Академический Документы
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Культура Документы
2000
doi:10.1006/jmsc.2000.0712, available online at http://www.idealibrary.com on
Key words: dominant fish species, eastern boundary currents, ecosystems, eects
of fishing, food web, marine birds, pelagic fisheries, plankton, predator-prey
relationships, schooling behaviour, small pelagic fish, trophic models.
P. Cury (corresponding author): Institut de Recherche pour le Developpement
(IRD), Marine and Coastal Management, Private Bag X2, Rogge Bay 8012, Cape
Town, and University of Cape Town, Department of Oceanography, 7701 Rondebosch,
South Africa [tel: +27 21 650 32 81; fax: +27 21 650 39 79; e-mail:
curypm@uctvms.uct.ac.za]; A. Bakun: University of Cape Town, Department of
Oceanography, 7701 Rondebosch, South Africa; R. J. M. Crawford, L. J. Shannon,
H. M. Verheye: Marine and Coastal Management, Private Bag X2, 8012 Rogge Bay,
Cape Town, South Africa; A. Jarre: Danish Institute for Fisheries Research,
North Sea Centre, PO Box 101, 9850 Hirtshals, Denmark; R. A. Quinones:
Department of Oceanography, University of Concepcion, Casilla 2407-10, Concepcion,
Chile.
10543139/00/030603+16 $30.00/0
P. Cury et al.
Number of species
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
C
ru
st
ac
ea
n
M
ed
u
A sae
nn
zo
e
op lid
s
la
nk
t
M
o
es Mo n
op llu
Sm e
s
al lag cs
l p ic
La
fis
el
D
em rge agi h
c
p
er
f
sa ela ish
M
l a gi
c
ar
n
fis
in Ch d
h
r
e
bi ond eef
rd
ri
f
i
s
c
s
an hth h
d
ya
m
am ns
m
al
s
500
40
Pelagic fish
Without Peruvian anchoveta
Demersal fish
Ratio pelagic/demersal catch
2.0
30
1.5
20
1.0
10
0.5
19
50
19
55
19
60
19
65
19
70
19
75
19
80
19
85
19
90
Catch (million t)
Introduction
Ratio
604
Competition
The fish biomass of upwelling systems tends to be
dominated by one species of sardine (or sardinella) and
one species of anchovy, and most often only one of the
two is dominant at any particular time. Alternating
patterns of abundance between these species have been
observed in most upwelling ecosystems during recent
decades (Bakun, 1998). The mechanisms that are
generally invoked in direct competition are not completely satisfactory in explaining replacement. Sardine
and anchovy usually do not occupy the same space
(sardine are usually found farther oshore) and do not
eat the same type of food (e.g. Van der Lingen, 1994).
Skud (1982) concluded that dominant species respond to
environmental factors, and subordinate species respond
to the abundance of the dominant one. Thus, from an
ecosystem perspective, climatic factors are thought to
aect fluctuations in abundance of a species, whereas its
absolute density is rather controlled by intra-specific
competition (Serra et al., 1998). These multi-year
patterns of alternation are important for long-term
management, because exploitation reduces the biomass
605
Top predators
Patterns that relate the abundance of two interacting
populations are more numerous in theoretical ecology
than in the real world (Bascompte and Sole , 1998). In
predator-prey systems, it is dicult to establish any clear
links particularly when several prey and predator species
are involved (May et al., 1979). Small pelagic fish
function as forage fish in marine systems (Anon., 1997),
representing an important food resource for numerous
top predators such as large pelagic fish, demersal fish
and marine birds and mammals. In the four major
eastern boundary current (Canary, Benguela, California,
and Humboldt) ecosystems, natural mortality of small
pelagic fish (1.12.1 year 1) is much higher than
fishing mortality (0.10.7 year 1; Jarre-Teichmann and
Christensen, 1998). For example, almost 55% of all
small pelagic fish in the Benguela Current region are
eaten by top predators. Comparing trophic flows in
these four large upwelling systems and for four pelagic
species, these authors found that large pelagic fish were
the strongest predator group in 31%, fisheries in 27%,
demersal fish in 23%, and marine mammals and birds
in 19% of cases. These values emphasize the relative
importance of predation versus removal by fisheries.
