9 12 years

Internet Safety (from the US Department of Justice, FBI Publications)
Signs that your child may be at risk on-line

Your child is on-line often and spends large amounts of time on-line,
especially at night

There is child pornography on your computer

Your child is receiving phone calls from phone numbers that you do not
recognize OR is making calls (sometimes long distance) to numbers you dont
know

Your child is receiving mail, gifts, or packages from addresses you do not
recognize

When you enter the room, your child quickly changes the computer screen or
turns off the computer monitor

Your child is withdrawing from your family

Your child uses an on-line account at another location (besides your

residence)

What parents can do if they suspect their child is being victimized on-line

Talk with your child about on-line predators and the dangers involved. Let him
or her know that you are concerned.

Review content on your childs computer. Look for warning signs like
pornography and/or sexual communication

Use Caller ID services on phones that your child uses. Ask your telephone
company about a service that allows you to reject any calls that you block.

Purchase a device that shows a listing of calls made from your phone (or ask
your phone company). Use the redial feature on the phone to dial the last
number called.

Monitor your childs access to the internet. Monitor the use of chat rooms,
instant messages, etc. Check your childs email for suspicious messages.

Contact police, FBI, and National Center for Missing and Exploited Children if any of the
following have occurred:

Anyone in your household has received child pornography

Your child has been (or is being) sexually solicited by someone who knows
that your child is under the age of 18

Your child has been (or is) receiving sexually explicit messages from someone
who knows that your child is under the age of 18

If one of these scenarios occurs, keep the computer turned off in order to preserve any evidence
for future law enforcement use. Unless directed to do so by the law enforcement agency, you
should not attempt to copy any of the images and/or text found on the computer.

What you can do to decrease your childs risk of being exploited on-line

Talk to your child about on-line risks and what sexual victimization might look
like

Go on-line together with your child. Have them show you their favorite sites.

Do not keep a computer in your childs bedroom. Instead, keep in a common

area of the house

Use blocking or parental control software on your computer. Strictly monitor

any use of chat rooms

Randomly check your childs email account and look through the US mail for
anything suspicious. Let your child know why you may be looking at their
email account. Dont read the email or mail that is not suspicious.

Teach and model different things to do on-line besides chat rooms and instant
messaging.

Get educated about the types of blocks/security that are on your childs
computers at school, the library, and at friends homes.

Remember that it is not your childs fault if he or she is sexually exploited. Let
your child know that it will never be his or her fault if something happens.

Tell your child that he or she:

should never agree to meet face to face with someone he or she met on-line

should never upload pictures of him or herself to send to someone he or she

does not know

should never give out identifying information such as his or her home
address, school, or phone number

should never download picture files from someone he or she does not know

should ignore any messages that he or she may receive that may be sexually
explicit, harassing, or obscene

should tell you if any of these things have happened to him or her

should remember that something told to him or her online may or may not be
true

Street Safety

Be sure your child wears a bike helmet while riding a scooter or bicycle

School Issues: 9 12 years

Map of school districts/ links to each site for calendar of school activities
Homework helping tips: (from the U.S. Department of Education, www.ed.gov)

Set a time for your child to do homework each night. If your child doesnt
have enough time for homework because of other activities, cut something
out of his/her schedule. Let you child know that you think homework is
important.

Decide on a place to do homework. This place should have good lighting and
be a quiet area.

Take away distractions. Turn off the TV/radio/video games/internet. Take away
cell or other phones. If your household is noisy, try to have everyone
participate in quiet activities during this time. If distractions cant be avoided,
the library may be a good option for your child.

Make sure you child has supplies to complete homework (pencils, pens,
erasers, ruler, etc.). Check with your school if you need assistance with
obtaining supplies.

Take an interest in your childs homework and school day. Ask about what he
or she is learning and visit the school during events (parent-teacher
conferences, recitals, etc.).

Find out what your childs school expects from homework. Ask your childs
teacher how you can help your child.

Be available during homework time (or let a caregiver know that your child
might need help with homework). Dont do your childs homework for him/her
and find out if your childs teacher wants homework done without help.

Look at homework that your child has finished. Read teacher comments after
your child gets their homework returned.

Set a limit for TV/Video Games. It can be easy to want to play one more game
or watch one more show. Your child needs time to complete homework each
night.

Help your child stay organized.

Talk about good school work habits (not waiting until the last minute, taking
practice tests, reading directions FIRST, skipping difficult questions on tests
and coming back to them at the end, etc.)

If your child seems frustrated, let him or her take a break. Tell him or her that
you KNOW he or she can do it.

Praise your child and encourage effort.

Bullying tips:
What is Bullying? (From the University of Colorado at Boulder, Center for the Study and
Prevention of Violence, Safe School Fact Sheets, Bullying Prevention: An Overview of Bullying)
Bullying is an intentional harming of another person that occurs repeatedly over time. The bully
has power over the people he or she bullies. It can take many forms including:

Physical violence

Verbal threats or harassment (including spreading rumors)

Indirect bullying through: intentionally leaving someone out, social isolation,

obscene gestures

Cyber-bullying (instant messages, chat rooms, myspace/facebook pages)

Signs that your child is being bullied (from US Dept. or Health and Human Services, Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Admin, National Mental Health Information Center,
www.samhsa.gov)

Your child comes home with dirty/damaged/torn clothes, books, or other

property

Your child often loses things and cant explain what happened

Your child comes home with injuries/cuts/bruises and cant explain what
cause them

Your childs grades decline and he or she loses interest in going to school

Your child doesnt spend time with peers after school and doesnt bring
classmates over to his/her house

Your child is hesitant/scared/nervous before going to school

Your child takes strange routes to go to and from school

Your child seems unhappy/depressed or can have mood swings and become
irritated/angry

Your child has headaches, stomach aches, less of an appetite

Your childs sleep is disturbed can have nightmares or cry during sleep

Your child steals money or asks for extra money (this can be used to give to
bullies)

What you can do if your child is being bullied (from US Dept. or Health and Human Services,
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Admin, National Mental Health Information
Center, www.samhsa.gov)

Take the situation seriously. Dont assume that it is ok or that everyone gets
bullied.

Focus on your child. Listen to him/her, dont blame him/her, empathize, ask
questions to find out details of the situation (Who? What? How often?
Where?), do NOT suggest that your child fight back, and dont let your
emotions take over during the next steps.

Contact the school (through the social worker, teacher, principal, guidance
counselor) and voice your concerns (dont let emotions take over). Make sure
the school takes the situation seriously too.

Work with the school. Let the school know you want to work together with
them.

Have school personnel attempt to set up a meeting between you and the
bullys caregiver(s). Dont contact the bullys caregiver(s) yourself.

Guarantee that your child is protected at school. Communicate with the

school and ensure that teachers/administrators are aware of the situation and
are closely monitoring it.

Encourage your child to meet friendly classmates and to spend time with
them outside of school.

Help your child meet friends in different environments (clubs, sports,

volunteering)

Signs that your child is a bully (from US Dept. or Health and Human Services, Substance Abuse
and Mental Health Services Admin, National Mental Health Information Center,
www.samhsa.gov)

Your child is often aggressive, spiteful, and disagrees with/opposes almost

everything

Your child seems to have a need to be in control and/or dominate over others

Your child seems to manipulate others

Your child teases, harasses, or insults others (and seems to enjoy doing it)

What you can do if your child is a bully(from US Dept. or Health and Human Services,
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Admin, National Mental Health Information
Center, www.samhsa.gov)

Let your child know that you take bullying seriously and that it is not
acceptable.

Make clear rules for your child and consistently follow them. Use punishments
(not physical or hostile) when rules are broken.

Praise your child when he or she is following rules.

Find out about your childs activities (so that you can monitor them) and
spend more time with him or her.

Encourage your child to become involved in activities that promote positive

social behaviors like music, non-violent sports or clubs.

Work with school personnel and let them know you are concerned about your
child. Ensure that school personnel are not tolerating any bullying.

Seek the help of a counselor or mental health provider if you or your child
needs additional support.

Building Relationships with School Staff (from the U.S. Department of Education, www.ed.gov

Meet with your childs teacher(s) early in the school year. Set an appointment
to talk or stop in after school and introduce yourself.

Let your childs teacher(s) know if he or she is having problems with

homework. Work together to figure out a plan that will work for your child.

When meeting with or talking to your childs teacher(s), remember that you
are both working together. Approach teachers while keeping this in mind.

Make sure that you understand what the teacher expects from you and your
child. Make sure that the teacher understands what you and your child expect
from him or her.

Keep communicating with teachers throughout the year. Dont wait for your
child to get in trouble (or have a problem) to meet the teacher! If you only
talk about negative things, your relationships with teachers will be negative.

Discipline Information: 9 12 years

Discipline (revised by Kimberly Greder, Iowa State University, University Extension, revised
April 2003)
Discipline at this age is more about building a good relationship with your child (ren)

Listen to your child and help him/her acknowledge feelings. For example, if
your child says I didnt get invited to a classmates birthday party, you
could say It sounds like you are feeling left out.

Remember that your child is changing physically, socially, and emotionally. It

is normal for him/her to want to be independent, spend more time with
friends, and challenge your authority.

Praise good behavior! Your child will learn to repeat good behaviors if they
are encouraged and/or if privileges are given in response. Be specific with
your praise (Thank you for cleaning up your room. It looks great.)

Give rewards for good behavior. Rewards dont have to be things. Extra
privileges (staying up later, inviting a friend over) and spending one on one
time with your child are excellent rewards.

Plan and do things together as a family. Let your child help plan family
activities.

Use reflective listening. When you are talking with your child, listen to
him/her and summarize what he/she is saying. This will let your child know
you understand him/her and gives him/her a chance to clarify if you arent
getting it.

Make sure to spend one on one time with your child.

Take advantage of time in the car/on the bus together to talk with your child.
For example, you can ask about his/her day (what will you be doing today?
What did you do today?)

Let your child know what your values are. Let them know what you think is
important and find out what they think is important.

Have regular family meetings.

Tips for dealing with problems that will occur

Express your own feelings about the situation by using I statements. For
example, I get worried when you come home late and dont call because I
dont know where you are instead of You shouldnt be coming home late
without calling.

Let your child experience natural consequences. For example, if your child
forgets his/her lunch at home; allow him/her to feel how hungry he/she gets.
Dont keep lecturing your child; let him/her remember on his/her own.

Give consequences that match the problem behavior. They should relate to
the problem and be reasonable. Let your child know what these
consequences will be. For example, if your child uses too many cell phone
minutes one month, take away their phone for a few days.

Work with your child to figure out a solution. Listen to his or her ideas and
give ideas of your own. Come up with a solution you can both live with.

Remember to follow through and stick to your word. If you or your child have
agreed to something, stick to the agreement.

Dont discipline your child when you are angry or upset. Wait until you are
calm.

Dont discipline your child when he or she is angry or upset. Wait until they
are calm.

Give respect to get respect.

Parenting Mistakes
(by Mary Casey-Goldstein, Kevin Haggerty, and Richard Catalano (2002). Raising Healthy
Children Navigating Independence Booster Session. Funded by the National Institute on Drug
Abuse)
1. Talking too much. Do you get tired of hearing yourself lecture your child? If
yes, chances are you are talking too much and not listening enough.
2. Not developing along with our child. Parents cant use the same techniques
when their child is 10 as they did when their child was 5.
3. Focusing on negative behaviors and paying attention to your child when they
do something you dont approve of. You raise what you praise. If you focus
on the bad behaviors, those are what you will see.
4. Telling children what they shouldnt do instead of what they should do. Give
your child examples of behaviors that you want them to repeat.
5. Reacting to children only after they have made a mistake. Parents need to set
up rules for their children before problems occur, not in response to problems
that have already occurred.
6. Forgetting to have fun together.

