Beee Notes

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering
T104 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

OBJECTIVES
_ To understand and gain basic knowledge about magnetic and electrical
circuits, single phase and three phase power measurement and the
operating principles of stationary and rotating machines
_ To understand the basic operation, functions and applications of PN
junction diode, transistor, logic gates and flip flops.
_ To gain knowledge on various communication systems and network
models and the use of ISDN
PART A - ELECTRICAL
UNIT I - DC CIRCUITS
Definition of Voltage, Current, Power & Energy, circuit parameters, Ohms
law, Kirchoffs law & its applications Simple Problems - Division of
current in Series & parallel circuits - star/delta conversion - Node and
mesh methods of analysis of DC circuits.
UNIT II - AC CIRCUITS
Concepts of AC circuits rms value, average value, form and peak factors
Simple RLC series circuits Concept of real and reactive power Power
factor - Introduction to three phase system - Power measurement by two
wattmeter method.
UNIT III ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND POWER PLANTS
Law of Electromagnetic induction, Flemings Right & Left hand rule Principle of DC rotating machine, Single phase transformer and single
phase induction motor (Qualitative approach only) - Simple layout of
thermal
and
hydro
generation
(block
diagram
approach
only).Fundamentals of fuses and circuit breakers
PART B ELECTRONICS
UNIT IV ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
V-I Characteristics of diode - Half-wave rectifier and Full-wave rectifier
with and without capacitor filter - Transistor - Construction & working Input and output characteristics of CB and CE configuration - Transistor as
an Amplifier - Principle and working of Hartley oscillator and RC phase shift
oscillator - Construction and working of JFET & MOSFET.
UNIT V DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
Boolean algebra Reduction of Boolean expressions - De-Morgans
theorem Logic gates -Implementation of Boolean expressions - Flip flops
- RS, JK, T and D. Combinational logic - Half adder, Full adder and
Subtractors. Sequential logic - Ripple counters and shift registers.
UNIT VI COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS
Model of communication system - Analog and digital - Wired and wireless
channel. Block diagram of various communication systems - Microwave,
satellite, optical fiber and cellular mobile system. Network model - PAN,
LAN, MAN and WAN - Circuit and packet switching - Overview of ISDN.
Text Books
1. Kothari D P and Nagrath I J , Basic Electrical Engineering , Tata McGraw
Hill,2009. (For Units I to III)
J.C.Vijayshree
2. Rajendra Prasad , Fundamentals of Electronic Engineering, Cengage

learning, New Delhi, First Edition, 2011 (For Unit IV)
3. Morris Mano, Digital design, PHI Learning, Fourth Edition, 2008 (For
Unit V)
4. Wayne Tomasi, Electronic Communication Systems- Fundamentals
Theory Advanced, Sixth Edition, Pearson Education, 2004. (For Unit VI)
Reference Books
1. R.Muthusubramaniam, S.Salivahanan and K.A. Mureleedharan, Basic
Electrical Electronics and Computer Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill, 2004..
2. J.B.Gupta, A Course in Electrical Power, Katson Publishing House, New
Delhi, 1993.
3. David. A. Bell, Electronic Devices and Circuits, PHI Learning Private
Ltd, India, Fourth Edition, 2008
4. Donald P Leach, Albert Paul Malvino and Goutam Saha, Digital
Principles and Applications, 6th edition, Tata McGraw Hill Publishing
Company Ltd., New Delhi,2008.
5. S.K. Sahdev, Fundamentals of Electrical Engineering and Electronics,
Dhanpat Rai & Co, 2013.
6. Jacob Millman and Christos C. Halkias, Electronic Devices and Circuits
Tata McGraw Hill,2008
7. R.L. Boylestad and L. Nashelsky, Electronic Devices and Circuit
Theory, PHI Learning Private Limited, Ninth Edition, 2008.
8. M.S.Sukhija and T.K.Nagsarkar, Basic Electrical and Electronics
Engineering, Oxford University Press, 2012.
PART A - ELECTRICAL
UNIT I
DC CIRCUITS
1.1.Definition of Voltage, Current, Power & Energy
1.1.1. Voltage
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Voltage is a representation of the electric potential energy per unit charge.

If a unit of electrical charge were placed in a location, the voltage
indicates the potential energy of it at that point. In other words, it is a
measurement of the energy contained within an electric field, or an
electric circuit, at a given point.
Voltage is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of voltage is the volt, such that 1
volt = 1 joule/coulomb.
1.1.2. Current
Electrical current is a measure of the amount of electrical charge
transferred per unit time. It represents the flow of electrons through a
conductive material.
Current is a scalar quantity (though in circuit analysis, the direction of
current is relevant). The SI unit of electrical current is the ampere, defined
as 1 coulomb/second.
1.1.3. Power
Power is the time rate at which work is done or energy is transferred. In
calculus terms, power is the derivative of work with respect to time.
The SI unit of power is the watt (W) or joule per second (J/s). Horsepower
is a unit of power in the British system of measurement.
1.1.4. Energy
Energy is the capacity of a physical system to perform work. Energy exists
in several forms such as heat, kinetic or mechanical energy, light,
potential energy, electrical, or other forms.
According to the law of conservation of energy, the total energy of a
system remains constant, though energy may transform into another
form. Two billiard balls colliding, for example, may come to rest, with the
resulting energy becoming sound and perhaps a bit of heat at the point of
collision.
The SI unit of energy is the joule (J) or newton-meter (N * m). The joule is
also the SI unit of work.
1.1.5. Current Vs Voltage - Comparison
Current
Voltage
Voltage, also called
Current is the rate at which electromotive force, is the
electric charge flows past a potential difference in charge
Definition point in a circuit. In other
between two points in an
words, current is the rate of electrical field. In other words,
flow of electric charge.
voltage is the "energy per unit
charge.
Symbol
I
V
Unit
A or amps or amperage
V or volts or voltage
1 ampere =1
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb.
SI Unit
coulomb/second.
(V=W/C)
Measuring
Ammeter
Voltmeter
Instrument
Current is the effect (voltage Voltage is the cause and current
Relationshi
being the cause). Current
is its effect. Voltage can exist
p
cannot flow without Voltage. without current.
J.C.Vijayshree
Current
Field
created
Voltage
A magnetic field
An electrostatic field
Current is the same through

