Experiment A

Atomic Spectroscopy and the Normal Zeeman Effect

LOCATION The apparatus for A1 and A2 is located in the main area of 2.14 with the Zeeman
apparatus in the darkroom 2.14f. The apparatus for A3 and A4 is also in the main area of 2.14, but
the Zeeman apparatus is in the back darkroom 2.16.

Introduction

fibre optic get too close to any light source (except

discharge tubes). None of the light sources used in
this experiment have intense UV emission. As a
precaution, the power supply MUST be turned off
at the mains before changing any discharge tubes,
and you must not touch the spring electrical contacts.
Further points to note:

In an atom, electrons can be thought of as orbiting the nucleus at well-defined, quantised energy
levels. When electrons move from one energy level
to a lower energy level, the difference in energy is
emitted in the form of a photon. The energy (and
hence wavelength) of the photon is precisely defined
by the difference between the energy levels. Thus
if the spectrum of the light emitted by a particular
substance is measured, there may be bright lines at
particular wavelengths, corresponding to particular
atomic transitions.
Furthermore, an electron orbiting a nucleus behaves like a current loop, and will interact with
an applied magnetic field. This causes the energy
levels of the electrons to split into several closely
separated levels, and the corresponding spectral
lines to split into closely separated spectral lines.
This splitting of spectral lines in a magnetic field
is known as the Zeeman effect.
In this experiment you will investigate these effects in two parts. Each part consists of separate
tasks, which provide you with a learning basis on
physical phenomena and theory involved. The first
part will help to familiarise you with atomic transitions and the resulting spectral lines by measuring
the wavelengths of spectral lines for various sources
using a high resolution spectrometer. In the second
part of the experiment you will measure the splitting of spectral lines using a Fabry-Perot interferometer when the source is placed in a magnetic
field. These measurements will be used to determine the value of the Bohr magneton.
There are also optional sections, you may attempt them to explore more about the topic and
score extra marks. Top marks are rewarded for a
work going beyond this script in experiment and/or
analysis. Hint. It helps if you try to ask yourself
what do you think was the point of this particular
experiment, what it was supposed to demonstrate.

Do not touch any current-carrying parts.

Loose magnetic objects can be strongly attracted by the electromagnet and can damage
the quartz bulb of the lamp.
Check to make sure that the pole pieces are
screwed tight before switching on the magnet
current, as they could be pulled together and
crush the bulb.
When the magnet current is switched on, do
not handle magnetic objects in the vicinity of
the lamp.
Never handle the quartz bulb of the lamp with
your bare hands. Fingerprints can destroy the
quartz bulb of the lamp when it becomes hot.
The lamps will get very hot and are fragile, so
must be handled carefully.

Preparatory Reading

Key things to look up are: Atomic structure, electron shells and quantisation of orbital angular momentum. Orbital and magnetic quantum numbers.
How is light dispersed by a Fabry-Perot etalon?
Magnetic moment of a current loop in a magnetic
field. Chapters 28 and 43 in University Physics by
Young and Freedman are a good place to start.

4
4.1

Safety Notes

Atomic Transitions
Calibrate the spectrometer

You will need to check this at the start of each sesSome of the lamps used in this experiment, no- sion with the spectrometer. You will use the Ocean
tably the Sodium, Mercury and Cadmium lamps, Optics HR4000 spectrometer to acquire spectra
get very hot, so do not touch them. Do not let the from several light sources. It has a fibre optic cable
1

Experiment A

Atomic Emission Spectroscopy and the Normal Zeeman Effect

which must be treated carefully- do not kink the

cable or damage the ends.
The spectrometer uses a diffraction grating to
disperse the light across a charge coupled device
(CCD) see oceanoptics.com for more information.
Note that the accuracy of the spectrometer depends
on a number of factors, so the stated accuracy of
0.02 nm is nominal only.
Begin by running the control software Spectrasuite on the desktop. A live spectra of the light
input to the fibre optic is displayed.
Turn on the Sodium lamp. Let it warm up for 15
minutes CARE it gets very HOT. Meanwhile,
position the end of the fibre optic cable about 10
cm from the lamp. Observe the spectra as the lamp
warms up. Adjust the integration time and number of scans to average so that the highest peak
remains within the display area. Now enlarge the
spectrum close to 820nm. Check the reading of the
2 peaks (at least) against the accepted values. If the
peaks differ from the accepted values by <0.2nm
you will need to calibrate the spectrometer for these
two peaks using the procedure given in the printed
leaflet.
For calibration, there is a specialised MercuryArgon light source which emits a wide spectrum of
emission peaks. When you are ready to calibrate
your spectrometer please collect this from the technicians. The disk symbol allows the spectra data
to be exported as a text file which can be opened
in Excel. The calibration process is a least squares
polynomial fit of the true wavelength to the pixel
number.