Our Programs
Outward Bound has been changing lives through challenge and discovery for more than 50 years
by using the wilderness as a classroom to provide unparalleled opportunities for discovery,
personal growth, self-reliance, teamwork and compassion. Our programs continue to serve
youth, teens and adults with wilderness expeditions and other innovative programming in
America's most beautiful wilderness areas, in classrooms, city parks and in boardrooms.
Our diverse programming is a testament to our innovative idea that engaging in challenge and

considering the results teaches us how to work together and how to rely on ourselves and,
perhaps more importantly, each other.
Classic Expeditions:
Middle School, High School, College & Adult

The original Outward Bound program, these classic extended wilderness expeditions take
students deep into beautiful wilderness environments, requiring participants to dig deep and
discover hidden strengths they didnt know they had, while gaining the confidence they need to
succeed. Courses are available year-round at locations across the country and for students of all
ages. Courses range from four day programs to several weeks-long expeditions. The average
program lasts for 15 days, with challenging activities include backpacking, canyoneering,
canoeing, dog sledding, mountaineering, whitewater rafting, rock climbing, sailing, sea
kayaking, skiing and snowboarding. Whether travel is on foot, by raft, kayak or canoe or under
sail, participants emerge to find out that they can do more than they thought they could.
Gap Year/Semester Expeditions

Outward Bound gap year and semester courses are the ideal alternative for college-age students
looking for something beyond the traditional classroom environment, and for those who want to
learn by doing. No other Outward Bound experience is as in-depth, absorbing and
comprehensive as our wilderness semester and gap year courses. Taking students to domestic and
international locales including Colorado, Utah, California, Minnesota, Maine, North Carolina,
Florida, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Patagonia and Guatemala, these 30-day to 85-day courses are
unique opportunities to gain real wilderness skills and develop life skills in decision making,
problem solving, leadership and teamwork. With activities as varied as the world we inhabit, you
will raft, sail, rock climb, dog sled, kayak, hike and push forward with your team as you form
bonds and friendships that will last a lifetime.
Struggling Teens & Young Adults Expeditions

Outward Bound offers award-winning courses specifically designed for struggling and at-risk
youth beginning to demonstrate destructive behaviors. Outward Bound for Struggling Teens &
Young Adults helps youth, ages 12- 22, connect their desire for more freedom and independence
with the reality that they must take on the responsibility that comes with that freedom. Struggling
Teens & Young Adults courses are designed to replace the often negative challenges of the teen
years with extremely positive ones. The group expedition in unfamiliar territory instills
confidence and strength and helps teens develop new perspectives and skills for dealing with the
transition to adulthood. With a focus on increasing self-awareness, communication and goalsetting, students return home from their expedition having further developed the values and skills
needed to create and maintain a healthier self-image, trustworthy relationships and productive
life skills. Parents and guardians join us for the last three days of the program in a pivotal and
productive workshop with instructors and students.
Veterans Expeditions

Outward Bound is incredibly proud to offer fully funded 5-7 day wilderness courses to veterans
of the wars in Iraq and Afghanistan. Fully funded by generous donors, Outward Bound for

Veterans helps thousands of returning service members and military veterans readjust to life at
home through the healing power of the wilderness and by reinforcing the gratification,
confidence and self-worth that comes with working within a group. These courses build the skills
necessary to successfully return to life after wartime service.
OTHER PROGRAMS
Special Populations

Expeditions are offered for special populations such as grieving teens, families (parent/child duo
or trio) and single-gender groups. Each course is designed to fit the specific needs of the
population, including considerations for the length, time of year, appropriate activities, specific
course elements and instructor training. Courses for special populations provide unique
opportunities to develop teamwork, leadership and life skills.
Grieving Teens Expeditions

Outward Bound offers a special program that takes grieving teens on our wilderness expeditions.
Thanks to our donors, all participants receive reduced tuition. By combining personal growth
methodologies of Outward Bound, with a simple support model that honors the griever, Outward
Bound is able to deliver an intensely profound healing experience relevant to the lives of people
who are coping with the death of a loved one.
Group Programs

Outward Bound provides courses to meet the specific team building and leadership goals of high
school and college groups, as well as special groups like cancer survivors or families of 9/11
victims for decades. Group Programs range from a single day ropes course to multi-week
wilderness expeditions.
Professional Programs

Outward Bound has been offering corporate teambuilding programs to the non-profit, for profit
and government sectors for over 30 years. Outward Bound Professional programs often combine
indoor and outdoor activities and can be held at conference centers, urban parks, rural basecamps
or wilderness settings. Itineraries can be as short as a day or continue on a regular schedule over
several months. The goal is to create positive, lasting change in the workplace through
innovative, customized programs that enhance the effectiveness of individuals, groups and
organizations. http://www.outwardbound.org/about-outward-bound/programs/

Rehab for Teens

Elk River Treatment Program is a residential rehab center for teenagers who are
struggling with substance abuse, drug addiction, and the commonly associated
behavioral problems or mental health challenges.
Teen Rehab Program

The teen treatment & rehab program is designed specifically around your child and
your familys unique needs. Our on-site staff of medical professionals, therapists, and
counselors will work together with you to develop a rehabilitation program that
addresses not only the substance abuse or drug addiction your teen is experiencing,
but also uncover and address the underlying cause of the addiction. Most teens turn to
drug and alcohol use as a coping or escape mechanism to deal with other issues or
conditions. If the source is not treated, troubled adolescents will frequently relapse
and return to rehab. The goal of our teen rehab program is to make sure your child has
the tools necessary to defeat addiction.
Your teens treatment plan is developed to address their unique needs so there is no
predetermined length of stay. The time frame for entering and exiting the drug
rehabilitation program is determined by you and your childs response to treatment. In
addition, our rehab center has a fully accredited academic program, for grades 6-12,
so your teen will not fall behind in school while in recovery.
Teen Rehab Center
At Elk River you can rest assured that your teenager will be given around-the-clock
attention and highest quality of care, and treatment available. We understand that there
is nothing more precious than your child and their future. Your family is in good
hands. Our teen rehab center has successfully turned hundreds of lives around and
returned them to the life and future they were meant to have.
Call 866-906-8336 to speak with one of our professional teen counselors.
Elk River Treatment Program has been helping troubled teens overcome substance
abuse, drug addiction, and behavioral problems for over a decade.

Searching youth drug rehab centers, residential treatment centers for teens or boarding
schools for troubled youth can be overwhelming. An online search often leads to a
directory or call center instead of a caring admissions adviser. Our staff includes
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The therapeutic and teen drug rehabilitation program at ERTP is staffed by a certified
addiction professional under the supervision of a child and adolescent psychiatrist.
Start the healing process by calling today. http://elkrivertreatment.com/
Collect This Article
By F.P. Hughes Pearson Allyn Bacon Prentice Hall

Updated on Jul 20, 2010

Three general characteristicscorresponding to trends in the areas of intellectual, social, and

personality developmentcapture the essence of the period of middle childhood.
From an intellectual standpoint, the major development is that the child's thinking is becoming
more orderly, more structured, and more logical. Therefore, the school-age child at play will be
more realistic and more rule-oriented than was the preschooler. Play will thus reflect a
developing need for order.
The school-age child is more socially involved with age-mates than ever before, and the peer
group provides support that formerly was offered only within the family. Acceptance by one's
peers is of great importance to children in this age group, and their play reflects a sometimes
overwhelming need to belong.
Finally, in the realm of personality development a major challenge to the emerging self-concepts
of school-age children is to demonstrate to themselves and others that they are competent, that
they have talents, skills, and abilities that they can be proud of. In their play, there is reflected
this need for industry.
The Emergence of Logical Thinking: A Need for Order
Even as early as the beginning of the second year of life, children are able to represent the world
mentally to themselves. They are starting to use symbols in that they can let objects represent one
another and can let words stand for objects, people, or events. Therefore, as was pointed out in
Chapter 3, they can now begin to engage in make-believe play. In a sense, the preschooler's
intelligence consists of mental activity, as compared to the sensory and motor intelligence of the
younger infant (Flavell, 1985; Piaget, 1983; Piaget & Inhelder, 1969).
Preschoolers are limited, however, in that their mental representations of reality are not regulated
by a consistent system of thought. They are easily distracted. When solving problems, they often
focus on irrelevant aspects of the materials they are working with, while they ignore information
that is highly relevant. They are influenced too easily by appearances and too often fail to attend
to substance. A preschool child may conclude, for example, that a tall, thin glass of water
contains more liquid than a wide bowl even if the child has watched beforehand the liquid being
measured in exactly equal amounts into both containers. The tall glass looks bigger and so it
must hold more liquidnever mind the fact that the taller glass is also wider.
Children of five or six are entering a new stage in the development of thinking, what Piaget
(1963, 1983) referred to as the stage of concrete operations. Now the child's mental
representations of reality are organized into an overall system of related representations. The
result is that thinking takes on a more logical, more orderly appearance. When asked to sort
objects into groups, for example, the child in concrete operations sorts with reference to the
logically defining properties of the objects. Thus, a collection of geometric forms might be sorted
according to size, color, shape, or the number of straight lines they contain. By contrast, the

preschool child would have sorted the geometric shapes perceptually rather than logically and
arranged them into what Piaget referred to as graphic collections, which are pleasing perceptual
arrays: The preschooler may have arranged the shapes into a circle to make a necklace or into a
straight line to make a choo-choo train (Inhelder & Piaget, 1964).
The emergence of a logical system to govern one's thinking allows children to perceive the
universe as an orderly place. In addition to acquiring the ability to classify materials logically,
the child develops an understanding of cause-and-effect relationships, a mature understanding of
the concepts of time and space, and an ability to reason by induction, which involves the
postulation of general principles on the basis of particular observed instances.
Now, because the child's thinking is patterned and orderly, the universe assumes the patterns of
the child's mind. As will be seen, children's play during the years of middle and later childhood
reflects the transition from the stage of prelogical thinking to that of concrete operations, in the
sense that play becomes increasingly realistic and increasingly characterized by a need for order.
The Childhood Peer Group: A Need to Belong
Preschool children, even if they spend considerable amounts of time in nursery school or daycare settings, are primarily home centered in orientation. That is, the family is the social unit
around which most of their social activities are focused. By the age of five or six, however,
children are becoming increasingly peer oriented and decreasingly family oriented (Hughes,
Noppe, & Noppe, 1988; Minuchin, 1977; Williams & Stith, 1980). The reason for this transition
is that school-age children spend a greater and greater proportion of their waking hours in the
company of peers; when they are not actually in school they may be out roaming the
neighborhood looking for playmates, and parents often comment that their child no longer wants
to spend time in their company.
The composition of a childhood peer group is highly variable, with children drifting into and out
of a circle of friends, sometimes on a week-to-week basis (Hartup, 1993). Nevertheless, the peer
group is a close-knit society, with definite, if unwritten, rules for membership. Children who are
different in any way, whether because of physical characteristics, personality traits, manner of
dress, access to material possessions, or socioeconomic status, may be quickly excluded (Dodge,
1983).
The peer group is a major socializing agent in middle childhood. It is from their peers, not from
parents or teachers, that children learn about the culture of childhood. Peers will teach a child
quite effectively, and sometimes very harshly, about social rules and about the importance of
obeying them. Peers establish a certain moral order that may differ somewhat from that
established by adults (Hartup, 1993). For example, parents may teach their children to inform on
a child who is misbehaving, but in the peer culture "ratting" may be a major crime that qualifies
the child for exclusion from the group.
Peers teach children a variety of physical and intellectual skills that are necessary for group
acceptance. Parents may provide instruction in riding a bicycle, but rarely do they teach their

children how to do "wheelies" on their bikes or how to jump them across ditches! Such education
is usually provided by more experienced children in the peer group. Similarly, many of the jokes,
stories, riddles, and slang expressions heard among the "coolest" of grade-school children were
never taught to them by adults, but were transmitted directly by the peer group (Williams &
Stith, 1980).
The significance of the childhood peer group as a socializing agent cannot be overestimated, nor
can the importance to grade-school children of being accepted by their age-mates. What is the
context in which the transmission of peer culture takes place? What is the battleground on which
children fight to gain acceptance and to avoid rejection by the group? It should not be surprising,
considering the amount of free time that is spent in play, that the battleground is often the
playgroundboth figuratively and literally. Indeed, it would be surprising if the play of schoolage children did not comprise a large portion of their socialization experience and did not
enhance the socialization process. In fact, play serves that very function and is often used to
satisfy the school-age child's preeminent need to belong.
The Developing Self-Concept: A Need for Industry
One of the most pressing needs of elementary school children is the need for what
psychoanalytic theorist Erik Erikson (1963) called a sense of industry. As children develop,
Erikson wrote, they come to realize that there is no future for them "within the womb of the
family", and so they begin to apply themselves to a variety of skills and tasks that are necessary
for success in the larger world of adults. They become eager to be productive, to achieve a sense
of mastery and a feeling of accomplishment. In more traditional cultures, children's feelings of
accomplishment were acquired by their learning to use the tools, utensils, and weapons that
adults in their culture needed for survival; in the United States, the "tools" are often acquired in
the classroom.
When Erikson spoke of the need for industry, he was referring to accomplishment in the world of
work, however that may be defined. He was not speaking specifically of play, and, in fact, he
even suggested that as children strive for industry, they leave behind the "whims of play". It
seems, however, that an ego-building sense of mastery can be acquired in the performance of
activities other than those that have as their specific purpose the acquisition of skills. Indeed,
why could a sense of mastery not be acquired from the performance of activities that have no
external purpose at all? From activities that fall under the definition of play? As will later be
indicated, the need for industry is often reflected not only in the classroom activities of gradeschool children, but also in their play.