In series
Voltage gets distributed over
all components connected in
connection
components connected in series.
series.
Current gets distributed over Voltages are the same across all
In a parallel
components connected in
components connected in
connection
parallel.
parallel.
1.1.6. Energy Vs Power - Comparison
Energy
Power
Energy is the capacity to do
Power is the rate at which
Definition work. Energy is power integrated work is done, or energy is
over time.
transmitted.
Unit
joules = watt-seconds
watt = joules/second
Common
W
P
symbol(s)
I left a 60W light bulb on for 30 My car's battery can provide
Example
days, which raised my electric
500 amps at 12 volts, which
bill by 43.2 kWh (kilowatt-hours). equals 6kW of power.
1.2. Circuit parameters
Circuit parameters can be classified as:
1-- Active or Passive
2-- Linear or Non-linear
3-- Unilateral or Bilateral
4-- Lumped or Distributive
1.2.1 Active elements
Those circuit elements that supply energy to an energised circuit are
called active circuit elements. Eg.: Voltage source, current source, etc.
Note: It is important to note that dependent sources cannot be placed
under this category as they depend on the value of current or voltage in
any
other
branch
of
the
network.
1.2.2 Passive elements
Passive circuit elements, on the other hand, are those elements that use
up the energy supplied by the active sources and\or do not supply their
own
energy
to
the
circuit.
Eg.: Resistor, capacitor, inductor, etc.
Note: It is important to note that a capacitor does store energy and also
supplies it back to the circuit but this energy is not of its own, instead it's
the energy supplied by some active component. Hence, it cannot be
placed under the category of active circuit parameters.
Thus an energised network(or a circuit) consists of both active and passive
elements.
1.2.3 Linear circuits
In simple words, a linear circuit is an electric circuit in which circuit
parameters (Resistance, inductance, capacitance, waveform, frequency
J.C.Vijayshree
etc) are constant. In other words, a circuit whose parameters are not
changed with respect to Current and Voltage is called Linear Circuit.
If we draw the circuit output characteristic curve in between Current and
Voltage, it will look like a straight line (Diagonal) as shown in fig (1).
In a linear circuit, the output response of the circuit is directly proportional
to the input.
Linear Circuit and its characteristic curve are shown in below fig (1).
Examples of Liner Circuits and Linear Elements

Resistance and Resistive Circuit
Inductor and Inductive Circuits
Capacitor and Capacitive Circuits
1.2.4 Non-linear circuits
A nonlinear circuit is an electric circuit whose parameters are varied with
respect to Current and Voltage. In other words, an electric circuit in which
circuit parameters (Resistance, inductance, capacitance, waveform,
frequency etc) is not constant, is called Non Linear Circuit.
If we draw the circuit output characteristic curve in between Current and
Voltage, it will look like a curved or bending line as shown in fig (2).
Non Linear Circuit and its characteristic curve are shown in below fig (2).
Examples of NonLinear Circuits and Elements

Diode, Transistor, Transformer, Iron Core inductor when the core is
saturated and any circuit composed exclusively of ideal Diode, Transistor,
Transformer, and Iron Core inductor is called Non linear circuit.
1.2.5 Unilateral circuits
In unilateral circuits, the property of circuit changes with the change of
direction of supply voltage or current. In other words, unilateral circuit
allows the current to flow only in one direction.
Diode rectifier is the best example of unilateral circuit because it does not
perform the rectification in both direction of supply.
1.2.6 Bi-lateral circuits
In bilateral circuits, the property of circuit does not change with the
change of direction of supply voltage or current. In other words, bilateral
circuit allows the current to flow in both directions.
Transmission line is the best example of bilateral circuit because, if you
give supply from any direction, the circuit properties remain constant
1.2.7 Lumped elements
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Physical dimensions of circuit are such that voltage across and current
through conductors connecting elements does not vary.
Current in two-terminal lumped circuit element does not vary
1.2.8 Distributive elements

Current varies along conductors and elements
Voltage across points along conductor or within element varies
1.3. Ohms law

1.3.1. Definition
The potential difference (voltage) across an ideal conductor is
proportional to the current through it.
The relationship between Voltage, Current and Resistance in any DC
electrical circuit was firstly discovered by the German physicist Georg
Ohm.
Ohm found that, at a constant temperature, the electrical current flowing
through a fixed linear resistance is directly proportional to the voltage
applied across it, and also inversely proportional to the resistance.
This relationship between the Voltage, Current and Resistance forms the
bases of Ohms Law and is shown below.
1.3.2 Ohms Law Relationship
By knowing any two values of the Voltage, Current or Resistance

quantities we can use Ohms Law to find the third missing value. Ohms
Law is used extensively in electronics formulas and calculations so it is
very important to understand and accurately remember these formulas.
J.C.Vijayshree
1.3.3 To find the Voltage, ( V )

[V=IxR]
V (volts) = I (amps) x R ()
1.3.4 To find the Current, ( I )
[I=VR]
I (amps) = V (volts) R ()
1.3.5 To find the Resistance, ( R )
[R=VI]
R () = V (volts) I (amps)
Ohms Law Example
For the circuit shown below find the Voltage (V), the Current (I), the
Resistance (R) and the Power (P).
Voltage [ V = I x R ] = 2 x 12 = 24V
Current [ I = V R ] = 24 12 = 2A
Resistance [ R = V I ] = 24 2 = 12
Power [ P = V x I ] = 24 x 2 = 48W
1.4. Kirchoffs law & its applications
1.4.1 Kirchoffs Circuit Law
In 1845, a German physicist, Gustav Kirchoff developed a pair or set of
rules or laws which deal with the conservation of current and energy
within Electrical Circuits.
These two rules are commonly known as: Kirchoffs Circuit Laws with one
of Kirchoffs laws dealing with the current flowing around a closed circuit,
Kirchoffs Current Law, (KCL) while the other law deals with the voltage
sources present in a closed circuit, Kirchoffs Voltage Law, (KVL).
1.4.2 Kirchoffs First Law The Current Law, (KCL)
Kirchoffs Current Law or KCL, states that the total current or charge
entering a junction or node is exactly equal to the charge leaving the node
as it has no other place to go except to leave, as no charge is lost within
the node.
In other words the algebraic sum of ALL the currents entering and leaving
a node must be equal to zero, I(exiting) + I(entering) = 0. This idea by Kirchoff is
commonly known as the Conservation of Charge.
1.4.3 Kirchoffs Current Law - Illustration
J.C.Vijayshree
Here, the 3 currents entering the node, I1, I2, I3 are all positive in value
and the 2 currents leaving the node, I4 and I5 are negative in value. Then
this means we can also rewrite the equation as;
I1 + I2 + I3 I4 I5 = 0
The term Node in an electrical circuit generally refers to a connection or
junction of two or more current carrying paths or elements such as cables
and components. Also for current to flow either in or out of a node a
closed circuit path must exist. We can use Kirchoffs current law when
analysing parallel circuits.
1.4.4 Kirchoffs Second Law The Voltage Law, (KVL)
Kirchoffs Voltage Law or KVL, states that in any closed loop network,
the total voltage around the loop is equal to the sum of all the voltage
drops within the same loop which is also equal to zero. In other words the
algebraic sum of all voltages within the loop must be equal to zero. This
idea by Kirchoff is known as the Conservation of Energy.
1.4.5 Kirchoffs Voltage Law- Illustration
Starting at any point in the loop continue in the same direction noting the
direction of all the voltage drops, either positive or negative, and returning back
to the same starting point. It is important to maintain the same direction either
clockwise or anti-clockwise or the final voltage sum will not be equal to zero. We
can use Kirchoffs voltage law when analysing series circuits.
When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchoffs Circuit

Laws a number of definitions and terminologies are used to describe the
parts of the circuit being analysed such as: node, paths, branches, loops
and meshes. These terms are used frequently in circuit analysis so it is
important to understand them.
1.4.6 Common DC Circuit Theory Terms:
J.C.Vijayshree
Circuit a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an

electrical current flows.
Path a single line of connecting elements or sources.
Node a node is a junction, connection or terminal within a circuit
were two or more circuit elements are connected or joined together
giving a connection point between two or more branches. A node is
indicated by a dot.
Branch a branch is a single or group of components such as
resistors or a source which are connected between two nodes.
Loop a loop is a simple closed path in a circuit in which no circuit
element or node is encountered more than once.
Mesh a mesh is a single open loop that does not have a closed
path. There are no components inside a mesh.
Note that:
Components are said to be connected in Series if the same current
flows through component.
Components are said to be connected in Parallel if the same voltage is
applied across them.
1.4.7 A Typical DC Circuit
1.4.8 Application of Kirchoffs Circuit Laws