Replace the Sodium lamp with Mercury lamp

(keep fibre end still 10cm from lamp). The lamp is
filled an inert gas and a few mg of mercury. When
the lamp is energized, the mercury vaporizes and
a plasma forms. Most of the lines in the spectrum
are from mercury atomic emission, but a few are
from the inert gas. Can you identify it?
Optional: Record the spectra of both the Sodium
and Mercury lamps as they warm up from cold.
What changes occur?

The low-pressure mercury lamp is a common source

used by spectroscopists to calibrate their instruments because the wavelengths of the lines are so
well known.

Optional: Intensity of the lines is varying,

what do you think is a mechanism responsible for that? Is that real effect of artefact of a
measurement?

4.4

Spectrum of a hydrogen lamp

Emission spectra are valuable measurements because they show researchers how energy leaves a
system. Once a collection of ions is excited (in our
case by the collisions with fast electrons) the energy
they receive must somehow escape for the system
to return to its equilibrium state. If we detect light
from the excited ions we know that the energy is
carried away by photons. The spectrum observed is
produced by the discrete transitions of the atoms in
the gas as they hop from one energy level to another after being excited by colliding with electrons
accelerated between the electrodes of the electrical
discharge. The energy, or frequency, of the emitted
photons tells specifically which atomic transitions
are responsible for the creation of the photons.
Place the fibre so that the emission from a hydrogen line source is obtained. Adjust the integration time so that the intense peaks do not saturate.
You should find 4-6 peaks. There are at least three
distinct parameters which describe a simple spectral line of a given shape: its position (maxima), its
4.2 Integration time
width and its intensity. You will need to analyse all
of them. Some examples of such analysis is listed
One of the factors that affects saturation is the inbelow.
tegration time. The signal that is displayed is proportional to the number of photons that strike the
Compare the values for the peaks positions of
detector. A longer integration time can be used to
hydrogen lines to the accepted values.
increase the signal from a faint source or line. For
example, the same signal results from 108 photons
Zoom in on a few of the spectral lines (one
per second for 1 ms or 105 photons per second for
at a time) and observe the width of the line.
1000 ms.
Does the width of the line accurately portray
Once you have calibrated the spectrometer, try
the shape expected from the uncertainly prinvarying the integration time for the two peaks and
ciple? When the resolution of the spectromrecord the intensity and integration times. Prepare
eter (a function of the size of the spectromea graph of intensity of the lines as a function of inter, the coarseness of the grating, the detector,
tegration time. Is it linear? What is the maximum
and the entrance slits) distorts the width of a
integration time that can be used before the peaks
spectral line, the data is said to be resolution
saturate?
limited by the spectrometer. Based on your
calculations, would you have expected the data
to be resolution limited?
4.3 Spectrum of a Mercury lamp

Experiment A

Atomic Emission Spectroscopy and the Normal Zeeman Effect

The wavelengths of the emission lines from hydrogen atoms was modelled by Balmer:


1
1
2
(1)
= R
n21
n2

5.1

Using the accepted value for the Rydberg constant, determine whether the value of n1 that best
fits the wavelength values of the peaks is 1, 2 or
3. Hence calculate the value of the Rydberg constant that your data actually gives. Use Grotrian
diagrams to show what electron transitions occur
in the lines of your spectra.
Optional: Identify the element in each unknown
discharge tube 1, 2 and 3.

Bulb emissions

Collect emission spectra from the tungsten filament lamp, the tungsten halogen lamp and a room
fluorescent light. CARE the lamp bulbs get
HOT. Why dont these spectra consist of discrete
lines and why they are different to the spectra you
recorded before? How can this emission be described analytically? What are the spectral limits,
in other words, what is the usable wavelength range
of a tungsten source?
Find the colour temperature of these lamps and
how it varies with current for the first two lamps.
Optional: Provide some analysis of your data
(shape of spectra and colour temperature) by comparing them to the expected values from theory
and/or praxis and explain if difference is observed.
Is this effect real or an artefact of measurement?