School-age children development

School-age child development describes the expected physical, emotional, and mental abilities of
children ages 6 to 12.
Information

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
School-age children usually have smooth and strong motor skills. However, their coordination
(especially eye-hand), endurance, balance, and physical abilities vary.
Fine motor skills may also vary widely. These skills can affect a child's ability to write neatly,
dress appropriately, and perform certain chores, such as making beds or doing dishes.
There will be big differences in height, weight, and build among children of this age range. It is
important to remember that genetic background, as well as nutrition and exercise, may affect a
child's growth.
A sense of body image begins developing around age 6. Sedentary habits in school-age children
are linked to a risk for obesity and heart disease in adults. Children in this age group should get 1
hour of physical activity per day.
There can also be a big difference in the age at which children begin to develop secondary sexual
characteristics. For girls, secondary sex characteristics include:

Breast development

Underarm and pubic hair growth

For boys, they include:

Growth of underarm, chest, and pubic hair

Growth of testicles and penis

SCHOOL
By age 5, most children are ready to start learning in a school setting. The first few years focus
on learning the fundamentals.
In 3rd grade, the focus becomes more complex. Reading becomes more about the content than
identifying letters and words.
An ability to pay attention is important for success both at school and at home. A 6-year-old
should be able to focus on a task for at least 15 minutes. By age 9, a child should be able to focus
attention for about an hour.
It is important for the child to learn how to deal with failure or frustration without losing selfesteem. There are many causes of school failure, including:

Learning disabilities, such a reading disability

Stressors, such as bullying

Mental health issues, such as anxiety or depression

If you suspect any of these in your child, talk to your child's teacher or health care provider.
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT
Early school-age children should be able to use simple, but complete, sentences that contain an
average of 5 to 7 words. As the child goes through the elementary school years, grammar and
pronunciation become normal. Children use more complex sentences as they grow.
Language delays may be due to hearing or intelligence problems. In addition, children who are
unable to express themselves well may be more likely to have aggressive behavior or temper
tantrums.
A 6-year-old child normally can follow a series of 3 commands in a row. By age 10, most
children can follow 5 commands in a row. Children who have a problem in this area may try to
cover it up with backtalk or clowning around. They will rarely ask for help because they are
afraid of being teased.
BEHAVIOR
Frequent physical complaints (such as sore throats, tummy aches, or arm or leg pain) may simply
be due to a child's increased body awareness. Although there is often no physical evidence for
such complaints, the complaints should be investigated to rule out possible health conditions.
This will also assure the child that the parent is concerned about their well-being.
Peer acceptance becomes more important during the school-age years. Children may take part in
certain behaviors to be part of "the group." Talking about these behaviors with your child will
allow the child to feel accepted in the group, without crossing the boundaries of the family's
behavior standards.
Friendships at this age tend to be mainly with members of the same sex. In fact, younger schoolage children often talk about members of the opposite sex as being "strange" or "awful."
Children become less negative about the opposite sex as they get closer to adolescence.
Lying, cheating, and stealing are all examples of behaviors that school-age children may "try on"
as they learn how to negotiate the expectations and rules placed on them by family, friends,
school, and society. Parents should deal with these behaviors in private with their child (so that
the child's friends don't tease them). Parents should show forgiveness, and punish in a way that is
related to the behavior.

It is important for the child to learn how to deal with failure or frustration without losing selfesteem.
SAFETY
Safety is important for school-age children.

School-age children are highly active. They need physical activity and peer
approval, and want to try more daring and adventurous behaviors.

Children should be taught to play sports in appropriate, safe, supervised

areas, with proper equipment and rules. Bicycles, skateboards, in-line skates,
and other types of recreational sports equipment should fit the child. They
should be used only while following traffic and pedestrian rules, and while
using safety equipment such as knee, elbow, and wrist pads or braces, and
helmets. Sports equipment should not be used at night or in extreme weather
conditions.

Swimming and water safety lessons may help prevent drowning.

Safety instruction regarding matches, lighters, barbecues, stoves, and open

fires can prevent major burns.

Wearing seat belts is the most important way to prevent major injury or death
from a motor vehicle accident.

PARENTING TIPS

If your child's physical development appears to be outside the norm, talk to

your health care provider.

If language skills appear to be lagging, request a speech and language

evaluation.

Keep close communication with teachers, other school employees, and

parents of your child's friends so you are aware of possible problems.

Encourage children to express themselves openly and talk about concerns

without fear of punishment.

While encouraging children to participate in a variety of social and physical

experiences, be careful not to over-schedule free time. Free play or simple,
quiet time is important so the child does not always feel pushed to perform.

Children today are exposed, through the media and their peers, to many
issues dealing with violence, sexuality, and substance abuse. Discuss these
issues openly with your children to share concerns or correct misconceptions.

You may need to set limits to ensure children will be exposed to certain issues
only when they are ready.

Encourage children to participate in constructive activities such as sports,

clubs, arts, music, and scouts. Being inactive at this age increases the risk of
lifetime obesity. However, it is important not to over-schedule your child. Try
to find a balance between family time, school work, free play, and structured
activities.

School-age children should participate in family chores such as setting the

table and cleaning up.

Limit screen time (television and other media) to 2 hours a day.

Educational Implications of Piaget's Theory

Ch. 2, p. 41
Educational Implications of Piagets Theory
Piagets theories have had a major impact on the theory and practice of education (Case, 1998).
First, the theories focused attention on the idea of developmentally appropriate educationan
education with environments, curriculum, materials, and instruction that are suitable for students
in terms of their physical and cognitive abilities and their social and emotional needs (Elkind,
1989). In addition, several major approaches to curriculum and instruction are explicitly based
on Piagetian theory (Berrueta-Clement, Schweinhart, Barnett, Epstein, & Weikart, 1984), and
this theory has been influential in constructivist models of learning, which will be described in
Chapter 8. Berk (2001) summarizes the main teaching implications drawn from Piaget as
follows:
1. A focus on the process of childrens thinking, not just its products. In
addition to checking the correctness of childrens answers, teachers must
understand the processes children use to get to the answer. Appropriate
learning experiences build on childrens current level of cognitive functioning,
and only when teachers appreciate childrens methods of arriving at
particular conclusions are they in a position to provide such experiences.
2. Recognition of the crucial role of childrens self-initiated, active
involvement in learning activities. In a Piagetian classroom the
presentation of ready-made knowledge is deemphasized, and children are
encouraged to discover for themselves through spontaneous interaction with
the environment. Therefore, instead of teaching didactically, teachers provide
a rich variety of activities that permit children to act directly on the physical
world.
3. A deemphasis on practices aimed at making children adultlike in
their thinking. Piaget referred to the question How can we speed up
development? as the American question. Among the many countries he

visited, psychologists and educators in the United States seemed most

interested in what techniques could be used to accelerate childrens progress
through the stages. Piagetian-based educational programs accept his firm
belief that premature teaching could be worse than no teaching at all,
because it leads to superficial acceptance of adult formulas rather than true
cognitive understanding (May & Kundert, 1997).
4. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress.
Piagets theory assumes that all children go through the same developmental
sequence but that they do so at different rates. Therefore, teachers must
make a special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and small
groups of children rather than for the total class group. In addition, because
individual differences are expected, assessment of childrens educational
progress should be made in terms of each childs own previous course of
development, not in terms of normative standards provided by the
performances of same-age peers.
Educational Implications of Piaget's Theory

Piaget's theory has had a major impact on the theory and practice of education. It has helped to
create a view where the focus of attention is on the idea of developmentally appropriate
education. This refers to an educational with environments, curriculum, materials and instruction
that are consisteny with student's physical and cognitive abilities as well as their social and
emotional needs.
There are four main teaching implications drawn from Piaget's theory (Slavin, 2005):
1. A focus on the process of children's thinking, not just its products. Instead of simply checking for a correct
answer, teachers should emphasize the student's understanding and process they used to get the answer.
2.Recognition of the crucial role of children's self-initiated, active involvement in learning activities. In a
Piagetian classroom, children are encourage to discover themselves through spontaneous interaction with the
environment, rather than the presentation of ready-made knowledge.
3. A deemphasis on practices aimed at making children adult like in their thinking.This refers to what Piaget
referred to as the "American question" which is "How can we speed up development?". His belief is that trying to
speed up and accelerate children's process through the stages could be worse than no teaching at all.
4. Acceptance of individual differences in developmental progress. Piaget's theory asserts that children go
through all the same developmental stages, however they do so at different rates. Because of this, teachers must
make special effort to arrange classroom activities for individuals and groups of children rather than for the whole
class group.
The educational implication of Piaget's theory is the adaptation of instruction to the learner's development level. It
is important that the content of instruction needs to be consistent with the developmental level of the learner.
The teachers main role is the facilitation of learning by providing various experiences for the students. "Discovery
Learning" allows opportunities for students to explore and experiment, while encouraging new understandings.
Opportunities that allow learners of different cognitive levels to work together often help encourage less mature
students to advance to a higher understanding of the material. One future implication for the instruction of students
is the use of hands on expereiences to help students learn (Wood, 2008).
Some general suggestions include:

~ The use of concrete props and visual aids, such as models and/or time lines
~ Facilitate learning by using familiar examples to explain complex ideas, such as a story problem in math
~ Give students the opportunities to classify & group information, use outlines & hierarchies to facilitate
assimilation of new information with previously learned knowledge.
~Present problems that require logical analytical thinking, "brain teasers" are a great way to incorporate this

Activities for the Stages of Cognitive Development

How can information on the Stages of Cognitive Development apply to teaching?

Here are some practical ways to teach children in each of Piaget's four stages of
Cognitive Development.
There are many practical applications that can be made from this theory. By using
them in our teaching, we can hopefully teach students in a way that will help them be
the most effective learners.
Sensorimotor Period: Activities for Infants and Toddlers
The term "sensorimotor" comes from the child understanding their world largely through their
senses for their first 2 years. This stage is characterized by the lack of language and internal
representation. It focuses on the reflexes that the child is born with such as sucking, reaching and
grasping. In this stage of development the child eventually develops primary circular reactions,
which are activities centered on the childs body and repetitious in nature. Eventually, children
develop the coordination of separate activities and the evolution of language. A final
achievement in this stage is recognizing cause-and-effect relationships.
-Provide a rich stimulating environment
-Allow the child to play with toys that squeak when squeezed. (ex: rubber duck) At first when the
child squeezes the toy, they will be surprised by the sound and why it happened. However, after
some time the child will realize that by squeezing the toy they are the one causing the noise. This
gives and example of cause-an-effect relationships: if I squeeze the duck, it will squeak.
-Another example of a toy is a rattle; when the baby shakes a rattle it makes noise.
-Playing peek-a-boo is another good example of a fun activity for children around this age.

