Granular Filtration

Uniformity Coefficient:
d
UC= 60
d 10
ES=d 10

Specific surface area for spherical-shaped particles:

Ap 3 6
For irregularly shaped
= =
particles, sphericity:
vp r d
=6/

Filter Porosity:
V
V V M
= v = T
VT
VT

Granular Bed Specific Surface Area:

( Number of Grains ) ( Surface Areaof Each Grain )
S=
Bulk Volume of Filter Bed
For uniform bed of monodispersed
spheres:
6 ( 1 )
S=
d

For non-spherical medium where equivalent volume

diameter can be determined:
6 ( 1 ) ( 1 )
S=
=
d
d

Reynolds Number for flow around spheres:

vd
= w

Darcy Weisbech Model

Kozeny Model

Forcheimer Model

L v2
P=
D 2

v=

k p hL
L

hL 32 v
=
L w g d2

hL
=k 1 v +k 2 v 2
L

hL k S 2 v
=
L
w g 3
= Kozeny coefficient

Ergun Model for clean water headloss

(1 )2 Lv
1 L v 2
h L=k V
+
k
I
3 w g d 2
3 gd
kV = Headloss coefficient due to viscous
forces
kI = Headloss coefficient due to inertia

Medium
Sand
Anthracit
e

k1 = Permeability coeff. for

linear term
k2 = Permeability coeff. for
nonlinear term

kv
110 115
210 245

kI
2.0 2.5
3.5 5.3

<%>
40 43
47 52

forces
Backwash Hydraulics (Spherical Particles)
Downward force,
Upward force,

3 vd , <2.0
FG =mg=( p w ) d 3 g
6
F D = 2.31
w v 2 d 2 , 2 500
0.6
Re

( )

Bed Expansion & Porosity

S w
h=LE ( 1 E )
w

L E 1 F
=
=
L F 1 E

Velocity to keep suspended,

v=

g ( pw ) d 1.6
0.6
13.9 0.4
w

0.714

Le
p
=( 1 )
L
1 E

1
v 0.22
1
vs

( )

Degree of Intermixing
0.625
d 1 2w
=
d 2 1w

Transport Efficiency
Interception
2
3 dP
I=
2 dc

Sedimentation (gravity)
2
v S g ( p w ) d p
G = =
vF
18 v F

( )

Diffusion
D=4 P e

Pe=
KB = Boltzmann Constant (1.38 x 10-23 J/K)
T = Absolute temperature (oC + 273)
Yao Filtration Model
3 ( 1 ) L
C
=exp
Co
2d c

Rate Equation
dC
1
=
r oC
dz
(1+ az )n

2
3

3 d p d c v
k BT

=I + G + D

Where,

Generalized Rate Equation:

m
dC
1
q
=
r
C
1
o
dz
qu
(1+ az )n

) ( )

Headloss Development
n

H t =H o + ( hi )t

( hi )t =a ( qi )t

i=1

Steady State Phenomenological Model

Specific deposit
Specific deposit at breakthrough

Specific deposit before limiting

headloss

 t V =Co QtC E Qt

B=

v f ( C O C E ) t
t =
L

t B=

h L, t=h L ,O +k HL t

v F ( CO C E ) t B
L

HL=

B L
v F ( C OC E )

t HL =

Recovery (Performance Criteria)

V
V
UFRV = F =v F t F
UBWV = BW =v BW t BW
a
a
Recovery,
V V BW V FTW UFRV UBWV UFWV
r= F
=
VF
UFRV

Mass balance,
Qf =Q p +Qc
Qf C f =Q p C p +Qc C c

Recovery Rate,
Q
r < > p 100
Qf

Reverse Osmosis
Water flux rate,
Qp
A

Average imposed pressure gradient

V FTW
=v F t FTW
a

Effective filtration rate,

UFRV UBWV
V EFF =
t F +t BW

Rlog =log ( 1R ) =log

Rejection Rate,
C C p
R< > f
100
Cf

Direct feed mode of

operation,
Ptm=Pf P p

FW =k w ( P a )=

( H T h L, O ) L
k HL v F ( C OC E )

UFWV =

Membrane Filtration
Microfiltration & Ultrafiltration
Cross Flow:
Permeate flow,
P +P
Q p=F w A
Ptm= f c PP
2
Overall pressure drop across
filter module,
P=P f P p

H T h L, O
k HL

Osmotic Pressure gradient

c
= f
p
2
Solute flux,

Cf
Cp

( )