A succession in the abundance of five fish species
sardine (Sardinops sagax), horse mackerel (Trachurus
symmetricus), bonito (Sarda chiliensis), anchovy
(Engraulis mordax), and chub mackerel (Scomber
japonicus) have been observed o California during
recent decades (MacCall, 1996). The peaks in abundance
of the more predatory species (bonito, chub mackerel)
follow those of the planktivorous sardine, horse
mackerel, and anchovy. Similarly, o South Africa,
mackerel peaked after horse mackerel and sardine
became plentiful (Crawford et al., 1987). Thus,
predatory fish may undergo large changes in abundance
owing to natural fluctuations in the availability of forage
fish. Predators may also influence the size of the populations on which they prey. For example, an increased
mortality rate of anchovy owing to predation by chub
mackerel was considered a likely cause of a severe
reduction in anchovy biomass o California (MacCall
et al., 1985). O South Africa, low predation on
anchovy by snoek (Thyrsites atun) during 19691972
was followed by an increase in the anchovy resource
(Crawford and de Villiers, 1985). Dramatic impacts on
predatory fish have followed collapses of forage
resources. After the Chilean anchoveta (Engraulis
ringens) population collapsed in 1973, the snoek
10 000
1000
Chub mackerel
catch (t)
5000
(b)
Scomber japonicus
Sardinella aurita
20 000
120 000
15 000
10 000
60 000
(c)
12 000
Sarda chiliensis
Engraulis ringens
80 000
8000
40 000
4000
19
50
19
55
19
60
19
65
19
70
19
75
19
80
19
85
19
90
19
95
Anchoveta catch
('000 t)
5000
160 000
0.3
120 000
80 000
0.15
40 000
1968
1973
1978
1983
1988
2000
Dermersal species
Sardinella aurita
Demersal c.p.u.e.
(t per day at sea)
Thyrsites atun
Engraulis ringens
Snoek
catch (t)
(a)
15 000
Anchoveta catch
('000 t)
P. Cury et al.
606
1993
Penguin
Anchovy
60
2
1.5
40
1
20
0.5
Anchovy (million t)
Penguins ('000s)
(a)
(b)
Penguin
Sardine
0.6
0.4
0.2
Sardine (million t)
607
608
P. Cury et al.
200
1500
150
1000
100
500
Zooplankton
(ml/1000 m3)
(a) California
50
1951 55
60
65
70
75
80
200
150
100
50
85
500
1000
1500
150
150
100
100
50
50
1968
72
76
80
84
Zooplankton
(ml/1000 m3)
200
y = 0.3064x + 134.8
r2 = 0.2189*
160
120
80
40
88
50
100
150
200
250
300
4000
60
60
50
50
40
3000
30
2000
20
1000
10
1964
68
72
76
80
84
Zooplankton
(g/m2)
5000
y = 0.002x + 38.561
r2 = 0.0538*
40
30
20
10
88
1000
2000
3000
4000
5000
250
150
400
100
200
Zooplankton
(g/m2)
200
600
50
1955
60
65
70
75
80
y = 0.1256x + 151.06
r2 = 0.2023**
250
200
150
100
50
85
200
400
600
800
500
5
400
300
4
200
1951
57
63
69
75
81
87
93
Zooplankton
(Log No/m2)
6
5
4
y = 0.0038x + 6.4884
r2 = 0.222*
100
600
Prey
Primary production and fish production in upwelling
systems are tightly linked and about 25% of primary
production may be required to sustain the fisheries
(Pauly and Christensen, 1995). Jarre-Teichmann and
Christensen (1998) estimated that between 15% and
30% of total primary production is necessary to sustain
the major pelagic fish component in the four main
upwelling areas of the world. A priori, one might expect
to observe strong interactions between primary production and pelagic fish, mediated through the zooplankton
component.
Long-term trends in zooplankton abundance in the
California and Guinea current systems, the Oyashio
system o Japan, and the Black Sea (Fig. 6ad: left
panels), as well as in the Humboldt Current o Peru
(Carrasco and Lozano, 1989), are characterized by
significant declines over the past three to five decades.
In contrast, zooplankton abundance in the southern
Benguela region has increased by two orders of magnitude since the 1950s (Fig. 6e). This increase was
accompanied by a shift in the crustacean zooplankton
community structure, from one dominated by relatively
large zooplankters (>900 m) during 19511967 to one
of mainly cyclopoid copepods (<900 m) during 1988
1996 (Verheye and Richardson, 1998; Verheye et al.,
1998). The shift coincided with a change in dominance in
the pelagic fish stocks from sardine to anchovy. Using
decadal-scale time-series data from dierent trophic
levels, Verheye et al. (1998) proposed several mechanisms that may contribute to the observed longterm changes in the zooplankton. From a bottom-up
609
Figure 6. Time-series of (left panels) annual catches of pelagic fish (solid squares) and annual mean abundance, or biomass,
of zooplankton (open circles), and (right panels) the relationship between the two: (a) California Current (data from Roemmich
and McGowan (1995) and CA1COFI), (b) Guinea Current o Ghana and Co te dIvoire (data from Mensah (1995), and
CROA/MFRD), (c) Oyashio district of the Tohoku Sea area o Japan (data from Odate (1994) and FAO (1997b)), (d) Black Sea
(data from Daskalov (1998)), and (e) southern Benguela Current o South Africa (redrawn from Verheye and Richardson (1998)
and Verheye et al. (1998). Lines in right panels indicate significant regressions (*p<0.05, **p<0.01).