Preoperational Period: Activities for Toddlers and Early Childhood

This stage is in effect when children are about 2 to 7 years old. This stage is characterized by the
inability to understand all the properties of classes. Transductive reasoning is also characteristic
of this age groups thinking. Transductive reasoning involves making inferences from one

specific to another based on faulty logic. Egocentrism and conservation are also characteristic of
this age group. Egocentrism is the inability to take another persons point of view into account.
One way to help children overcome egocentrism is to help them face another persons
perspective by putting themselves in the others shoes.
-One way to do this is by playing dress up and encouraging the child to take on a character.
- Sometimes children in this age group enjoy playing house. This is also a good activity because
they are playing different roles that they have observed in their own lives.
-Hands on activities should also be facilitated at this time.
-Encourage children to play with toys that change shape (ex: playdoh, sand, clay, water) because
this will help them move towards the concept of conservation.
Children need physical, hands on practice with facts and skills needed for development.
-Use cut-out letters to build words.
-Avoid lessons that are very different from the child's world. And steer away from using
workbooks or paper and pencil activities very often.

Concrete Operations: Activities for Middle Childhood

In this stage children evolve from prelogical, egocentric thinking to a more rule-regulated type of
thinking. Some of the rules of logic include reversibility, identity, and compensation. One
activity that a child at this age would enjoy is a cooking activity with their mom or dad.
If you get creative you can incorporate several components of Piagets theories into this activity.
Baking involves measurements, which would be useful to the concept of conservation.
Measuring cups come in all different shapes so it would be fun to measure the exact same
measurement using different types of measuring utensils. Also the ingredients could be classified
into different categories such as the dry ingredients and the wet ingredients and so on. Numbers
and seriating come into play with the distinct steps in the directions. Children around this age
group usually really enjoy helping out in the kitchen, especially if its baking something fun like
cookies, so it turns into a great learning opportunity.
-Give children the chance to manipulate objects and test out ideas
-Do simple experiments, with participation of the students
Avoid dealing with more than three of four variables at a time
-Reading selections should have a limited number of characters
-Experiments should have a limited number of steps
Students should have practice classifying objects and ideas on complex levels

-Have students group sentences on a piece of paper

-Use analogies to show the relationship of new material to already acquired knowledge.

Formal Operations: Activities for Adolescents

This period is characterized by applying their logic directly to real objects or situations.
At the beginning of this stage:
-Teachers should continue using strategies and materials used in the concrete operations stage.
-Use charts and illustrations, as well as incoporate new more sophisticated graphs and diagrams
-Give step by step explanations and materials
Students need the opportunity to explore various hypothetical situations.
Children in this stage should be encouraged to work in groups in school to explain and discuss
hypothetical topics.
For example: have then discuss social issues in groups and brainstorm.
Have them write a short story on a hypothetical topic such as what life would be like in outer
space. This allows the child to apply their new creative aspect.
Students should also be encouraged to explain how they solved a problem.
-Students could work in pairs, one is the listener, while the other is the problems solver. The
problem solver works the problem out loud, while the listener checks to see that all steps are
followed and seem logical.
-Teachers could put a few essay questions on a test, which allows students the opportunity to
give more than one final answer.
Teachers should try to teach broad concepts, rather than just facts.
-Use materials and ideas relevant to the students
-For example: If you were teaching material about the Civil War, the class could join in a
discussion about other issues which have divided our country
-Use lyrics from a popular song to teach poetry

It is important to note that adolescence may reach formal operations at different times or in some
cases not at all!!!

Huitt and Hummel (1998) suggest that "only 35% of high school graduates in industrialized
countries obtain formal operations; many people do not think formally during adulthood." This is
significant in terms of developing instuction and performance support tools for students who are

chronologically adults, but may be limited in their understanding of abstract concepts. For both
adolescent and adult students, it is important to incorporate thse instuctional strategies:
~ The use of visual aids
~ Opportunities to discuss social, political, and cultural issues
~Teach broad concepts rather than facts
Piaget's theories can be applied in many different educational realms. For example, his basic
premise that involved stages of development gives heavy weight to the individual maturation of a
child. This has educational implications in that teachers have to understand that "mastery"
occurs at different paces for the different learners in the classroom. There is no one "end" in
which everyone has "learned." Rather, it takes place organically, and teachers have to understand
that this maturation and growth must be built into the curriculum and the planning of instruction.
I think that another relevant idea of Piaget comes in his view of education, in general:
Knowledge is a process, not a product; it is dynamic, never static, self-regulatory
rather than imposed from without. Even as mollusks taken from the lake of
Neuchtel and placed in an aquarium change very little after five or six generations,
the human organism has a built-in blueprint that determines the course of cognitive
evolution, a course not unlike that of the evolution of scientific thought.

The idea of knowledge being a process and not solely a product is profound for education. In a
modern setting where so much is connected to high stakes standardized assessment and standards
based educational reform, Piaget's words about process and product, the dynamic nature of
understanding, and the evolution of the mind haunt the modern educator. The applications of this
idea would be to construct a realm whereby stakeholders are able to embrace an approach to
learning that is rooted in the child's development and their own sense of understanding. This is
probably where the realm of authentic assessment and student driven approaches to learning
would be something Piaget embraces.
| High School Teacher | (Level 3) Distinguished Educator
Posted on February 28, 2011 at 10:02 AM (Answer #3)
Piaget's approach to education challenges behaviouralist notions of knowledge, learning or facts
being "pumped in" to a child by the teacher. Piaget argued that learning does not happen so
automatically, and that it is, as #2 identifies, a process and not a product. It is perhaps highly
ironic that education nowadays involves so many targets and standards that children are expected
to attain at specific ages. We seem to have forgotten the wisdom of such thinkers as Piaget.
| Middle School Teacher | (Level 3) Assistant Educator
Posted on March 1, 2011 at 12:47 PM (Answer #4)

The simple answer is that we need to understand what stage of cognitive development our
students are at, and create our teaching strategies accordingly. Based on Piaget's theories you
should not be using truly abstract ideas until adolescence.
Examples would be that you teach a young child through purely sensory experiences. You give
them objects to touch, taste, and smell. You offer them different textures and colors in their toys.
As a child gets a little older you use language to coordinate with the sensory input. You give
textures names, you give colors names, you give tastes names, as well as the objects around
them. Young school age children can begin to grasp concepts outside their immediate outlook but
still need concrete reinforcement. You teach math concepts with manipulatives. You teach new
vocabulary with pictures. You also take into account the child's limited view of the world, vivid
fantasy life, and lack of understanding of time. As children grow you can make more connections
to the real rather than fantasy world to teach concepts and they begin to understand and apply the
abstract.
One key to remember is that all children develop at a different rate and that depending on what
age your students are you may have students at different levels of cognitive mastery and
therefore you must differentiate your instruction to meet the needs of these learners at their
cognitive level.
Middle School Teacher | (Level 2) Distinguished Educator
Posted on March 1, 2011 at 1:08 PM (Answer #5)
One of the most common controversies I find related to Piaget has to do with when to teach
algebra. Many claim that algebraic thinking needs to be introduced earlier, and in fact it has
been moved steadily down from high school to middle school and even elementary school. Yet
others claim, based on Piaget's stages of learning, that some children learn to think abstractly at
different ages and not all of them are capable of learning algebra in early adolescence.
To prevent injury, it is important for your child to warm up before exercising. This should
include about five to ten minutes of light activity, such as walking, calisthenics (jumping jacks,
bending, knee lifts), and stretching.
You may modify them if necessary to suit your particular circumstances. Increase or decrease the
number of repetitions according to the children's particular needs and physical ability. When you
first start these exercises, correct form is more important than speed. After you become familiar
with them, you may increase the speed at which you perform them.
Most of them are considered cardiovascular (aerobic) exercises as well as strength building
(anaerobic) exercises. They will also help you develop balance, coordination and agility. These
exercises can be performed just about anywhere with little effort. Correct supervision is a
NECESSITY, and SAFETY is the primary concern.

Exercise 1 - "Jumping Jacks"

Areas Effected: leg and arm muscles:
Exercise 2 - "Slalom Jump"
Effected Areas: leg muscles:
While standing straight up with your feet together, squat down about half way, leaning slightly
forward. Put your left arm in front of you and your right arm in back (running position). Lean
and jump to the right while swinging your arms in the opposite position and keeping your feet
together.
You should now be to the right of your original starting position with your right arm in front of
you, your left arm in back and your feet together with your knees bent in a crouched position.
Now lean and jump back to your original position while swinging your arms back to their
original position. (when you become comfortable with these exercises, you may increase their
effectiveness by adding ankle and wrist weights (1-3 lbs.) when performing them). Perform 2
sets of 15-20 reps.
Exercise 3 - "Ski Jump"
Effected Areas: legs and arms:
From a standing position with your left leg and left arm in front of you and your right leg and
right arm in the back, slightly bend your knees (running position). Jump up while swinging your
arms and legs in the opposite direction before you land on the floor.
You should now have your left leg and arm in back of you and your right leg and arm in the
front. Now, jump up again while swinging your arms and legs in the opposite direction before
you land on the floor.
You should now have your left leg and left arm in front of you and your right leg and right arm in
the back (original position). (when you become comfortable with these exercises, you may
increase their effectiveness by adding ankle and wrist weights (1-3 lbs.) when performing them.)
Perform 2 sets of 15-20 reps.
Exercise 4 - "Squat Thrust with Push"
Effected Areas: leg and arm muscles, chest and back:
Standing straight up with your feet about twelve inches apart and your hands down by your side.
While keeping your back straight, crouch down by bending your knees until your hands touch
the floor in front of your toes. This will be the "squat" position.

With your hands flat on the floor in front of your feet, kick your feet straight out in back of you.
This will be the "push-up" position. While keeping your legs and back straight, bend your elbows
and lower your body until your chest touches the floor.
Now straighten your elbows to raise your body back to the "push-up" position. Jump back to a
"squat" position while keeping your hands on the floor. Now stand up straight to original
"starting" position. Perform 2 sets of 10 reps.
Exercise 5 - "Alternate Toe Touch"
Effected Areas: legs, arms, back and shoulders:
From a standing position with your back straight and your feet about two feet apart, put your
arms straight out beside you. While keeping your elbows and arms straight, bend forward and
twist your body to touch your left toes with your right hand.
Your left arm will be straight above you. Now return to your original straight up position with
your arms straight out beside you. Repeat this technique to touch your right toes with your left
hand, then return to your original position. Perform 2 sets of 10-20 reps.
Exercise 6 - "Stair Climber"
Effected Areas: legs, ankles and feet:
1. Walk up the stairs with only the ball of your foot coming in contact with each
stair. Try to step smoothly with little or no impact and noise. Walk down the
stairs using the same technique.
2. Walk up the stairs using the same technique as step #1, but, skip every other
stair. Walk down the stairs using the same technique as step #1, but, do NOT
skip any stairs on the way down.
3. Walk up the stairs while placing your foot flat on each stair with your heal
hanging over the edge and pushing yourself up with your toes to the next
stair. Walk down the stairs using the same technique as step #1.

Perform 2 sets of 10-15 stairs/reps each way on all 3.