4.6

Theory

An orbiting electron in an atom behaves like a current loop, and so has a magnetic moment. The
potential energy associated with the interaction between that current loop and an incident magnetic
~ are different for different quantum states in
field B
the atom. Neglecting electron spin, states in the
same electron shell (n) that have the same angular
momentum quantum number (l) will have the same
energy in the absence of magnetic fields. However,
in a magnetic field, if those states have different
magnetic quantum numbers (ml ), they will split to
slightly different energy levels; this is the Zeeman
effect.
As part of your preparatory reading, you should
find an expression for the relationship between the
splitting of the energy levels and the strength of
the applied magnetic field.
In the next part of the experiment, you will observe the splitting of the spectral line of the unknown element that occurs at approximately 644
nm. This line corresponds to a transition from an
l = 2 to an l = 1 state in the 5th electron shell
(n = 5). Ignoring the electron spin, draw an energy level diagram showing the electron energy levels corresponding to the different values of ml in
these two orbital states. Conservation of angular
momentum by the emitted photon means that only
transitions in which ml changes by 0 or 1 are allowed. This is also known as selection rules.

where = 1/ cm-1
R is the Rydberg constant, in units of cm-1
n1 is the quantum number that describes the energy level of the upper state, taking values of
1,2,3. . . (all integers)
n2 is the energy value of the lower state and ranges
from n1 + 1, n1 + 2. . .

4.5

Zeeman Effect

How many allowed transitions are there in this

case?
For a fixed value of B = 1T , what wavelengths
photons can be produced by the allowed transitions (use the expression relating the energy
difference between adjacent ml levels to B).
This tells you the number of Zeeman split lines
you expect to observe.
What is the difference in wavelength between the adjacent lines?

Cadmium lamp

The cadmium lamp is available from the lab technicians. Collect the spectrum from the cadmium
lamp with as much accuracy as you can, particularly around 644nm. This is the same type of lamp
as you will use in part 5.
Congratulations, you have completed the first
part of the experiment. The second part is more
challenging, so allow yourself plenty of time.

5.2

Fabry-Perot etalon

As the shift in wavelength is very small, a

high-resolution spectrometer is required. Measurements of small differences in wavelength can be
achieved by using a simple interferometric device,
called a Fabry-Perot etalon. This consists of a glass
plate with aluminised surfaces. Incident light is reflected internally, with a fraction emerging from the
etalon at each reflection (see Fig 1). Emerging rays
can interfere constructively when the optical path
3

Experiment A

Atomic Emission Spectroscopy and the Normal Zeeman Effect

off and in the lamp with holding plate for measuring the magnetic field. Fix the pole pieces and the
holding plate with the screws of the clamps - ensure that the pole pieces are securely held in place.
Connect the coils of the electromagnet in series and
then to the high current power supply.
Switch on the lamp and verify that a circular
diffraction pattern is visible through the eyepiece.
It is best to avoid unnecessary power cycling of the
lamp, so leave it switched on unless you need to remove it. Adjust the position and angle of the imaging lens and the angle of the etalon and the focus
of the eyepiece lens if required until the diffraction
pattern is in sharp focus and centered on the origin of the eyepiece graduations. Slowly increase the
current to the electromagnets to increase the magnetic field until the bright fringes are observed to
split. Now the optics are set up correctly, you need
to calibrate the magnetic field.

Figure 1: Fabry-Perot etalon

difference is an integer number of wavelengths
( = k). This optical path difference can be written as:
= 2na b
(2)

5.3

Starting from this relation and using Snells law,

and trigonometric identities, show that this can be
rewritten in terms of d, n and as:
p
= 2d n2 sin2 = k
(3)

Calibrate magnetic field

When measuring the Zeeman effect we need to

know the strength of the magnetic field, but the
field strength at the lamps position can only be
measured when the lamp is removed. To avoid continually removing and replacing the lamp, we will
instead calibrate the relationship between current
and magnetic field strength in the electromagnets.