 Pa =

P f + Pc
P p
2

Fi =k i C i=

C i=
Fouling Index
Silt Density Index,

( ( ))

100 1
SDI =

ti
tf

Qp C p
A

C f +Cc
C p
2

Modified Fouling Index,

1
=a+ MFIV
Q

Approximate values,
Membrane Process
Nanofiltration
Reverse Osmosis, Hollow Filter
Reverse Osmosis, Spiral Wound
Electrodialysis
Faradays Law,
Current for a stack of
Gram eq
membranes,
=QN
Unit time
FQN
I=
n Ec

SDI
02
03
03

MFI <s/L2>
0 10
02
02

Ohms Law (Power),

P=EI =RI 2

Faradays Constant = 96,485 amps/gram equivalent = 96,485 As/eq

Adsorption
Adsorbent phase concentration after equilibrium,
( C oC E ) V
q e=
m
Isotherms
Linear,
x
q e= =K Ce
m

Langmuir,
x K C
q e= = L e
m 1+ a Ce
Ce 1
a
= +
C
qe K L K L e

Common constants for Freundlich isotherms,

Freundlich,
q e= K f C

1
n
e

1
log ( q e ) =log ( K F ) + log ( Ce )
n

Activated Carbon Adsorption Kinetics

Z ( V E V B )
H MTZ =
V E 0.5 ( V E V B )

Breakthrough Adsorption Capacity

x
C
tb
x
= b =Q Co b
m b m GAC
2 mGAC

( )

x
m
(
m)
t =
b

GAC Design Values & Specifications

GAC

( C oC b )
2

GAC Design
0=QC o tQC e tmGAC qe
mGAC Co Ce
=
Qt
qe
If mass of adsorbate in pore space is
small compared to amount adsorbed,
mGAC Co
=
Qt
qe
Empty bed contact time,
V
A Z Z
EBCT = b = b =
Q v f Ab v f
Activated carbon density,
m
GAC = GAC
Vb

Specific throughput,
Specific throughput <

V bt
m3
Qt

=
g mGAC EBCTmGAC

Specific throughput =

Vbt
t
=
EBCTGACV b EBCTGAC

Carbon usage rate,

g m
1
CUR< 3 GAC =
Qt
Specific throughput
m

Volume of water treated for Given EBCT =

Bed life< d

Mass of GAC for given EB

GAC usage rate

Volume of water treated for given EBCT

Q

Ion Exchange
Ion Exchange Chemistry
nR-A+ + B+n Rn-B+n + nA+
Selectivity coefficient,
+
A

B+n
R n

+
A
R

A + B =
K

eq
=
3
m

( 1 eq ) 50

g CaC O 3
eq

) =50 g CaC O
3

+n

Solution equivalent fractions,

+
+
A
B

S
S

A + =
B +=
X
X
+

B =1
A + + X
X
X A XB

X
XB A

+ B+ =
A
K
+

Resin equivalent fractions,

+
+

RR
RR

X A =
X B =

X B =1
X A +

For exchangers between monovalent ions on

fully ionized exchange resins,
+ B+
A
1 X B
XB

K
1 XB =
XB

For exchanges between monovalent and divalent ions

on fully ionized exchange resin,
XB
1

+ B2+
A
B2+
1X

XB

XB

2+

2+

2+

Chemical Oxidation

0.14

Potential
Eoreaction =E oreduction + Eooxidation

Gibbs Free
c
d
Energy
a
a
[
C
]
[
D
]
b
c
d G = Go + RTln

A + B C+ Drxn
rxn
b
a
a
a
[ A ] [B]a

( )

Grxn= Gorxn + RTln ( K )

Gorxn=nF Eoreaction

Nernst Equation
0=Gorxn + RTln ( K )
Gorxn=nF Eoreaction =RTln ( K )

ln ( K )=

nF E oreaction
RT

nF E oreaction
log ( K )=
2.303 RT

Electrical Efficiency per Order of Contaminant Destruction (log order reduction) <kWh/m3>
Batch system,
Flowing system,
EE
Pt
EE
P
=
=
O
O
C
C
V log i
Qlog i
Cf
Cf

( )

kWh/m3 = 3.785 kWh/103 gal

( )

Solid Waste Treatment

Specific gravity
WS
W
Wv
= f +
S S W S f w S v w

Subscript:
S = Solids
F = Fixed Solids

Volume of sludge
Ms
V=
w S sl P s
V= volume, m3
Ms = mass of dry solids, kg
Ssl = specific gravity of the sludge
Ps = percent solids expressed as a decimal