Exercise 7 - "Trunk Rotations"
Effected Areas: back, sides and hips:
From a straight standing position with your hands on your hips, rotate your upper body as far as
possible in each direction. This exercise should be done with a smooth even motion. Do not
rotate fast or jerk your body. Perform 2 sets of 15-20 reps.
Exercise 8 - "Shuttle Runs With Ball"
Effected areas: total body:

From a standing start, participants run a 10 meter shuttle, and perform any given ball skill
(soccer ball shot, rugby pass, NFL catch, medicine ball throw etc). Perform 3 sets of 3min bouts.
Click Here For A Printable Log Of Children's Workout.
Health Benefits:
All exercises labelled above incorporate both cardiovascular (aerobic) and strength (anaerobic)
work which involves most of the time "whole body" exercises that encourage the children to
train their sense of balance and coordination which are integral in the progressive development
of a child's physiological systems.
Health benefits can be derived simply from becoming more physically active, but the greatest
benefits come from engaging in planned and structured exercise. Cardiovascular risk factors can
be reduced and physical fitness enhanced with low to moderate levels of physical activity (4060% of a person's maximal aerobic capacity) (Blair & Connelly, 1996).
And, low- to moderate-intensity activity is less likely than vigorous exercise to cause
musculoskeletal injury and sudden heart attack death during exercise (a very rare occurrence
even for vigorous exercisers), while it is more likely to promote continued adherence to activity
(Blair & Connelly, 1996; NIH, 1995).
Current recommendations state that children and adolescents should strive for at least 30 minutes
daily of moderate intensity physical activity (Pate, Pratt et al., 1995).
An alternate approach that may be equally beneficial would be to engage in 5- (Blair &
Connelly, 1996) to 10-minute (NIH, 1995) bouts of moderate intensity activity throughout the
day, for a total accumulation of at least 30 minutes for adolescents and adults and 60 minutes for
children (Pangrazi, Corbin, & Welk, 1996).
Walking briskly or biking for pleasure or transportation, swimming, engaging in sports and
games, participating in physical education, and doing tasks in the home and garden may all
contribute to accumulated physical activity.
All things aside, at the end of the day, all a child wants to do is to have FUN! They want to be
constantly stimulated from one day to the next. Their minds are always shifting from one thing to
the next, so when provided with all the variables, the best workout needs to be designed
specifically and especially for their needs.
Motivation:
How can you motivate children to workout?

What motivates children and adolescents to continue and sustain physical activity levels? Why is
there such a dramatic decline in physical activity during adolescence, and how can we stem the
tide of declining physical activity levels?

Physical activity has been defined as "bodily movement produced by skeletal muscles that results
in energy expenditure" (Pate, Pratt et al., 1995). There is no debate about the value of physical
exertion/regular physical activity has significant health benefits, and even modest increases in
energy expenditure can have health-enhancing effects.
The Guidelines for School and Community Programs to Promote Lifelong Physical Activity
Among Young People (CDC, 1997) highlights the contributions that social-contextual,
psychological, and emotional factors play in youths' physical activity behavior.
Most notably, perceptions of competence (e.g., physical ability, physical appearance), enjoyment
of physical activity, and social support by parents, teachers/coaches, and peers were cited as
essential influences on physical activity in children and teenagers.
Recent studies by sport and exercise psychologists provide empirical evidence for the role of
these predictors of participation behavior, and specify the mechanisms by which these constructs
effect change in behavior (Weiss, 2002; Weiss & Ferrer-Caja, 2003).
Motivation is defined as behavioral choice, effort, persistence, and performance and can be
translated to the physiological jargon of frequency, intensity, duration, and level of physical
activity.
Provide Optimal Challenges:
An optimal challenge is one that matches the difficulty level of activities to the child's
capabilities. Thus children's successful mastery of skills is within reach, but they must exert
necessary effort and persistence to attain the goal.
Create A Mastery Motivational Climate:
Coaches and teachers influence children's beliefs, affective responses, and behaviors by shaping
the learning environment or motivational climate in which activities take place (Ames, 1992).
Motivational climate focuses upon how success is defined, how children are evaluated, what is
recognized and valued, and how mistakes are viewed.
Make Physical Activity Fun:
Time and again enjoyment emerges as a strong predictor of motivated behavior. When we enjoy
the activities that we do, we want to do them more often. We know from studies with children
and adolescents that high action and scoring, high personal involvement in the action, close
games, and opportunities to affirm friendships is key to activity enjoyment (Coakley, 1993).
Help Children Help Themselves:
Mastering skills, achieving personal goals, and progressively improving are internal sources of
information children and adolescents use to judge their physical competence. Goals that are
specific, optimally challenging, and self-referenced will point youth in the right direction for
sustaining physical activity motivation.

Physical inactivity has become a serious problem in the United States. More than half of U.S.
adults do not meet recommended levels of moderate physical activity, and one-fourth engage in
no leisure time physical activity at all (PHYSICAL ACTIVITY, 1996).
Inactivity is more prevalent among those with lower income and education, and, beginning in
adolescence, affects females more than males (NIH, 1995; Physical Activity, 1996). A pattern of
inactivity, also known as sedentism, begins early in life, making the promotion of physical
activity among children imperative.
Bonus:
Which age do you think is suitable for one to train with weights? Why?

This is a rather delicate and long debated question in the health and fitness industry. Since
children lack adequate levels of circulating androgens to stimulate increases in muscle
hypertrophy, it is believed that neural adaptations are primarily responsible for training induced
strength gains during childhood.
The observed training induced gains in muscle strength in children have been attributed to neural
adaptations including changes in motor unit activation and motor unit coordination, recruitment
and firing.
Researchers also postulate that intrinsic muscle adaptations as well as improvements in motor
skill performance and the coordination of the involved muscle groups could be partly responsible
for training-induced strength gains in children (Ramsay, Blimkey, Smith, Garner, MacDougall, &
Sale, 1990).
However, my decision regarding the most suitable age to start weight training is adolescents. As I
put forward to the case against children (up to 12) weight training, regardless of what the
research says, I foresee the main problem as being complacency.
Children are constantly looking to move and change, they will rarely contain the dedication and
persistence to stick to a well structured program, instead, opting to "mix-it-up" and therefore
opening the door to inevitable injury due to lack of body maturation.
Whereas, during adolescence, training-induced strength gains in boys are associated with an
increase in fat free mass due to hormonal influences (e.g., testosterone) whereas muscular
development in girls is limited by lower levels of androgens. By the time youth reach their
adolescence, they too can be open to the same lack of persistence as with children; however, it is
other factors which now drive adolescents into weights.
To impress peers and the other gender, to increase their self-esteem, to take the next step into
improving their athletic performance, and to advance their exercise related knowledge.

It has been recommended that children(up to age 12) and adolescents (13-18) resistance train two
or three days per week on nonconsecutive days and perform 1 to 3 sets of 6 to 15 repetitions on a
variety of exercises that focus on the major muscle groups (Faigenbaum et al., 1996).
However, when beginning a resistance training program, performing a single set of 10 to 15
repetitions per exercise twice per week will not only allow for positive changes in muscle
function, but will also provide an opportunity for participants to gain confidence in their abilities
before progressing to more advanced levels (Faigenbaum, Westcott, Loud, & Long, 1999).
Research into the effects of resistance exercise on children and adolescents has increased over
the past decade, and the qualified acceptance of youth strength training by medical and fitness
organizations has become almost universal.
The American Academy of Pediatrics (2001), the American College of Sports Medicine (2000),
the American Orthopedic Society of Sports Medicine (1988), and the National Strength and
Conditioning Association (Faigenbaum et al., 1996) support participation in youth resistance
training activities provided the program is appropriately designed and competently supervised.
It should also be stated that the following guidelines should be considered by those who are
interested in helping children and adolescents participate in resistance training programs.
1. The program is adapted to the participant's developmental level.
2. Proper instruction is given by qualified professionals.
3. Start gradually and progressively increase the overload.
4. It is critical to adhere to sound training principles appropriate to the
participant.
5. Proper technique should be taught and reinforced.
6. Place an emphasis on intrinsic (internal/personal) enjoyment.
7. Ensure variety is incorporated into the program.
8. Consider multiple goals.
9. Listen to the participant and teach them to listen to their bodies.

Resistance training can be recommended to children and adolescents as one part of a wellrounded physical activity program that also includes games and activities designed to enhance
cardiorespiratory fitness, flexibility, agility, and balance.

ame: Olympic Hot Spot Challenge

Children of this age have more developed skeletons and are more able to do bodyweight
exercises. Clear out some space and create 'hot spot' stations with different activities for fun and
variety. The children move from one to the next every 30 or 45 seconds.

Push-ups (against the wall, on their knees, or full push-ups)

Sit-ups

Jump rope

Step-ups (either with a 'step' or run up and down the stairs!)

Shuttle run (Back and forth between two points)

Circle jumps (small rings or hula hoops or tape marks)

Jumping jacks

Squats

Balance on one leg

Ball toss (with a partner)

Ball twist (with a partner, stand back to back and twist side to side as you
pass a ball left and take it right)

Challenges Include:

Increasing time at each hot spot: so 30, 45, 60 seconds

Increasing number of times you do the complete hot spot circuit, so 2, 3, 4 or

5 times

Mixing up the hot spots or doing them in a different order

Creating new hot spot activities of your own

Adding new hot spot props like soup can weights

Encourage Your Children By:

Letting them choose their own pump up music

Having them draw or paint signs for each station

Offering incentives: A penny, nickel or dime for each 'movement' minute, a

favorite (healthy) dinner, prizes for completion or beating an old time.

Benefits Include:

Increased muscular strength

Improved heart and lung capacity

Coordination* Agility

Core Stability

Speed

Power

Plus, if your child is sports-inclined, this hot spot challenge prepares their body for the demands
of youth team sports which they are more likely to take up at this developmental stage.
7 Ways to Foster Creativity in Your Kids
September 16, 2008

Many people assume that creativity is an inborn talent that their kids either do or do not have:
just as all children are not equally intelligent, all children are not equally creative. But actually,
creativity is more skill than inborn talent, and it is a skill parents can help their kids develop.
Because it is a key to success in nearly everything we do, creativity is a key component of health
and happiness and a core skill to practice with kids. Creativity is not limited to artistic and
musical expressionit is also essential for science, math, and even social and emotional
intelligence. Creative people are more flexible and better problem solvers, which makes them
more able to adapt to technological advances and deal with changeas well as take advantage of
new opportunities.
Many researchers believe we have fundamentally changed the experience of childhood in such a
way that impairs creative development. Toy and entertainment companies feed kids an endless
stream of prefab characters, images, props and plot-lines that allow children to put their
imaginations to rest. Children no longer need to imagine a stick is a sword in a game or story
they've imagined: they can play Star Wars with a specific light-saber in costumes designed for
the specific role they are playing.
Here are some ideas for fostering creativity in your kids:
1. Provide the resources they need for creative expression. The key resource here is time.
Kids need a lot of time for unstructured, child-directed, imaginative play unencumbered
by adult direction, and that doesn't depend on a lot of commercial stuff (see this post
about unstructured play).

Space is also a resource your kids need. Unless you don't mind creative messes
everywhere, give them a specific place where they can make a mess, like room in your
attic for dress-up, a place in the garage for painting, or a corner in your family room for
Legos.
Next time someone asks for a gift suggestion for your kids, ask for things like art
supplies, cheap cameras, costume components, building materials. Put these in easy-todeal-with bins that your kids can manage.
2. Make your home a Petri dish for creativity. In addition to creative spaces, you need to
foster a creative atmosphere.
Solicit a high volume of different ideas, but resist the urge to evaluate the ideas your kids
come up with. At dinnertime, for example, you could brainstorm activities for the
upcoming weekend, encouraging the kids to come up with things they've never done
before. Don't point out which ideas aren't possible, and don't decide which ideas are best.
The focus of creative activities should be on process: generating (vs. evaluating) new
ideas.
Encourage kids to make mistakes and fail. Yes, fail kids who are afraid of failure and
judgment will curb their own creative thought. Share the mistakes you've made recently,
so they get the idea that it is okay to flub up. Laughing at yourself when you blow it is a
happiness habit.
Celebrate innovation and creativity. Cover your walls with art and other evidence of
creative expression. Tell your kids all about your favorite artists, musicians, and
scientists. Share your passion for architecture or photography or that new band you want
to listen to all the time. Embrace new technologies like Twitter so your kids grow to find
change exciting, not over-whelming or intimidating.
3. Allow kids the freedom and autonomy to explore their ideas and do what they want.
Don't be so bossy. (If that isn't the pot calling the kettle black, who knows what is.) Stop
living in fear that they are going to be kidnapped or not get into a great college.
Statistically, the odds are very low that they'll be kidnapped, and I'm here to tell you that
I'm not a happier person because I went to an Ivy League school.
External constraintsmaking them color within the lines, so to speakcan reduce
flexibility in thinking. In one study, just demonstrating how to put together a model
reduced the creative ways that kids accomplished this task.
4. Encourage children to read for pleasure and participate in the arts. Limit TV and
other screen time in order to make room for creative activities like rehearsing a play,
learning to draw, reading every book written by a favorite author.