These two laws enable the Currents and Voltages in a circuit to be found,
ie, the circuit is said to be Analysed, and the basic procedure for using
Kirchoffs Circuit Laws is as follows:
1. Assume all voltages and resistances are given. ( If not label them
V1, V2, R1, R2, etc. )
2. Label each branch with a branch current. ( I1, I2, I3 etc. )
3. Find Kirchoffs first law equations for each node.
4. Find Kirchoffs second law equations for each of the independent
loops of the circuit.
5. Use Linear simultaneous equations as required to find the unknown
currents.
As well as using Kirchoffs Circuit Law to calculate the various
voltages and currents circulating around a linear circuit, we can also
use loop analysis to calculate the currents in each independent loop
J.C.Vijayshree
which helps to reduce the amount of mathematics required by using

just Kirchoff's laws.
Kirchoffs Circuit Law Example
Find the current flowing in the 40 Resistor, R3
The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops.
Using Kirchoffs Current Law, KCL the equations are given as;
At node A : I1 + I2 = I3
At node B : I3 = I1 + I2
Using Kirchoffs Voltage Law, KVL the equations are given as;
Loop 1 is given as : 10 = R1 x I1 + R3 x I3 = 10I1 + 40I3
Loop 2 is given as : 20 = R2 x I2 + R3 x I3 = 20I2 + 40I3
Loop 3 is given as : 10 20 = 10I1 20I2
As I3 is the sum of I1 + I2 we can rewrite the equations as;
Eq. No 1 : 10 = 10I1 + 40(I1 + I2) = 50I1 + 40I2
Eq. No 2 : 20 = 20I2 + 40(I1 + I2) = 40I1 + 60I2
We now have two Simultaneous Equations that can be reduced to
give us the values of I1 and I2
Substitution of I1 in terms of I2 gives us the value of I1 as -0.143 Amps
Substitution of I2 in terms of I1 gives us the value of I2 as +0.429 Amps
As : I3 = I1 + I2
The
current
flowing
in
resistor
R3
is
given
as : 0.143 + 0.429 = 0.286 Amps and the voltage across the resistor R3 is
given as : 0.286 x 40 = 11.44 volts. The negative sign for I1 means that
the direction of current flow initially chosen was wrong, but never the less
still valid. In fact, the 20v battery is charging the 10v battery.
1.5. Simple Problems
Solving Circuits with Kirchoff Laws
Example 1: Find the three unknown currents (
) and three
unknown voltages (
) in the circuit below:
J.C.Vijayshree
10
Note: The direction of a current and the polarity of a voltage source can
be assumed arbitrarily. To determine the actual direction and polarity, the
sign of the values also should be considered. For example, a current
labeled in left-to-right direction with a negative value is actually flowing
right-to-left.
All voltages and currents in the circuit can be found by either of the
following two methods, based on either the KVL or KCL.
The loop-current method based on KVL:
1. For each of the independent loops in the circuit, define a loop current
around the loop in clockwise (or counter clockwise) direction. These loop
currents are the unknown variables to be obtained.
2. Apply KVL around each of the loops in the same clockwise direction to
obtain equations. While calculating the voltage drop across each resistor
shared by two loops, both loop currents (in opposite positions) should be
considered.
3. Solve the equation system with equations for the unknown loop
currents.
Find currents
from a to b,
o Assume two loop currents

apply the KVL to them:
from c to b, and
and
We rewrite these as:
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11
from b to d.
around loops abda and bcdb and
and then get
, and
. Having
found
and
, we can easily find all voltages in the circuit.
o We could also apply KVL around the third loop of abcda to get an
additional equation:
However, this equation is simply the sum of the previous two equations,
i.e., it is not independent. Substituting
and
from the first two
equations into this equation we get

. In general, if all branches in
the circuit have been covered, no additional loop currents will be needed.
o Alternatively, consider the two loop currents
abda and bcdb:
and
around loops
i.e.,
and we get
previous results.
and
, in consistent with the
The node-voltage method based on KCL:

1. Assume there are
nodes in the circuit. Select one of them as the
ground, the reference point for all voltages of the circuit. The voltage at
each of the remaining

2. Apply KCL to each of the
nodes is an unknown to be obtained.

nodes to obtain
3. Solve the equation system with

node voltages.
J.C.Vijayshree
equations.
equations for the
12
unknown
In the same circuit considered previously, there are only 2 nodes and
(note
and are not nodes). We assume node
is the ground, and
consider just voltage
problem. Apply KCL to node
at node
, we have
as the only unknown in the
where
Substituting
, and
into the equation, we get
Solving this we get

, and all other currents and voltages can be
found subsequently.
We could also apply KCL to node d, but the resulting equation is exactly
the same as
simply because this node d is not
independent.
As special case of the node-voltage method with only two nodes, we have
the following theorem:
Millman's theorem
If there are multiple parallel branches between two nodes and , then
the voltage
at node can be found as shown below if the other node
is treated as the reference point.
Assume there are three types of branches:
o current branches with
direction of each
(independent of resistors in series). The
is toward node a.
o resistor branches with

.
Applying KCL to node , we have:
Solving for
, we get
where the reciprocal of the resistance

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13
is called the conductance.
In summary,
Loop current method: each equation is for one of the independent
loops.
Node voltage method: each equation is for one of the independent
nodes.
Example 2: Solve the following circuit:
Loop current method: Let the three loop currents in the example
above be
,
and
for loops 1 (top-left bacb), 2 (top-right adca), and 3
(bottom bcdb), respectively, and applying KVL to the three loops, we get
We can then solve these 3 loop equations to find the 3 loop currents.
Node voltage method: If we choose node d as ground, we can apply
KCL to the remaining 3 nodes at a, b, and c, and get (assuming all
currents leave each node):
We can then solve these 3 node equations to find the 3 node voltages.
We see that either of the loop-current and node-voltage methods requires
to solve a linear system of 3 equations with 3 unknowns.
J.C.Vijayshree
14
Example 3: Solve the following circuit with

,
,
independent nodes.
. This circuit has 3 independent loops and 3
Loop current method:
Assume three loop currents

direction. We have
(left),
(right),
(top) all in clock-wise
We can also get the three node voltages with respect to the bottom node
as
ground:
(right),
(middle),
and
(left).
Node voltage method:
Assume the three node voltages with respect to the bottom node as
ground to be
(left),
(middle),
the first two nodes, we get
(right). Applying KCL to
The voltages are the same as before.

In the problem, we have taken advantage of either the given current
source treated as a loop current, or the given voltage source when one
end of it is assumed to be ground, so that in either method, one of the
three unknowns readily available, we only need to solve a 2-equation
system for the remaining two unknowns.
EXAMPLE PROBLEM ON OHM'S LAW: The Basic Circuit
Example 4: An emf source of 6.0V is connected to a purely resistive lamp
and a current of 2.0 amperes flows. All the wires are resistance-free. What
is the resistance of the lamp?
Hints
1. Where in the circuit does the gain in potential energy occur?
2. Where in the circuit does the loss of potential energy occur?
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15
3. What is Ohm's Law?