V = Volatile solids
W = Water

V 1 P2
=
V 2 P1
V1, V2 = sludge volumes, m3
P1, P2 = percent solid matter

Solids Processing
Simplified Headloss Computation (Head loss multiplication factors)

Application of Rheology to Headloss Computation

Yield Stress,

Coefficient of Rigidity,

Friction Factor,

Reynolds Number,
VD
N R=

Hedstorm Number,
2
D sy
He=
2

Preliminary Operations/Thickening
Percent Recovery,
TS S P ( TS S F TS S C )
R=
100
TS S F ( TS S P TS S C )
Sludge Volume Index
mL volume at 30 min /L
mg
SVI =
1000
mg
g
SS concentration ,
L

Pressure drop due to friction

(turbulent conditions),
2 fpL V 2
p=
D

Aerobic Digestion
Volatile Solids Reduction
dM
=k d M
dt

Digester Tank Volume,

Qi ( X i +Y S i )
V=
1
X k d Pv +
SRT

Anaerobic Digestion
Relationship between pH, bicarbonate concentration, and carbon dioxide concentration at
35oC and 1 atm

Net biomass generation

rate,
X =YSoSe 1+kd (SRT )
1
YkSe
=
kd
SRT Ks+ Se
Effluent substrate
concentration,
K s [ 1+ ( k d ) SRT ]
Se=
SRT ( Yk k d )1
At minimum SRT, Se = So
k Sa
1
=Y
k d
SR T min
K s +S o
SR T design=2.5 10 SRT min
Solids Retention Time (days)

rg = net biomass production rate, g VSS/m3.d

= Specific biomass growth rate, g VSS/g VSS. d
Y = synthetic yield coefficient, g VSS/g bsCOD
kd = endogenous decay coefficient, g VSS/ g VSS.d
k = maximum specific utilization rate, g of substrate/g
microorganism.d
Ks= half-velocity constant, substrate concentration at one- half
the maximum
specific utilization rate, g/m3

Quantity of methane and

carbon dioxide,

V CH =0.35 ( So S ) Q
4

10 3 g
kg

VCH4 = volume of methane produced at standard conditions (0

oC and 1 atm), m3/d
1 0.35 = theoretical conversion factor for the amount of methane
1.42
P x m3, from the conversion of 1 kg COD at 0oC
produced,
(conversion factor at 35oC = 0.40)
Q = flowrate, m3/d
So = bCOD in influent, mg/L
S = bCOD in effluent, mg/L
Px = net mass of cell tissue produced per day, kg/d
Y: yield coefficient, g VSS/g bCOD
kd: endogenous coefficient, d-1 (typical values range from 0.02
to 0.04)
SRT: solid retention time, d

( )

For complete mix high rate

digester without recycle, the
mass of biosolids synthesized
daily,

YQ ( S oS ) ( 103 g /kg )
Px =
1+k d (SRT )

Other terms as defined above

1 mole of CH4 occupies 22.4 L at 0oC and 1 atm

1 mole CH4 is equivalent to 64 g of COD or 2 moles of O2
`

Typical design criteria for sizing

mesophilic high rate complete mix
anaerobic sludge digestors,

Volatile Solids Destruction

Volatile solids destroyed in
standard or conventional digester
t
V d =30+
2
Vd = volatile solids destruction, %
SRT = time of digestion, d

Heat Drying & Incineration

For high-rate complete mix digester,

V d =13.7 ln ( SR T des ) +18.9
Estimated volatile solids destruction in high rate complete
mix mesophilic anaerobic digestion

Oxygen requirements for complete combustion,

C a Ob H c N d + ( a+0.25 c0.5 b ) O 2 ( a ) C O 2+ ( 0.5 c ) H 2 O+ ( 0.5 d ) N 2
Moles of air per mole of sludge,
AO=4.35(a+0.25 c0.5 b)

Constants
3

R=8.214

kPa m
J
=8.314
kmol K
mol K

N A =6.023 x 1026

molecules
mole

g=9.81

atm m3
R=0.08205
kmol K
sticky , interlocking partick
s 0.02 0.03 ng partick 0.06
k B=

R
J
=1.3805 x 1023
NA
K

101.325 kPa=1 atm

1 cP=10 Pa s
1 L=1000 c m3=1000 mL=0.001 m3

1 100 kPa

760 mmHG=1 atm

Geometric Shapes
4 3
V sphere = r
3

S A sphere =4 r

V cylinder = r h

m
2
s