5. Give children the opportunity to express "divergent thought." Let them disagree with
you. Encourage them to find more than one route to a solution, and more than one
solution to a problem. When they successfully solve a problem, ask them to solve it again
but to find a new way to do it (same solution, different route). Then ask them to come up
with more solutions to the same problem.
6. Don't reward children for exhibiting creativity: incentives interfere with the creative
process, reducing the quality of their responses and the flexibility of their thought.
Allow children to develop mastery of creative activities that they are intrinsically
motivated to do, rather than trying to motivate them with rewards and incentives. Instead
of rewarding a child for practicing the piano, for example, allow her to do something she
enjoys more maybe sit at her desk and draw or take a science class.
7. Try to stop caring what your kids achieve. Emphasize process rather than product. One
way you can do this is by asking questions about the process Did you have fun? Are
you finished? What did you like about that activity?

Physical Development in Girls: What to Expect

Breast Development (Thelarche)

The first visible evidence of puberty in girls is a nickel-sized lump under one or both nipples.
Breast buds, as these are called, typically occur around age nine or ten, although they may occur
much earlier, or somewhat later. In a study of seventeen thousand girls, it was concluded that
girls do not need to be evaluated for precocious puberty unless they are Caucasian girls showing
breast development before age seven or African American girls with breast development before
age six. It is not known why, but in the United States, African American girls generally enter
puberty a year before Caucasian girls; they also have nearly a years head start when it comes to
menstruation. No similar pattern has been found among boys.
Regardless of a girls age, her parents are often unprepared for the emergence of breast buds, and
may be particularly concerned because at the onset of puberty, one breast often appears before
the other. According to Dr. Suzanne Boulter, a pediatrician and adolescent-medicine specialist in
Concord, New Hampshire, many mistake them for a cyst, a tumor or an abscess. The girl
herself may worry that something is wrong, especially since the knob of tissue can feel tender
and sore, and make it uncomfortable for her to sleep on her stomach. Parents should stress that
these unfamiliar sensations are normal.
What appear to be burgeoning breasts in heavyset prepubescent girls are often nothing more
than deposits of fatty tissue. True breast buds are firm to the touch.
Q: My daughter just started developing breasts. Should she be wearing a training bra?

A: Theres no need for one right now, as long as shes comfortable. But given the sensitivity of
early breast tissue, some girls find it more comfortable to wear a soft, gently supportive
undergarment like an undershirt or sports bra. Let her decide. Girls feelings about their first bra
are decidedly mixed. Some are thrilled to take this early step toward womanhood, but others are
mortified by the thought of wearing a bra to school.
Q: Why is one of my breasts bigger than the other?
A: In the early stages of puberty, it is not unusual for one breast to be noticeably larger than the
other. Young girls arent always told this, however, leading many to worry that theyre going to
be lopsided forever. Breast size usually evens out within a year or so, although most adult
womens breasts are slightly different in size. Unless the difference is significant, padding the bra
cup for the smaller side is frequently considered a satisfactory solution. However, sometimes the
difference in size is very pronounced. This condition, asymmetrical breasts, is more common
than you might think. The situation occasionally resolves itself, but if not, some young women
may want to pursue plastic surgery. However, any such operation should be delayed until at least
six to twelve months after breast growth has stopped, usually a minimum of one year following
the first menstrual period. The standard approach among physicians is to see young patients
every six months for several years, then assess whether the option of surgery should be offered.
Pubic Hair (Pubarche)

For most girls, the second sign of puberty is the appearance of pubic hair in the pubic area.
(About 10 to 15 percent will develop pubic hair before the breasts begin to bud.) At first the hair
is sparse, straight and soft, but as it fills in it becomes darker, curlier and coarser. Over the next
few years, the pubic hair grows up the lower abdomen, eventually taking on a triangular shape;
finally it spreads to the inner thighs. About two years after the onset of pubarche, hair begins to
grow under the arms as well.
Changing Body Shape

Preadolescent females acquire what, in common language, is often called baby fat, which may
give them a more rounded belly; this development may cause considerable anxiety for these
girls. Thats hardly surprising in light of our cultures conditioning women, even from an early
age, to aspire to thinness. The weight gain of puberty comes at a time when a girl may be
comparing herself to the malnourished supermodels she sees worshiped in fashion
advertisements or to their plasticized counterpart, the unrealistically proportioned Barbie doll.
These young female patients, and their parents, often worry that baby fat is a harbinger of
impending obesityusually the deposition of adipose tissue (connective tissue where fat is
stored) around the middle is part of normal development. The body will soon redistribute the fat
from the stomach and the waist to the breasts and the hips in order to mold a womanly figure.
However, excessive abdominal fat, often characterized by a D shape, should be addressed,
since obesity predisposes youngsters to diabetes, high blood pressure and other serious health
concerns.

Menstruation (Menses/Menarche)

Girls often have many misconceptions and unfounded fears about menstruation. The time to
begin discussing this subject with your daughter is when the breasts start to develop, heralding
the arrival of puberty. Typically, one and a half to three years pass before the first menstrual
period, or menarche.
Heres how a mother or father might go about explaining the concepts of ovulation and
menstruation to a twelve-year-old. Its helpful to have on hand a book or pamphlet that includes
an illustration of the female reproductive system.
When youre older, youll be able to become a mother, if you decide to. Even though thats a
long time from now, your body is already getting itself ready for the day when you choose to
have a baby.
Now that youve entered puberty, each month one of your two ovaries will release a ripened
egg inside you. A woman becomes pregnant when a mans sperm unites with the egg. If
fertilization takes place, the fertilized egg attaches itself to the inner lining of the uterus, which is
also called the womb. This is where the baby lives while its growing and waiting to be born. The
uterus prepares for this possibility by forming a thick layer of tissue and importing extra blood,
just in case.
Most months, though, the egg doesnt meet a sperm. Since the body wont be needing the extra
tissue and blood, it discharges the red fluid out your vagina. This is called your menstrual
period, and it will happen every three to five weeks or so. During the three to seven days that
youre having your period, and for a few days afterward, you need to wear a special absorbent
pad in your panties. Or you can use something called a tampon, which is made of soft cotton and
goes inside your vagina.
Menstruation is normal and healthy. It means that you are growing up. It doesnt stop you from
doing the things you want to do, like swimming or playing sports. In time, you will begin to
ovulate and be capable of getting pregnant.
Teenagers Common Concerns
Q: How will I know when Im going to get my first period?
A: Although theres no way to pinpoint the day, most girls reach menarche at about the same age
as their mothers and older sisters did. Prepare your daughter in advance. Buy her a box of
sanitary pads and show her how to wear them.
Explain that her menstruation may be highly irregular at first, with as many as six months
passing between periods. Even once a girl becomes regular, any of a number of conditions can
cause her to miss a cycle: sickness, stress, excessive exercise, poor nutrition and, of course,
pregnancy.

If your daughter has not menstruated by age 16 or 17, or is more than a year older than her
mother was at the time of menarche, consult your pediatrician. Although everything is probably
normal, its wise to rule out any medical problems.
Q: What if I get my period while Im at school and have an accident?
A: This is probably every girls greatest fear. Have your daughter keep a few sanitary pads in her
book bag or knapsack at all times, in case of an emergency. Explain that the initial bleeding
during a period is usually light, and that she should be able to get to the girls room or the nurses
office in time.
Q: Should I use sanitary pads or tampons?
A: I usually suggest that girls start out with pads for the first month or so, until they get used to
having their period and seeing how heavy the flow is, Dr. Felice explains. It depends upon
when a girl is ready and how comfortable she is with her body. Some girls prefer tampons
because they do not like the feeling of wetness or the odor that pads may emit. Other girls may
be squeamish about inserting a tampon in their vagina and opt for pads. Buy your daughter some
of each type and in absorbencies ranging from light to heavy so she can experiment to find what
works best for her.
Q: Does it hurt to have your period?
A: The first several periods are almost always painless. Once a girl begins to ovulate, she may
experience some discomfort before, during or after her period. Common symptoms include
cramping, bloating, sore or swollen breasts, headaches, mood changes and irritability, and
depression. Menstrual cramps, probably the most bothersome effect, can range from mild to
moderate to severe. If your daughter complains of pain in the lower abdomen or back, talk to her
pediatrician, who may recommend exercises and an over-the-counter pain medication such as
ibuprofen
Daily physical activity is good for young children in so many ways. Getting your
child moving is easy when you make activity fun and part of your childs play.

Daily physical activity: focusing on fun

When youre choosing physical activity for babies, toddlers and preschoolers, focus on activities
that are fun.
If children enjoy what theyre doing, theyre more likely to want to keep doing it. And all the
activities children enjoy increase their ability to move well.
Physical activity can just be part of your childs everyday play and can start very early in life.

Physical activity for children 0-2 years

Babies aged 0-12 months need plenty of opportunities for free movement, so long as they can do
it in a safe environment. An environment that encourages your child to explore and develop skills
such as reaching, rolling, sitting up, crawling, pulling up and walking is great. This can be inside
or outside.
Before baby can walk
Even tiny babies like to stretch and play. A large blanket on the floor (or on the grass outside) can
be a safe, clean and welcoming place for babies to practise lifting their heads and develop strong
muscles during tummy time.
A blanket on the ground or floor is also a great place for baby to learn to roll, creep, crawl and
sit. If you put a toy or object just out of reach, it encourages your baby to make an extra effort to
reach it. This can help physical development.
Great low-cost tummy time toys include things to grab and hold like old boxes or containers, or
pieces of wood and wool. Another idea is plastic containers with things that rattle inside. The lid
needs to be on very tight so baby cant get to the little things inside. Bright colours, drawings of
dots or squares or stars, shiny surfaces, changing textures and different sounds can also interest
your child.
Before putting baby on the floor, take a look for potential hazards down at the babys level. Stay
with your baby at all times to keep things safe.
Playing lots of games is also rewarding. Even simple games, like pat-a-cake and peekaboo, can
do a lot to help your babys learning and movement skills.
Movement opportunities also come from responding to sound. Singing, clapping, little rhyming
games and talking are great ways to get baby moving.
When baby starts to walk
Once your child is walking, you can encourage her just by letting her be free. This means plenty
of time out of the pram.
This is a great time to look for toys and activities that encourage movement. For example, when
you help your child climb a slide at the local playground, youre building self-confidence and
balance. Youre also paving the way for your child to climb stairs.
Playing with your child and praising him as he learns to run, hop, dance and throw
encourages him to keep going.

Physical activity for children 2-5 years

Toddlers and preschoolers need plenty of time to just run around and play. Backyards, adventure
playgrounds, parks, trails and the beach are all great places for children of this age.

Here are some ways to keep physical activity fun:

You can use a large, soft ball to practise catching, hitting, bouncing and
kicking.

Throwing can start with something small like a bean bag or tennis ball. When
spaces arent safe for balls, an old pair of socks can be good for this.

You can get your child to chase bubbles, walk along chalk lines and jump over
cracks in the ground or puddles.

Playing different music, or making sounds with your voice or instruments, can
encourage dancing and a sense of rhythm.

Invent some silly walks and runs with your child, such as running like a
monkey, hopping like a bunny and flapping like a bird.

Your child might enjoy learning to ride a bike, scooter or tricycle under your
supervision, of course and playing with push toys such as trucks, doll prams
and toy lawn mowers.