Solution
The gain of potential energy occurs as a
charge passes through the battery, that is,
it gains a potential of =6.0V. No energy is
lost to the wires, since they are assumed to
be resistance-free. By conservation of
energy, the potential that was gained
(i.e. =V=6.0V) must be
resistor. So, by Ohm's Law:
V=IR
R=V/I
R = 3.0
lost
in
the
Figure 1 Diagram of the

circuit in this problem.
Example 5: If 0.6A current flows through a resistor shown in

figure. Voltage of two points of resistor is 12V. What is the
resistance of the resistor?
Solution:
Here, Current, I = 0.6A
Potential difference or Voltage, V = 12V
Resistance, R =?
According to ohms law questions we know,
V = IR
Or, R =V / I
=12V / 0.6A
=20
Ans: 20 .
Example 6: Resistance of an electric iron 50 .4.2A Current flows
through the resistance. Find the voltage between two points.
Solution:
Here, Resistance, R = 50 .
Current, I =4.2 A
Voltage, V =?
From Ohms law,
V=IR
=4.250
= 210V
Ans: 210V.
1.6. Division of current in Series & parallel circuits
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16
Electric circuits often consist of several elements, some combined in

series and others in parallel. The methods used to analyze series and
parallel circuits can be combined to analyze these series-parallel circuits.
1.6.1 Series-parallel circuit. The Figure at right shows three
impedances; two are connected in parallel and then connected in series
with a third impedance. Each impedance can be a pure resistance, a pure
inductance, a pure capacitance, or any combination of the three.
Here current (I)

flows from the
voltage source (V). The total current flowing from the source flows through
impedance Z1 (I = I1). Using node C as a voltage reference, the voltage at
node A is the voltage of the source (V). To obtain the voltage at node B,
the voltage at node A must be decreased by the voltage drop across the
impedance Z1, or VB=VA-(I11).
1.6.2 Current division. The elements between nodes B and C are
connected in parallel, so it's now necessary to use parallel circuit analysis
methods.
1.6.3 Using Ohms law: Both impedance elements (Z 2 and Z 3) have the
same voltage across them (V B - V C), but the currents through them (I 2
and I 3) can be different. These currents can be found by applying Ohm's
Law:
Using these results, you can derive an expression for
current division. The voltage difference VB - VC can be expressed using Ohm's
Law: VB - VC = I2 2 = I3 3. Rearranging this equation gives you
1.6.4 Using Kirchhoff's law: Applying Kirchhoff's Current Law at

node B yields I1 = I2 + I3, or I2 = I1 - I3. Substituting for I3 gives you
Solving for I1 gives you
Now, resolving for I2 gives you
Similarly, it can be shown that
These equations show how current divides through parallel
impedances.
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17
1.6.5 Voltage division. Determining the voltage at node B relative to

node C illustrates the concept of voltage division. The paralleled
impedances Z 2 and Z 3 can be equivalence as
Z T, where
Solving this equation for ZT gives you
Using node C as the voltage reference, the voltage at node B is the total
current (I) times the equivalent impedance Z T. It's been shown that VB =
VA - (I1 Z1). Setting the two expressions for VB equal,
Solving for VA gives you
or VA-C = I1 (Z1 + ZT). You can also express it as
VB-C = I1 ZT. You can use these equations to determine the voltage division
across two series impedances. Applied to our sample circuit,
Example 1
First, we'll solve for the currents using Ohm's Law.
The total resistance:
The voltage:
V = RT*IS = 1.2*5 = 6 V;
and so the currents:
Now let's see how to use the current divider formula. Although at first
glance it looks as though we're using a different formula from the one
given at the beginning of this tutorial, in fact the formula is equivalent for
the case of two resistors in parallel. Starting from the formula given
earlier, substitute (R1*R2)/(R1+R2) for Rt and simplify to arrive at the
formula used below.
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18
The results are the same as those calculated by TINA.

Example 2
Find the current in resistor R1.
Here we have two branches in parallel connected to the current source.

One of the branches is a series-parallel circuit. Current division must be
used twice:
1.7. Star/Delta conversion

Star Delta Transformations allow us to convert impedances connected
together from one type of connection to another. We can now solve simple
series, parallel or bridge type resistive networks using Kirchoffs Circuit
Laws, mesh current analysis or nodal voltage analysis techniques but in a
balanced 3-phase circuit we can use different mathematical techniques to
simplify the analysis of the circuit and thereby reduce the amount of
maths involved which in itself is a good thing.
Standard 3-phase circuits or networks take on two major forms with
names that represent the way in which the resistances are connected, a
Star connected network which has the symbol of the letter, (wye) and a
Delta connected network which has the symbol of a triangle, (delta).
If a 3-phase, 3-wire supply or even a 3-phase load is connected in one
type of configuration, it can be easily transformed or changed it into an
equivalent configuration of the other type by using either the Star Delta
Transformation or Delta Star Transformation process.
A resistive network consisting of three impedances can be connected
together to form a T or Tee configuration but the network can also be
redrawn to form a Star or type network as shown below.
1.7.1 T-connected and Equivalent Star Network
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As we have already seen, we can redraw the T resistor network to produce an
equivalent Star or type network. But we can also convert a Pi or type resistor
network into an equivalent Delta or type network as shown below.
1.7.2 Pi-connected and Equivalent Delta Network.
Having now defined exactly what is a Star and Delta connected network
it is possible to transform the into an equivalent circuit and also to
convert a into an equivalent circuit using a the transformation process.
This process allows us to produce a mathematical relationship between
the various resistors giving us a Star Delta Transformation as well as a
Delta Star Transformation.
These Circuit Transformations allow us to change the three connected
resistances (or impedances) by their equivalents measured between the
terminals 1-2, 1-3 or 2-3 for either a star or delta connected circuit.
However, the resulting networks are only equivalent for voltages and
currents external to the star or delta networks, as internally the voltages
and currents are different but each network will consume the same
amount of power and have the same power factor to each other.
1.7.3 Delta Star Transformation
To convert a delta network to an equivalent star network we need to
derive a transformation formula for equating the various resistors to each
other between the various terminals. Consider the circuit below.
1.7.4 Delta to Star Network.
Compare the resistances between terminals 1 and 2.
Resistance between the terminals 2 and 3.
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Resistance between the terminals 1 and 3.
This now gives us three equations and taking equation 3 from equation 2
gives:
Then, re-writing Equation 1 will give us:
Adding together equation 1 and the result above of equation 3 minus

equation 2 gives:
From which gives us the final equation for resistor P as:

Then to summarize a little about the above maths, we can now say that resistor
P in a Star network can be found as Equation 1 plus (Equation 3 minus Equation
2) or Eq1 + (Eq3 Eq2).
Similarly, to find resistor Q in a star network, is equation 2 plus the result

of equation 1 minus equation 3 or Eq2 + (Eq1 Eq3) and this gives us the
transformation of Q as:
and again, to find resistor R in a Star network, is equation 3 plus the result
of equation 2 minus equation 1 or Eq3 + (Eq2 Eq1) and this gives us the
transformation of R as:
When converting a delta network into a star network the denominators of
all of the transformation formulas are the same: A + B + C, and which is
the sum of ALL the delta resistances. Then to convert any delta connected
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network to an equivalent star network we can summarized the above

transformation equations as:
1.7.5 Delta to Star Transformations Equations
If the three resistors in the delta network are all equal in value then the
resultant resistors in the equivalent star network will be equal to one third the
value of the delta resistors, giving each branch in the star network as:
RSTAR = 1/3RDELTA
Delta Star Example No1