Equation 3 than allows us to relate the angle

at which we observe a given spectral line to the
wavelength of that line. This is the fundamental
use of the etalon.
Consider the placement of the f=150 mm collimating lens - what is the purpose of this lens?
Sketch a ray diagram of the apparatus; where
should the lens be placed relative to the source and
etalon? What is the purpose of the interference
filter?
Assemble the components on the optical bench.
The magnetic poles and lamp should already be
assembled. If not, screw the threaded rod into the
base of the rider. Put the U-yoke over the threaded
rod on the base of the rider so that it is freely rotatable and put on the coils. Mount the pole pieces
and the holding plate of the lamp using the clamps
so that a distance of approx. 10 mm is left between
the pole pieces and that the opening of the holding plate points to the back. Do not yet fasten the
screws of the clamps.
Cautiously insert the lamp between the pole
pieces. See to it that the lamp is exactly in the
middle of the pole pieces, that the point where the
bulb is sealed off points to the back and that the
supply leads are swivelled out of the ray path as
far as possible. Hint: you might need to play with
rotation of the lamp to get magnet pole separation
to a minimum, however, it must be possible to shift

Switch off the magnetic field and the lamp and

wait for the lamp to cool. Carefully remove the
lamp by sliding it vertically from between the pole
pieces and put it somewhere safe. Hold the Bsensor in the middle of the electromagnet pole
pieces, at the location of the lamp. Increase the
current through the coils and record the relationship between current and magnetic field strength.
Make a plot of the relationship using e.g. a spreadsheet.

5.4

Measure line splittings

Carefully place the lamp back between the pole

pieces without changing their separation. Switch
the lamp on and ensure the fringe pattern is still
visible (note it is best to avoid unnecessary power
cycling of the lamp, so leave it switched on unless
you need to remove it). Remove the eyepiece and
place the CCD camera in its place and switch it
on. Start the VideoCom software on the PC (see
appendix). We will now record the separations of
the Zeeman splittings as a function of the magnetic
field strength.
First record the position (0 ) of one of the peaks
when no magnetic field is present (zoom in on one
of the peaks using the right-click menu and use
4

Experiment A

Atomic Emission Spectroscopy and the Normal Zeeman Effect

Figure 2: Experimental setup for observing the Zeeman effect. Components are: (a) Lamp with holding
plate, (b) Clamps, (c) Pole pieces, (d) Positive lens, f = 150 mm (collimating lens), (e) Fabry-Perot
etalon, (f) Positive lens, f = 150 mm (imaging lens), (g) Interference filter in holder, (h) Eyepiece lens.
the calculate peak centre function). Gradually increase the magnetic field, recording the current to
the magnets and the position of the centre of the
peak you have chosen (0 - should be unchanged)
and one of the displaced peaks that appear next to
it (1 ).

left hand tab. To set up VideoCom for this experiment, click the F9 recording 2048 pix button, the
average button, and the F6 large display button at
the top of the main window. A series of diffraction
peaks should be visible on the right hand display.
Use the magnifier exposure button at the top to
increase the camera exposure until the intensity is
at 50%.
Our main use of the VideoCom software will be
to measure the position of peaks in the display. To
do this, select find peak from the right click menu,
and then click a point on the graph either side of
the peak you wish to measure. The software now
displays the central position of the peak.
The camera records a slice through the centre of
the circular diffraction pattern. What are the two
axes on the VideoCom plot? In order for VideoCom to convert the radial coordinate into an angle, we need to add some calibration settings. To
do this, click the calibration button at the top
of the screen and enter the required information.
The background level can be ignored, and the focal
length is that of the imaging lens (150 mm). Zero
the two central peaks, by first measuring the scale
positions of the two peaks and finding the mean
value. Now shift the peaks along the scale in the
negative direction by this mean value.

It is now possible to use Equation 3 to determine and hence U from our measured 0 ,1
pairs. By substituting 0 and 0 and then 1
and 1 into Equation 3, derive an expression for
/ = (1 0 )/0 that depends only on 0 ,1
and n, the refractive index of the etalon (n =1.46).
We know the value of 0 from part 5.1, and we can
use our calibration curve to find the magnetic field
for the different currents used, so we can determine
and hence U for different values of B. Plot
an appropriate graph using your data and use it to
determine the value of B . Optional. As the magnetic field B and orbital momentum L are vectors,
i.e., they have also direction, there will be some differences in the emission spectra with respect to the
direction of the B vector. You may need to conduct
additional investigations to analyse it.

Appendix: VideoCom

The first time you start the VideoCom software,

you will see a preferences window that may be in
German. In this case, select English from the drop
down menu on the preferences window and click ok.
The VideoCom controls are either accessed from
the buttons along the top of the screen, or from
the right click mouse menu. There are also several
tabs of different displays; you only need to use the
5