You could make up games that involve rolling, skipping, hopping and chasing.

Leave the car at home sometimes and try walking to local places like the
library, park or shops. If youre feeling really adventurous, you could even go
without the pram.

Organised physical activity and sport

When is the right time to sign your child up for organised sport? When your child is ready is
the simple answer.
If your younger child is interested in organised sport, it might be worth looking for an organised
non-competitive sport. Most sporting codes offer modified versions for younger children for
example, In2CRICKET, Aussie Hoops basketball, NetSetGO netball and Auskick football. Other
options could be gymnastics, swimming or soccer.
With modified and junior sports, the focus is usually on developing skills and getting everyone to
have a go. Thats because theres no need to pressure young children about perfect technique, or
winning and losing. Its more important for them to learn about the fun of playing, being active
and trying hard.
Australian guidelines say that children are generally ready for organised competitive sport at 810 years. This is when most children understand the value of fair play and are ready to cope with
winning and losing.

If you think your child is ready for organised sport, you could talk to other parents about sports
clubs and programs in your area. Also talk to people at the club and even the coach for your
childs age group. Go along and watch other children playing the sport. A sign of a good program
is children having fun.
Young preschoolers are brimming with energy. That's a good thing in terms of physical
development, because it's the repeated movement of large and small muscle groups that builds
and refines how well these parts of the body work.
Large motor skills (or gross motor skills) develop first. That's why 2-, 3-, and 4-year-olds tend to
do more running, jumping, reaching, and wiggling than sitting still when using their hand
muscles for, say, drawing or for manipulating small toys. But it's a good idea to spend time at
both kinds of activities.
Here are some ways to boost your young preschooler's physical development:

Take family walks. Alternate walking, running, jogging, and marching. Play "I Spy" or
start a collection of feathers or leaves as a diversion while you walk. Indoors, lead a
parade with musical instruments or flags.

Encourage sandbox time. Fill the box with sand toys that encourage manipulation.

Water play in the backyard. A paddle pool, sprinkler, or running hose all encourage
splashing, running, and touching. (Always supervise your child around water.)

Make an obstacle course in your living room or backyard, consisting of cushions,

cardboard boxes, toys, or other found objects that your child can run around and climb
over.

Play pretend games. Animals are a young child's favorite: "Can you walk like a
chicken? Gallop like a horse? What does a puppy do?" Or encourage your child to "fly"
through the yard like an airplane or row a boat across the room.

Introduce different kinds of tag at playdates: Play freeze tag, for example.

Play ball. Games that involve kicking, throwing, and catching are great practice. Try not
to get overly elaborate about rules in the preschool years.

Dance to the music. Expose your child to different styles of music. Playing musical
instruments boosts physical development, too. Or share tunes with physical movements,
like "I'm a Little Teapot." Many familiar songs emphasize fine-motor skills through
finger play, such as "Patty Cake" and "Itsy Bitsy Spider."

Place a string on the ground and pretend it's a tightrope or a pirate ship's plank to
develop balance.

Wash the car, bikes, dog anything involving suds and water is energizing fun. Blow
bubbles and let your child try to catch them.

Introduce games from your childhood. Everything's new to your child: "Ring around
the rosy," "Red light, green light," "What time is it, Mr. Fox?"

Put on a puppet show. Make sock or finger puppets or use toys, crouching behind a
table with your child.

Build fine motor skills in ways that go beyond the art table. Help your child draw a
village with sidewalk chalk. Use sticks to trace letters in the dirt outside, or indoors in
flour or cornmeal.

Supporting Physical Development: Environments and

Experiences
In this lesson, you will learn methods of supporting the physical development of school-age
children. This lesson will define motor and sensory development and include appropriate
activities to support each type of development in a school-age environment. This lesson will also
describe "right fit" activity choices and developmentally appropriate activities for school-age
children in both indoor and outdoor environments.
Objectives:

Identify physical activities that are appropriate for school-age children and
their physical development.

Plan developmentally appropriate physical activities for both indoors and

outdoors.

Discuss sensory development in school-age children.

Learn

Explore

Apply

Demonstrate

Know

Part of your role as a school-age staff member will be to support the physical development of the
children in your care. In order to do this properly, it is important that you understand what types
of physical activities are appropriate and necessary for school-age children.

Motor Development
Motor development, or the growth of muscular coordination, occurs rapidly during the first five
years of a childs life. School-age children continue to develop and strengthen their motor skills
in a more slow and detailed way. Motor development involves two separate components: grossmotor skills and fine-motor skills. Gross-motor skills are actions that use the large muscles in our
bodies, such as those in our arms and legs for walking, running and jumping. Fine-motor skills
are actions that use smaller muscles, such as those in our fingers and toes for writing or
balancing.
Gross-Motor Development
Most school-age children will have developed their basic gross-motor skills, but as school-age
children grow and develop physically, they continue to develop their larger muscles. School-age
children can continue developing their large-muscle skills through practice and repetition. For
example, if an 8-year-old wants to learn how to throw a baseball, he or she should practice the
action repetitively over a period of time in order to develop the skill.
Children who are experiencing growth spurts often lack coordination and seem clumsy. They
may have had a growth spurt in their torso and arms but not in their legs, or their feet might
finish growing fully before the rest of their body. Children going through these phases will have
to work especially hard to excel at certain athletic skills. Later in this course, you will learn how
you can support the emotional needs of school-age children who are experiencing this type of
development.
You can help support the physical development of larger muscles by including certain activities
into your plans. The table below contains examples of activities that support large-muscle
development and ideas on how to incorporate them into your plans.
Activity

Planning Idea

Jumping
rope

Have a jump-rope contest or practice specific skills. You will find a link to jumprope activities on the resource list attached to this lesson.

Balance
activities

Make your own balance beam with lumber and concrete blocks. Children can
practice balancing, while remaining a safe distance from the ground to avoid
injuries.

Hopscotch

Let school-age children create their own hopscotch boards and have a contest. This
can also be played indoors by using masking tape on the floor. For hopscotch rules,
check the resource list attached to this lesson.

Organized
sports

Skills associated with sports such as baseball, football, soccer, lacrosse, etc. will
help with motor development. Depending on the size and age of your group, you

Activity

Planning Idea
can have formal games, or just break out into groups and practice the specific skill.
Consider having high school or college athletes in your area come demonstrate the
proper way to execute specific skills.

Obstacle
courses

Obstacle courses can be a great way to incorporate many different skills and
actions. You can include running, jumping, balancing, throwing, catching and other
fun actions like jump roping or hula hooping.

Yoga

Yoga helps strengthen muscles and develop coordination and balance. There are
many books and DVDs available to help teach yoga to children. The reference list
attached to this lesson has some examples.

Movement Games like Simon Says and Twister are a fun ways to practice large-muscle skills.
games
Dance and Plan dance parties or contests to allow children to show off their dance moves. If
aerobics
possible, have an instructor visit to teach steps or skills. If instructors are not
available, consider using DVDs to help with instruction.
Fine-Motor Development
Fine-motor skills are the actions that involve using our small muscles found in our fingers,
hands, toes, and feet. School-age children will already have a firm grasp on most fine motor
skills. They will be able to use utensils, draw, tie their shoelaces, and use clasps and buttons. The
development of these skills and muscles will differ in each child. Sometimes, if a childs eyehand coordination skills are not as developed, it will be difficult for them to strengthen their finemotor skills. Like all developmental milestones, these tend to even out over time, and by age 12,
most children will have mastered eye-hand coordination. Examples of activities that can help
strengthen fine-motor skills are:
Writing, drawing,
and painting

Write a letter or draw a picture to send to a family member or friend who

lives somewhere else.

Playing musical
instruments

Allow children to create their own song with musical instruments and
encourage other children to make up words or dance along.

Using a computer
and mouse

Utilize the computer making lists, typing biographies to attach to artwork,

finding recipes, and playing educational games.

Crafts

Provide opportunities to use scissors, sew, crochet, and string beads

together.
Exploring

When outdoors, children can pick up and examine objects just as leaves,
twigs, and rocks that they find in the environment.

Right Fit Activities

When planning physical activities for school-age children, it is important to choose activities that
are the right fit. This means that they are not too easy or meant for younger children while
ensuring that they are not too difficult with unachievable expectations. You want to set children
up for success by giving them the opportunity to reach a goal, win a game, or achieve their
personal best. Planning activities that are fun, developmentally appropriate, and designed to keep
school-age children physically active will be part of your role as a school-age staff member.
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recommends that school-age children be
physically active for a minimum of 60 minutes each day. They also recommend a combination of
aerobic activity, muscle-strengthening and bone-strengthening exercises or activities. The table
below is from the CDC and lists details of activities that fall into these three categories. Because
school-age children range from young children to early adolescents, the information should be
used accordingly, depending on the ages of children in your care.
Physical Activities

Use the menu at left or the pager below to cycle through scenarios
Moderate Intensity AerobicVigorous Intensity AerobicMuscle StrengtheningBone
Strengthening

Moderate Intensity Aerobic

Children

Adolescents

Active recreation such as

hiking, skateboarding,
rollerblading

Active recreation, such as canoeing,

hiking, cross-country skiing,
skateboarding, rollerblading

Bicycle riding

Brisk walking

Walking to school

Bicycle riding (stationary or road bike)

House and yard work, such as sweeping or

pushing a lawn mower

Playing games that require catching and

throwing, such as baseball, softball,
basketball and volleyball

Not only is it important for children to participate in the correct amount of physical activity each
day, they also need to participate in the correct types of physical activity. When planning
physical activities for school-age children, you should choose fun, interactive activities that
children will enjoy doing. The chart above is a great place to start for a variety of activities. Keep
activities developmentally appropriate for school-age children by avoiding certain activities that
are unsafe or too difficult, such as weight training or activities that are overly vigorous.
It is also important to determine level of difficulty for your particular group of school-age
children, which is based on their abilities. After becoming familiar with the variety of physical
fitness levels of the children in your care, you can begin to plan activities with their particular
abilities in mind. It is important to find a balance between activities that are easy and activities
that will be challenging. It is OK to plan activities that children will find challenging as long as
they are safe. You can allow them to test the limits of their physical abilities and try to achieve a
personal best.
Being Active: Indoor
Giving school-age children active choices while indoors will help to support their active
lifestyles. Physical activities that are planned for indoor spaces typically fall into two categories.
The first are activities that are purposefully planned for physical activity, usually in a large room
or gym type of environment. The other indoor activities are often called action games. These
are activities that can be done in smaller classroom-size spaces and are often used to reinforce a
lesson or concept.
Indoor Activities: Large Spaces
Many activities that are planned for outdoor spaces can be adapted to play indoors. Depending
on the space available in your program, group games such as tag, soccer, flag football, dodge ball
or basketball can also be played indoors as long as there is enough space to do so safely. Other
ideas for indoor spaces are:

Group exercise class: Invite a professional trainer or use a DVD to teach

school-age children specific exercise moves and routines.

Dance: Dancing is a fun way for children to burn some energy. Have free-form
dancing or instructor-led dancing for school-age children. You can also have
dance offs or competitions or choreograph a dance for families to watch.

Yoga: Yoga is a great way to relax and wind down with school-age children. It
also teaches them important coordination, balance and stretching
techniques. If an instructor is not available, consider using books and DVDs
as a guide.