Convert the following Delta Resistive Network into an equivalent Star
Network.
1.7.6 Star Delta Transformation

Star Delta transformation is simply the reverse of above. We have seen
that when converting from a delta network to an equivalent star network
that the resistor connected to one terminal is the product of the two delta
resistances connected to the same terminal, for example resistor P is the
product of resistors A and B connected to terminal 1.
By rewriting the previous formulas a little we can also find the
transformation formulas for converting a resistive star network to an
equivalent delta network giving us a way of producing a star delta
transformation as shown below.
1.7.7 Star to Delta Transformation
The value of the resistor on any one side of the delta, network is the
sum of all the two-product combinations of resistors in the star network
divide by the star resistor located directly opposite the delta resistor
being found. For example, resistor A is given as:
with respect to terminal 3 and resistor B is given as:
with respect to terminal 2 with resistor C given as:
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with respect to terminal 1.

By dividing out each equation by the value of the denominator we end up
with three separate transformation formulas that can be used to convert
any Delta resistive network into an equivalent star network as given
below.
1.7.8 Star Delta Transformation Equations
Star Delta Transformation allows us to convert one type of circuit
connection into another type in order for us to easily analyse the circuit
and star delta transformation techniques can be used for either
resistances or impedances.
Q1). Determine the resistance between the terminals A&B and hence find the current through
the voltage source. Refer figure
The resistors in between point 1, 2&3 are about to replace by a star connected system.
Otherwise is difficult to find the total resistance.
So we have to use the delta to star transformation equations.
R1 = R12R31 / (R12+R23+R31)
R1 = (60*40)/ (60+40+100)
R1 = 12
R2 = R23R12 / (R12+R23+R31)
R1 = (100*60)/ 200
R1 = 30
R3 = R31R23 / (R12+R23+R31)
R3 = (100*40)/ 200
R3 = 20
So we can redraw the network as shown in figure
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Now we can easily find the total resistance between A&B terminals
Rtotal = [(80+20)//(88+12)] + 30
Rtotal = 50 + 30
Rtotal = 80
Applying ohms law to the total resistance,
I = V/R
I = 160v/80
I = 2A
Q2) Find the total resistance between A&B terminals for the network shown in figure
We are about to replace the delta system by star system in between point 1, 2 &3
So we have to use the delta to star transformation equations.
R1 = R12R31 / (R12+R23+R31)
R1 = (3*6)/ (3+6+9)
R1 = 1
R2 = R23R12 / (R12+R23+R31)
R2 = (9*3)/18
R2 = 1.5
R3 = R31R23 / (R12+R23+R31)
R3 = (6*9)/18
R3 = 3
So now we can replace the system as shown in figure
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Now we can easily find the total resistance between A&B terminals
RAB = (7+3) + (8.5+1.5) + 1
RAB = 6
Q3). Find the total resistance between A&B terminals (RAB) shown in figure
R12 = R1 + R2 + (R1R2/R3)
R12 = 3 + 2 + (3*2)/2
R12 = 8
R23 = R2 + R3 + (R2R3/R1)
R23 = 2 + 2 + (2*2)/3
R23 = 16/3
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R31 = R3 + R1 + (R3R1/R2)
R13 = 3 + 2 + (3*2)/2
R13 = 8
So we can redraw the network as shown in figure
RAB = { [ (7+5)//8//8 ] + 5 } //8//4

RAB = (3 + 5) // 8 // 4
RAB = 4//4
RAB = 2
1.8. Node and mesh methods of analysis of DC circuits.
1.8.1 Mesh Current Analysis Circuit
One simple method of reducing the amount of maths involved is to

analyse the circuit using Kirchoffs Current Law equations to determine the
currents, I1 and I2 flowing in the two resistors. Then there is no need to
calculate the current I3 as its just the sum of I1 and I2. So Kirchoffs second
voltage law simply becomes:
Equation No 1 : 10 = 50I1 + 40I2
Equation No 2 : 20 = 40I1 + 60I2
therefore, one line of maths calculation have been saved.

1.8.2 Mesh Current Analysis
An easier method of solving the above circuit is by using Mesh Current
Analysis or Loop Analysis which is also sometimes called Maxwells
Circulating Currents method. Instead of labelling the branch currents
we need to label each closed loop with a circulating current.
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As a general rule of thumb, only label inside loops in a clockwise direction

with circulating currents as the aim is to cover all the elements of the
circuit at least once. Any required branch current may be found from the
appropriate loop or mesh currents as before using Kirchoffs method.
For example: : i1 = I1 , i2 = -I2 and I3 = I1 I2
We now write Kirchoffs voltage law equation in the same way as before to
solve them but the advantage of this method is that it ensures that the
information obtained from the circuit equations is the minimum required
to solve the circuit as the information is more general and can easily be
put into a matrix form.
For example, consider the circuit from the previous section.
These equations can be solved quite quickly by using a single mesh impedance
matrix Z. Each element ON the principal diagonal will be positive and is the
total impedance of each mesh. Where as, each element OFF the principal
diagonal will either be zero or negative and represents the circuit element
connecting all the appropriate meshes. This then gives us a matrix of:
Where:
[ V ] gives the total battery voltage for loop 1 and then loop 2.
[ I ]
states the names of the loop currents which we are trying to
find.
[ R ] is called the resistance matrix.
and this gives I1 as -0.143 Amps and I2 as -0.429 Amps
As : I3 = I1 I2
The combined current of I3 is therefore given as : -0.143 (0.429) = 0.286 Amps which is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found
using Kirchoffs circuit law in the previous tutorial.
1.8.3 Mesh Current Analysis Summary.
This look-see method of circuit analysis is probably the best of all the
circuit
analysis
methods
with the basic procedure for solving Mesh Current Analysis equations is
as follows:
1. Label all the internal loops with circulating currents. (I1, I2, IL etc)
2. Write the [ L x 1 ] column matrix [ V ] giving the sum of all voltage
sources in each loop.
3. Write the [ L x L ] matrix, [ R ] for all the resistances in the circuit as
follows;
i. R11 = the total resistance in the first loop.
ii. Rnn = the total resistance in the Nth loop.
iii. RJK = the resistance which directly joins loop J to Loop K.
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4. Write the matrix or vector equation [V] = [R] x [I] where [I] is the
list of currents to be found.
1.8.4 Nodal Voltage Analysis Circuit
1.8.5 Nodal Voltage Analysis