610
P. Cury et al.
611
612
P. Cury et al.
1987
Percentage of schools
Percentage of schools
(a)
80
60
40
20
1996
20
15
10
5
100
20
40
60
80
% Anchovy in each school
20
40
60
80
100
% Anchovy in each school
100
Percentage
80
60
40
School composition
Relative abundance
20
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
1987
20
Percentage of schools
Percentage of schools
(b)
40
60
80
% Sardine in each school
1996
30
20
10
100
20
40
60
80
% Sardine in each school
100
100
Percentage
80
60
40
20
Sardine (Sardinops sagax in South Africa)
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
20
80
60
40
20
(e) Sardinella aurita in Senegal
80
60
40
20
1966
1971
1976
1981
613
1986
1991
Figure 7. (c)(e).
Figure 7. Pelagic fish school composition per species expressed
as the percentage of the biomass of a species in the school in
which this species was observed relative to the total biomass of
the school (solid line; data extracted from the purse-seine
fisheries) and relative abundance of the species in the ecosystem
(dashed line; derived from acoustic data or catch statistics): (a)
anchovy (Engraulis capensis) and (b) sardine (Sardinops sagax)
in South Africa, 19871997 (catch-per-set analysed (130690);
M&CM, Cape Town; relative abundance from acoustic surveys, Barange et al. (1999)). Insets: frequency distributions of
the schools with dierent fractions of the two species for 1987
and 1996; (c) flat sardinella (Sardinella maderensis) o Co te
dIvoire, 19661991 (catch-per-set analysed 7167; relative abundance from catch-per-unit-eort data; CROA); (d) flat sardinella (S. maderensis), 19671985; and (e) round sardinella
(Sardinella aurita) o Senegal, 19691987 (relative abundance
from catch-per-unit-eort data; CRODT, P. Fre on).
614
P. Cury et al.
structure and functioning of the ecosystem. The contemporary importance of fisheries places humans in a
central position in the exploitation of marine resources,
and we do not know what changes are to be expected
because they have never been experienced before on this
scale. As fisheries continue to fish down the food web
(Pauly et al., 1998), one must carefully consider the
implications for other species. It is doubtful that pelagic
fisheries will continue to increase at an annual rate of
4.3%, as has been the case since the 1950s, without major
ecosystem disruptions. As stated by Beddington (1984),
there is an obvious danger that the perturbation caused
by a fishery could be irreversible if there are alternative
system states. The eect of crashes of pelagic fish stocks
on the loss of intra-specific diversity and on ecosystem
structure is a valid concern but has only started to
receive the attention it deserves. Overfishing may induce
drastic changes of state in the pelagic communities
because it presumably releases competing species from
competitive control by the targeted species. School
dynamics appear to play a fundamental role in alternating predominance of species such as sardine and
anchovy. The school trap may exacerbate the eects
of exploitation of target species and thereby have a
strong impact on ecosystem structure. Eects of fishing
on ecosystems may be more subtle in essence than
commonly appreciated (Jennings and Kaiser, 1998). In
this regard, the role of weak trophic interactions
in promoting community persistence and stability
(McCann et al., 1998) should be viewed as a new but
important concern for fishery management. In view of
the paramount role of the pelagics in marine food webs
(Stephenson, 1997), the patterns presented hold several
cautionary lessons regarding management of these
resources. One lesson is that viewing the habitat of a
resource stock as being some fixed ocean volume with
a given carrying capacity, etc., may be too simplistic
and lead to unexpected pitfalls. Another lesson is that
whatever impact is exerted upon a natural ecosystem has
inevitable eects. Although marine ecosystems exhibit a
considerable resilience, drastic responses have been
observed and many more are to be expected. As it
becomes even more clear that there are major
uncertainites regarding the continued exploitation of the
main renewable resources, the need for an increased
focus on ecosystem issues becomes more urgent.
In 1978, FAOs ACMRR (1979) formally advocated
the development of an ecosystem approach to fisheries
management. Some 20 years later, one can say that
significant progress has been made. A scientific basis for
ecosystem management has been suggested (Christensen
et al., 1996) and an operational framework, based on
defined ecological units, has been proposed (Grimm,
1998). This being said, the ability of marine ecology to
contribute multi-species and ecosystem information
useful to fisheries management has remained limited
Acknowledgements
We thank Cathy Boucher and Gerald Van Tonder,
who drew the figures. We thank P. Fre on, C. Moloney,
M. Sinclair, M. Barange, S. Painting, B. Roel-Payne,
D. Pauly, and C. Roy for helpful comments on the
manuscript. We thank CROA (Centre de Recherches
Oce anographiques dAbidjan), CRODT (Centre de
Recherches Oce anographiques de Dakar), and MFRD
(Marine Fisheries Research Division, Ghana) for providing fishery data. This is a SCOR/WG-105 contribution and a VIBES contribution. R. Quin ones was
partially funded by the FONDAP-HUMBOLDT
Program (CONICYT, Chile).
References
ACMRR. 1979. Interim report of the ACMRR working party
on the scientific basis for determining management measures.
Rome 613 December, 1978. FAO Fish. Circular No. 718.
112 pp.
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