Scavenger hunts

Relay races

Simon Says

Jump rope

It is important to note that the use of commercial DVDs for physical fitness activities may
require written consent for public viewing and use. If you are interested in utilizing DVDs in
your classroom, consult with your supervisor, trainer, or coach.
Indoor Activities: Action Games
Action games are a great way to incorporate movement into school-age childrens daily routines.
You can use action games as a tool for concept reinforcement or transitions. Action games are
also a great option to have on hand when you need to fill a few minutes before pick-up time or if
an activity doesnt go exactly as you planned it. Examples of action games are Simon Says or
Charades. Attached to this lesson, you will find a resource list of web and print materials with
more examples of these types of games. One of the great things about this type of activity is that
such games often require no supplies.
Being Active: Outdoor
In the Learning Environments course, you learned what an outdoor space will be like, including
the safety requirements. Not all outdoor spaces will be the same. Some programs have large open
spaces, playground equipment, grassy areas, or paved areas. Others may utilize a shared space at
a school or park. Having physical activities in an outdoor space is a great way to motivate
children to be active. Sometimes, games and other activities will be considered free play. This
will be when school-age children might play a game of basketball or tag or use their
imaginations to create their own game. Whenever possible, join in during these types of games.
This will demonstrate that you are also committed to being active and will set a good example.
Other outdoor activities will be planned. Some examples are:

Athletic games: Most types of athletic games can be adapted to play with
school-age children. You should spend time going over the rules of the game.
If you have an expert in your group, let her or him be the leader and share
the rules of the game.

Field-day activities: Sack races, scavenger hunts, balloon tosses and other
fun field day activities are a great way to add planned time to your outside
schedule.

Mock tournaments: Hold tournaments for athletic games or Olympic style

competitions.

Tag: School-age children enjoy playing a variety of tag, youre it games,

such as freeze tag or color tag. They will also enjoy creating their own
variations.

Fitness tests: You can contact local agencies to find information about what
physical fitness tests are used for other sports training.

Cheerleading: Cheerleading involves coordination, balance and strength.

Some children enjoy writing and developing their own cheers.

When planning physical activities for school-age children, it is important to remember that not
all children will have the same abilities. Dont let a child who is not athletic feel left out of the
game. Promote a team atmosphere by providing encouragement for all players. When playing
team sports, it is a good idea to promote playing for fun and experience rather than winning. This
will help alleviate stress for less-athletic children. If you have a few children that have welldeveloped skills, allow them to take the lead and be a captain or share their skills by being a
trainer. This will help all children feel that they have an important part to play.
Sensory Development: What is it?
The development of our senses is an important part of physical development. In very young
children, sensory development is what helps infants and toddlers gain an understanding of the
world around them. As children grow, their sensory development becomes more refined and
detailed. Our senses are what allow us to process the environment.
All children (and adults) process their surroundings differently. This is why all children do not
like the same foods or listen to the same music. Each person interprets the world around them in
a different way by processing it through their senses. Then, based on that process, the brain
makes a decision on how to proceed. If the tongue detects an extremely bitter taste, the brain will
say, lets not try that again! If the hands touch something extremely hot, the brain learns not to
touch that spot again.
All children will benefit from having planned sensory activities in their environment. Any
activity that activates the senses can be considered a sensory activity. The chart below provides
some examples of sensory activities that are appropriate for school-age children.
Activity
Auditory
The way we process the sounds around us

Planning Idea

Musical guessing games

Pitch matching

Echo games (Marco Polo)

Sound sequencing games

Memory recall games

Visual

Activity

Planning Idea

The way we process the images around us

Tactile
The way we process objects that make contact with
our bodies

Olfactory
The way we process the scents around us

Gustatory
The way our taste buds process sweet, sour, bitter
and salty properties

Story telling with photographs

Discovering objects in nature

Sensory substances (molding

dough, slime, etc.)

Art activities

Blind smell tests

Fruit smell guessing games

Blind taste tests

Food comparisons

Supporting All Learners

You may find that some school-age children in your program have trouble with handwriting or
perhaps organizing their school work. Others may struggle with figuring out the steps in games
or with spontaneous play interaction. If you have children who have these experiences, you may
have to adapt your environment as well as your activities to help them to succeed. If you are
working with children with special learning needs, think about how your existing practices are
enabling them to succeed.
Some children in your care may have conditions that affect their motor development, including
physical and cognitive disabilities, neurological and perceptual disorders, and attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder. Children with individualized education programs (IEPs) have a
specific plan that helps them meet their personal goals and objectives. In general, these children
will already have changes and adaptations to their school curriculum and classroom
environment. Children with physical and other developmental disabilities may need related
services to ensure they fully access their classroom and school curriculum, activities,
environments, extracurricular activities, and events. You will have to make sure that your
activities in the school-age program also have been adapted and changed. Even something as
simple as providing a left-handed mouse for left-handed children may enhance their abilities to
learn and develop.

Children with physical disabilities may have difficulties with motor coordination and muscle
strength. While some children may be able to engage in play and self-help activities with
minimal or no help at all, other children may need significant support and may require the use of
assistive technology, including equipment such as wheelchairs or braces, or communication
devices that enable them to explore their surroundings and interact with others. Other children
with physical disabilities may also have visual, hearing, or intellectual impairments that require
the use of significant supports and accommodations when it comes to daily classroom activities.
You may be working with children who have low muscle tone, leading to poor balance, and you
will have to support their access and participation in motor activities. You may also encounter
children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder who may sometimes be extremely active,
impulsive, or more easily distracted, and you will have to support their successful participation in
your program activities.
Connecting with Nature
The busy lifestyles of a military family can result in a lot of indoor time for school-age children.
They might spend the majority of their day in a school setting, only going outside for their
designated 60 minutes a day. Having a love and respect for the outdoors will increase the
chances of children learning to make physical activity a part of their lives. Encourage as much
outdoor time as possible, plan activities that include their natural surroundings, and bring the
outside indoors to learn and discover.
Do

1. Learn. Take time to learn the differences between the main types of exercise: moderate,
vigorous, bone strengthening and muscle strengthening. Also, learn what types of activities arent
appropriate for school-age children.
2. Plan. Plan fun and engaging indoor and outdoor physical activities for school-age children.
Take time to learn their preferences and understand their skill levels.
3. Be a role model. One of the best ways you can promote an active lifestyle is to live one
yourself. Join in games, learn new skills and let children see you having fun while being ac
Purpose: Social, physical and temporal characteristics are known to influence the eating
experience and the effectiveness of nutritional policies. As the school meal service features
prominently in UK nutritional and health promotion policy, the paper's aim is to investigate the
characteristics of the primary school dining context and their implications for eating behaviours.
Design/methodology/approach: A case study of one local authority in Wales was conducted
involving 11 primary schools stratified into socio-economic quartiles. Focussed observations
were carried out over two to three lunchtimes per school to explore their social, physical and
temporal characteristics. These were supplemented by semi-structured interviews with catering
staff and midday supervisors. Findings: The dining halls had numerous generic attributes (e.g.
accommodation, equipment, length of lunchtime, social actors). These interacted to have a direct,
but not necessarily positive, bearing on food choice and consumption. Overcrowded, multi-

purpose dining halls coupled with time pressures and dynamic social situations detracted from
the eating experience and the ability of staff to encourage children to eat. Practical implications:
Without addressing these underlying issues, school nutritional policy may only play a limited
role in influencing what children eat. It is recommended that policy places a greater emphasis on
factors such as the eating environment; the time available for eating; and the role of the midday
supervisor. Originality/value: Previous studies of dining halls have generally been part of process
evaluations of nutritional interventions. This study adds value by conducting a focussed
investigation into the relationship between the dining hall environment and eating behaviours.
(Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

Anthropometric characteristics of primary school-aged

children: accuracy of perception and differences by
gender, age and BMI.
Cattelino E1, Bina M, Skanjeti AM, Calandri E.

Author information
Abstract
BACKGROUND:

Body perception has been mainly studied in adolescents and adults in relation to eating disorders
and obesity because such conditions are usually associated with distortion in the perception of
body size. The development of body perception in children was rather neglected despite the
relevance of this issue in understanding the aetiology of health eating problems. The main aim of
this study was to investigate body weight and body height perception in children by gender, age
and body mass index (BMI), taking into account differences among underweight, healthy weight,
overweight and obese children.
METHODS:

A school-based sample of 572 Italian children (49% boys) aged 6-10 were involved in a crosssectional survey. Current weight and height were measured by standard protocols, and BMI was
calculated and converted in centile categories using the Italian growth curves for children.
Perceived weight and height were assessed using visual methods (figures representing children
of different weight and height).
RESULTS:

About a third of the children do not show to have an accurate perception of their weight and
height (weight: 36%; height: 32%): as for weight, an error of underestimation prevails and as for
height, an error of overestimation prevails. In general, children who have different weight and
height from the average tend to perceive their physical characteristics closer to average.
However, overweight children underestimate their weight much more than obese children.
CONCLUSIONS:

Distortions in the perception of their physical features, weight and height, appear to be related to
the aesthetic models of Western culture. The tendency to underestimate weight, particularly in

overweight children, has implications in interventions for health promotion and healthy lifestyle
in school-aged children.
Applications: Information Processing Theory
Information Processing Theory I must say, is one of those theories who can
really be applied in teaching and learning. Sometimes, teachers are bothered about
how will they make their students retain the topics that they teach. Through this
theory, teachers may be able to present information based on how the mind works
and to achieve long term learning.
1. Attention is very important. Get the class's attention before starting a lesson. You
can have drills, energizers or routine signals. Also, you can move around the room
while discussing or adjust the volume of your voice to gain learners' attention.
2. Relate prior knowledge to new learning. Learners can retain more the information
in which they are familiar or can relate with. This is the reason why we have to
review last day's lesson or relate the topic to our learners' experiences.
3. Learners' process 3 chunks of information the least. This means that we have to
highlight important information. Teachers actually do this when they try to write on
the chalkboard important words in their discussion or when they provide handouts.
4. Organize the information being presented. You can do inductive(specificgeneral)/deductive(general-specific) logic or simple-complex sequence. Graphic
organizers can be used to clearly present these.
5. Teach the learners how to categorize, classify or group information. Try to look for
similarities or differences among the concepts.
6. Utilize mnemonic device or memory aids like acronyms, mental imagery, keyword
method, etc.
7. Drills, reviews, exercised that will provide repetition for learning are encouraged.
Information Processing

Joanie is just learning to read, and she's struggling. She's a very slow reader, and by the time she
finishes a sentence, she can't remember how it started! Reading, like other types of learning, is
about storing information in a person's mind. Specifically, learning involves storing and
accessing information in memory.
But how, exactly, does this happen? There are many theories. Among them, the information
processing theory of learning says that information from the world around us moves from
sensory storage to working memory to long-term memory.

For example, when Joanie is reading, she is receiving sensory information from the book in front
of her: her eyes are taking in the size and shape of each letter, the letters grouped together to
make words, and how it all looks on the page. That's all in sensory storage.
As she moves her eye across the page, she remembers what she just read a second or two ago.
That means that the information is in working memory, or storage of memories that occurred
only a few seconds in the past.
If things go right, though, Joanie will remember the information in the book longer than just a
few seconds. If everything works well, it will move to long-term memory, which is really just
memories that are stored for a person to access later.
Let's take a closer look at the information processing theory of learning and how teachers can
apply it to help students.
Cognitive Load

When Joanie is learning how to read, it's very important for information to move from sensory to
working memory to long-term memory. Why? Working memory is very limited. Only a few
things can be in working memory at a time, and they can only be stored there for a few seconds.
This can cause problems in learning. Take Joanie, for example: if she's reading a paragraph, she
can't remember every word in that paragraph or even every sentence. She needs to move that
information to long-term memory. Otherwise, when she gets to the end of a paragraph, she will
have forgotten how the paragraph started!
When a student can't get information from working memory to long-term memory, they can
become overloaded. Cognitive load involves having too much information in working memory
and not being able to remember anything.
So if Joanie is reading a long, complex paragraph, and she can't get information to move from
working memory to long-term memory, she's likely to experience cognitive load, which will
leave her unable to remember or take in new information.
To help Joanie as she learns new things, her teacher can do three things:
1. Encourage attention and rehearsal
The more Joanie is able to attend to something, and the more she goes over it in her mind, the
more likely it is that the information will move to long-term memory.
2. Only present a few things at a time

If her teacher tries to teach Joanie a bunch of new material all at once, Joanie is likely to forget
most of it. Teaching only a few new things at a time can help Joanie retain the information better
because she's likely to avoid cognitive load.
3. Chunk material