In the above circuit, node D is chosen as the reference node and the other
three nodes are assumed to have voltages, Va, Vb and Vc with respect to
node D. For example;
As Va = 10v and Vc = 20v , Vb can be easily found by:
again is the same value of 0.286 amps, we found using Kirchoffs Circuit
Law in the previous tutorial.
From both Mesh and Nodal Analysis methods we have looked at so far,
this is the simplest method of solving this particular circuit. Generally,
nodal voltage analysis is more appropriate when there are a larger
number of current sources around. The network is then defined as: [ I ] = [
Y ] [ V ] where [ I ] are the driving current sources, [ V ] are the nodal
voltages to be found and [ Y ] is the admittance matrix of the network
which operates on [ V ] to give [ I ].
1.8.6 Nodal Voltage Analysis Summary.
The basic procedure for solving Nodal Analysis equations is as follows:
1. Write down the current vectors, assuming currents into a node are
positive. ie, a (N x 1) matrices for N independent nodes.
2. Write the admittance matrix [Y] of the network where:
o
Y11 = the total admittance of the first node.
o
Y22 = the total admittance of the second node.
o
RJK = the total admittance joining node J to node K.
3. For a network with N independent nodes, [Y] will be an (N x N) matrix
and that Ynn will be positive and Yjk will be negative or zero value.
4. The voltage vector will be (N x L) and will list the N voltages to be
found.
What is the voltage across the current source? Via nodal analysis:
Defining the nodal voltages in the conventional way (with the reference node at the bottom
grounded to 0 V) leads to:
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KCL at node 1:
(V1-2)/2 + V1/3 + (V1-V2) = 0
KCL at node 2:
(V2-V1) + V2/5 -2 = 0
Multiplying eqn. 1 through by 6, eqn. 2 through by 5, and consolidating terms leads to the
following two equations to solve:
11 V1 6 V2 = 6
-5 V1 + 6 V2 = 10
Adding the two equations produces:
V1 = 2.67 V
Backsubstitution yields the desired answer:
V2 = 3.89 V
UNIT II
AC CIRCUITS
2.1. Concepts of AC circuits
2.1.1. AC Waveform: An alternating function or AC Waveform on the
other hand is defined as one that varies in both magnitude and direction
in more or less an even manner with respect to time making it a Bidirectional waveform.
An AC function can represent either a power source or a signal source with
the shape of an AC waveform generally following that of a mathematical
sinusoid as defined by:- A(t) = Amax x sin(2t).
2.1.2 AC Waveform Characteristics
The Period, (T) is the length of time in seconds that the waveform
takes to repeat itself from start to finish. This can also be called the
Periodic Time of the waveform for sine waves, or the Pulse Width for
square waves.
The Frequency, () is the number of times the waveform repeats
itself within a one second time period. Frequency is the reciprocal of
the time period, ( = 1/T ) with the unit of frequency being the
Hertz, (Hz).
The Amplitude (A) is the magnitude or intensity of the signal
waveform measured in volts or amps.
2.1.3 Types of Periodic Waveform
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2.1.4 Relationship Between Frequency and Periodic Time
2.1.5 AC Waveform Example

1. What will be the periodic time of a 50Hz waveform and 2. what is the
frequency of an AC waveform that has a periodic time of 10mS.
1).
2).
2.2. RMS value, Average value, Form and Peak factors
2.2.1 The Average Value of an AC Waveform
The average or mean value of a continuous DC voltage will always be
equal to its maximum peak value as a DC voltage is constant. This
average value will only change if the duty cycle of the DC voltage
changes.
2.2.2 Average Value of a Non-sinusoidal Waveform
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The zero axis base line is divided up into any number of equal parts and in
our simple example above this value was nine, ( V1 to V9 ).
Where: n equals the actual number of mid-ordinates used.

2.2.3 Average Value of a sinusoidal Waveform
For a pure sinusoidal waveform this average or mean value will always be
equal to 0.637 x Vmax and this relationship also holds true for average
values of current.
2.2.4 The RMS Value of an AC Waveform
The average value of an AC waveform is NOT the same value as that for a
DC waveforms average value. This is because the AC waveform is
constantly changing with time and the heating effect given by the formula
( P = I 2.R ), will also be changing producing a positive power consumption.
The equivalent average value for an alternating current system that
provides the same power to the load as a DC equivalent circuit is called
the effective value.
RMS Value of an AC Waveform
Where: n equals the number of mid-ordinates.
2.2.5 Form Factor and Crest Factor
Form Factor is the ratio between the average value and the RMS value and
is given as.
For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor will always be equal to
1.11.
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Crest Factor is the ratio between the R.M.S. value and the Peak value of
the waveform and is given as.
For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Crest Factor will always be equal to
1.414.
Example
A sinusoidal alternating current of 6 amps is flowing through a resistance
of 40. Calculate the average voltage and the peak voltage of the supply.
The R.M.S. Voltage value is calculated as:
The Average Voltage value is calculated as:
The Peak Voltage value is calculated as:
2.3. Simple RLC series circuits

2.3.1 Element Impedance
The three basic passive components, R, L and C have very different phase
relationships to each other when connected to a sinusoidal AC supply. In a
pure ohmic resistor the voltage waveforms are in-phase with the
current. In a pure inductance the voltage waveform leads the current by
90o. In a pure capacitance the voltage waveform lags the current by 90o.
Circuit
Resistance,
Reactance, (X) Impedance, (Z)
Element
(R)
Resistor
Inductor
Capacitor
2.3.2 Series RLC Circuit
The series RLC circuit above has a single loop with the instantaneous
current flowing through the loop being the same for each circuit element.
Since the inductive and capacitive reactances are a function of frequency,
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the sinusoidal response of a series RLC circuit will vary with the applied
frequency, ( ). Therefore the individual voltage drops across each circuit
element of R, L and C element will be out-of-phase with each other as
defined by:
i(t) = Imax sin(t)
The instantaneous voltage across a pure resistor, VR is inphase with the current.
The instantaneous voltage across a pure inductor, VL leads the

current by 90o
The instantaneous voltage across a pure capacitor, VC lags the

current by 90o
Therefore, VL and VC are 180o out-of-phase and in opposition to

each other.
2.3.3 Individual Voltage Vectors
This means then that we can not simply add together VR, VL and VC to find the
supply voltage, VS across all three components as all three voltage vectors point
in different directions with regards to the current vector. Therefore we will have
to find the supply voltage, VS as the Phasor Sum of the three component
voltages combined together vectorially.
2.3.4 Instantaneous Voltages for a Series RLC Circuit
2.3.5 Phasor Diagram for a Series RLC Circuit
2.3.6 Voltage Triangle for a Series RLC Circuit

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Then the voltage across each component can also be described

mathematically according to the current flowing through, and the voltage
across each element as.
By substituting these values into Pythagorass equation above for the

voltage triangle will give us:
2.3.7 The Impedance of a Series RLC Circuit

As the three vector voltages are out-of-phase with each other, XL, XC and R
must also be out-of-phase with each other with the relationship between
R, XL and XC being the vector sum of these three components thereby
giving us the circuits overall impedance, Z.
The phase angle, between the source voltage, VS and the current, i is the same
as for the angle between Z and R in the impedance triangle.
Series RLC Circuit Example
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A series RLC circuit containing a resistance of 12, an inductance of 0.15H

and a capacitor of 100uF are connected in series across a 100V, 50Hz
supply. Calculate the total circuit impedance, the circuits current, power
factor and draw the voltage phasor diagram.
Inductive Reactance, XL.

Capacitive Reactance, XC.
Circuit Impedance, Z.
Circuits Current, I.
Voltages across the Series RLC Circuit, VR, VL, VC.
Circuits Power factor and Phase Angle, .
Phasor Diagram.
Since the phase angle is calculated as a positive value of 51.8 o the

overall reactance of the circuit must be inductive. As we have taken the
current vector as our reference vector in a series RLC circuit, then the
current lags the source voltage by 51.8 o so we can say that the phase
angle is lagging as confirmed by our mnemonic expression ELI.
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2.4. Concept of real and reactive power

2.4.1 Reactive power: We know that reactive loads such as inductors
and capacitors dissipate zero power, yet the fact that they drop voltage
and draw current gives the deceptive impression that they actually do
dissipate power. This phantom power is called reactive power, and it is
measured in a unit called Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR), rather than watts.
The mathematical symbol for reactive power is (unfortunately) the capital
letter Q.
2.4.2 Real power: The actual amount of power being used, or dissipated,
in a circuit is called true power, and it is measured in watts (symbolized by
the capital letter P, as always). The combination of reactive power and
true power is called apparent power, and it is the product of a circuit's
voltage and current, without reference to phase angle. Apparent power is
measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA) and is symbolized by the capital
letter S.
As a rule, true power is a function of a circuit's dissipative elements,
usually resistances (R). Reactive power is a function of a circuit's
reactance (X). Apparent power is a function of a circuit's total impedance
(Z).
2.4.3 Power equations: There are several power equations relating the
three types of power to resistance, reactance, and impedance (all using
scalar quantities):
2.4.4 Resistive load only:
True power, reactive power, and apparent power for a purely resistive
load.
2.4.5 Reactive load only:
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True power, reactive power, and apparent power for a purely reactive
load.
2.4.6 Resistive/reactive load:
True power, reactive power, and apparent power for a resistive/reactive

load.
2.4.7 Power triangle: These three types of power -- true, reactive, and
apparent -- relate to one another in trigonometric form. We call this the
power triangle: (Figure below).
Power triangle relating appearant power to true power and reactive power.
Using the laws of trigonometry, we can solve for the length of any side
(amount of any type of power), given the lengths of the other two sides, or
the length of one side and an angle.
2.5. Power factor
2.5.1 Power factor definition
The power factor is equal to the real or true power P in watts (W) divided
by the apparent power |S| in volt-ampere (VA):
PF = P(W) / |S(VA)|
PF - power factor.
P - real power in watts (W).
|S| - apparent power - the magnitude of the complex power in voltamps
(VA).
2.5.2 Power factor calculations
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For sinusuidal current, the power factor PF is equal to the absolute value
of the cosine of the apparent power phase angle (which is also is
impedance phase angle):
PF = |cos |
PF is the power factor.
is the apprent power phase angle.
2.5.3 In terms of real & apparent power
The real power P in watts (W) is equal to the apparent power |S| in voltampere (VA) times the power factor PF:
P(W) = |S(VA)| PF = |S(VA)| |cos |
2.5.4 For resistive load
When the circuit has a resistive impedance load, the real power P is equal
to the apparent power |S| and the power factor PF is equal to 1:
PF(resistive load) = P / |S| = 1
2.5.5 In terms of phase angle
The reactive power Q in volt-amps reactive (VAR) is equal to the apparent
power |S| in volt-ampere (VA) times the sine of the phase angle :
Q(VAR) = |S(VA)| |sin |
Single phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in
kilowatts (kW), voltage V in volts (V) and current I in amps (A):
PF = |cos | = 1000 P(kW) / (V(V) I(A))
Three phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in
kilowatts (kW), line to line voltage VL-L in volts (V) and current I in amps
(A):
PF = |cos | = 1000 P(kW) / (3 VL-L(V) I(A))
Three phase circuit calculation from real power meter reading P in
kilowatts (kW), line to line neutral VL-N in volts (V) and current I in amps
(A):
PF = |cos | = 1000 P(kW) / (3 VL-N(V) I(A))
2.6. Introduction to three phase system
2.6.1 Three phase circuit
Three phase circuit is the polyphase system where three phases are
send together from the generator to the load. Each phase are having a
phase difference of 120, i.e 120 angle electrically. So from the total of
360, three phases are equally divided into 120 each.
The power in three phase system is continuous as all the three phases
are involved in generating the total power. The sinusoidal waves for 3
phase system is shown below
The three phases can be used as single phase each. So if the load is single
phase, then one phase can be taken from the three phase circuit and
the neutral can be used as ground to complete the circuit.
2.6.2 Why Three Phase is preferred Over Single Phase?

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The three phase system can be used as three single phase line so it can
act as three single phase system. The three phase generation and single
phase generation is same in the generator except the arrangement of coil
in the generator to get 120 phase difference.
The instantaneous power in single phase system falls down to zero as in
single phase we can see from the sinusoidal curve but in three phase
system the net power from all the phases gives a continuous power to the
load.
The size or metal quantity of three phase devices is not having much
difference.
The three phase system will have higher efficiency compared to single
phase
2.6.3. Connection Types
In three phase circuit, connections can be given in two types:
1. Star connection
2. Delta connection
2.6.4 Star Connection
In star connection, there is four wire, three wires are phase wire and
fourth is neutral which is taken from the star point. Star connection is
preferred for long distance power transmission because it is having the
neutral point. In this we need to come to the concept of balanced and
unbalanced current in power system.
The star connection is shown below-
In star connection, the line voltage is 3 times of phase voltage. Line

voltage is the voltage between two phases in three phase circuit and
phase voltage is the voltage between one phase to the neutral line. And
the current is same for both line and phase. It is shown as expression
below
2.6.5 Delta Connection
In delta connection, there is three wires alone and no neutral terminal is
taken. Normally delta connection is preferred for short distance due to the
problem of unbalanced current in the circuit. The figure is shown below for
delta connection. In the load station, ground can be used as neutral path if
required.
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In delta connection, the line voltage is same with that of phase voltaage.
And the line current is 3 times of phase current. It is shown as expression
below,
In three phase circuit, star and delta connection can be arranged in four
different ways1. Star-Star connection
2. Star-Delta connection
3. Delta-Star connection
4. Delta-Delta connection
2.7. Power measurement by two wattmeter method.
2.7.1 Types of connection
In this method we have two types of connections (a)Star connection of
loads (b)Delta connection of loads.
2.7.2 Star Connection
When the star connected load, the diagram is shown in below-
2.7.2 Power measurement in star connection

For star connected load clearly the reading of wattmeter one is product
phase current and voltage difference (V2-V3). Similarly the reading of
wattmeter two is the product of phase current and the voltage difference
(V2-V3). Thus the total power of the circuit is sum of the reading of both the
wattmeters. Mathematically we can write
but we have I1+I2+I3=0,hence putting the value of I1+I2=-I3.
We get total power as V1I1+V2I2+V3I3.
2.7.3 Delta connection
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When delta connected load, the diagram is shown in below
2.7.4 Power measurement in delta connection

The reading of wattmeter one can be written as
and reading of wattmeter two is
but V1+V2+V3=0, hence expression for total power will reduce to
V1I1+V2I2+V3I3.
UNIT III
ELECTRICAL MACHINES AND POWER PLANTS
3.1. Law of Electromagnetic induction
3.1.1.Faraday's laws of of electromagnetic induction
Faraday's laws of of electromagnetic induction explains the
relationship between electric circuit and magnetic field. This law is the
basic working principle of the most of the electrical motors, generators,
transformers, inductors etc.
3.1.2 Faraday's first law:

Whenever a conductor is placed in a varying magnetic field an EMF gets
induced across the conductor (called as induced emf), and if the
conductor is a closed circuit then induced current flows through it.
Magnetic field can be varied by various methods
1. By moving magnet
2. By moving the coil
3. By rotating the coil relative to magnetic field
3.1.3 Faraday's second law:
Faraday's second law of electromagnetic induction states that, the
magnitude of induced emf is equal to the rate of change of flux linkages
with the coil. The flux linkages is the product of number of turns and the
flux associated with the coil.
3.1.4 Formula of Faraday's law:
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Consider the conductor is moving in magnetic field, then

flux linkage with the coil at initial position of the conductor = N 1
(Wb)
(N is speed of the motor and is flux)
flux linkage with the coil at final position of the conductor = N2
(Wb)
change in the flux linkage from initial to final = N(1 - 2)
let 1 - 2 = therefore, change in the flux linkage = N and, rate of
change in the flux linkage = N/t taking the derivative of RHS rate of
change
of
flux
linkages
=
N
(d/dt)
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, rate of
change of flux linkages is equal to the induced emf
So, E = N (d/dt) (volts)
3.1.5 Phenomenon of Mutual Induction
Alternating current flowing in a coil produces alternating magnetic field
around it. When two or more coils are magnetically linked to each other,
then an alternating current flowing through one coil causes an induced
emf across the other linked coils. This phenomenon is called as mutual
induction.
3.1.6 Lenz's law
Lenz's law of electromagnetic induction states that, when an emf is
induced according to Faraday's law, the polarity (direction) of that induced
emf is such that it opposes the cause of its production.
Thus, considering Lenz's law
E = -N (d/dt) (volts)
The negative sign shows that, the direction of the induced emf and the
direction of change in magnetic fields have opposite signs.
3.2. Flemings Right & Left hand rule
3.2.1 Flemings rule
Whenever a current carrying conductor comes under a magnetic field,
there will be force acting on the conductor and on the other hand, if a
conductor is forcefully brought under a magnetic field, there will be an
induced current in that conductor.
In both of the phenomenons, there is a relation between magnetic field,
current and force. This relation is directionally determined by Fleming
Left Hand rule and Fleming Right Hand rule respectively.
3.2.2 Directionality
'Directionally' means these rules do not show the magnitude but show the
direction of any of the three parameters (magnetic field, current, force) if
the direction of other two are known.
3.2.3 Application
Fleming Left Hand rule is mainly applicable for electric motor and
Fleming Right Hand rule is mainly applicable for electric generator.
In late 19th century, John Ambrose Fleming introduced both these rules
and as per his name, the rules are well known as Fleming left and right
hand rule.
3.2.4 Fleming Left Hand Rule
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42
It is found that whenever an current carrying conductor is placed inside a

magnetic field, a force acts on the conductor, in a direction perpendicular
to both the directions of the current and the magnetic field.
In the figure it is shown that, a portion of a conductor of length L placed
vertically in a uniform horizontal magnetic field strength H, produced by
two magnetic poles N and S. If i is the current flowing through this
conductor, the magnitude of the force acts on the conductor is, F = BiL
Hold out your left hand with forefinger, second finger and thumb at right
angle to one another. If the fore finger represents the direction of the field
and the second finger that of the current, then thumb gives the direction
of the force.
3.2.5 Fleming Right Hand Rule
As per Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, whenever a conductor

moves inside a magnetic field, there will be an induced current in it. If this
conductor gets forcefully moved inside the magnetic field, there will be a
relation between the direction of applied force, magnetic field and the
current. This relation among these three directions is determined by
Fleming Right Hand rule
This rule states "Hold out the right hand with the first finger, second finger
and thumb at right angle to each other. If forefinger represents the
direction of the line of force, the thumb points in the direction of motion or
J.C.Vijayshree
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applied force, then second finger points in the direction of the induced
current.
3.3. Principle of DC rotating machine
3.3.1 DC Rotating Machine
A DC motor in simple words is a device that converts direct
current(electrical energy) into mechanical energy. Its of vital importance
for the industry today, and is equally important for engineers to look into
the working principle of DC motor in details that has been discussed in
this article. In order to understand the operating principle of dc motor
we need to first look into its constructional feature.
3.3.2 Construction
The very basic construction of a dc motor contains a current carrying

armature which is connected to the supply end through commutator
segments and brushes and placed within the north south poles of a
permanent or an electro-magnet as shown in the Now to go into the
details of the operating principle of DC motor its important that we
have a clear understanding of Flemings left hand rule to determine the
direction of force acting on the armature conductors of dc motor.
3.3.3 Flemings left hand rule
Flemings left hand rule says that if we extend the index finger, middle
finger and thumb of our left hand in such a way that the current carrying
conductor is placed in a magnetic field (represented by the index finger) is
perpendicular to the direction of current (represented by the middle
finger), then the conductor experiences a force in the direction
(represented by the thumb) mutually perpendicular to both the direction
of field and the current in the conductor.
3.3.4 Principle
For clear understanding the principle of DC motor we have to determine
the magnitude of the force, by considering the diagram below.
We know that when an infinitely small charge dq is made to flow at a
velocity v under the influence of an electric field E, and a magnetic field
B, then the Lorentz Force dF experienced by the charge is given by:-
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3.3.5 Operation
For the operation of dc motor, considering E = 0
i.e. its the cross product of dq v and magnetic field B.
Where dL is the length of the conductor carrying charge q.
From the 1st diagram we can see that the construction of a DC motor is
such that the direction of current through the armature conductor at all
instance is perpendicular to the field. Hence the force acts on the
armature conductor in the direction perpendicular to the both uniform
field and current is constant.
So if we take the current in the left hand side of the armature conductor to
be I, and current at right hand side of the armature conductor to be I,
because they are flowing in the opposite direction with respect to each
other.
Then the force on the left hand side armature conductor,
Similarly force on the right hand side conductor
we can see that at that position the force on either side is equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction. And since the two conductors are
separated by some distance w = width of the armature turn, the two
opposite forces produces a rotational force or a torque that results in the
rotation of the armature conductor.
3.4. Single phase transformer
3.4.1 Voltage Transformer Basics
A transformer basically is very simple static (or stationary) electromagnetic passive electrical device that works on the principle of Faradays
law of induction by converting electrical energy from one value to another.
The transformer does this by linking together two or more electrical
circuits using a common oscillating magnetic circuit which is produced by
the transformer itself. A transformer operates on the principals of
electromagnetic induction, in the form of Mutual Induction.
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Mutual induction is the process by which a coil of wire magnetically

induces a voltage into another coil located in close proximity to it.
Transformers are capable of either increasing or decreasing the voltage
and current levels of their supply, without modifying its frequency, or the
amount of Electrical Power being transferred from one winding to another
via the magnetic circuit.
3.4.2 Single Phase Voltage Transformer
In other words, for a transformer there is no direct electrical connection

between the two coil windings, thereby giving it the name also of an
Isolation Transformer. Generally, the primary winding of a transformer
is connected to the input voltage supply and converts or transforms the
electrical power into a magnetic field. While the job of the secondary
winding is to convert this alternating magnetic field into electrical power
producing the required output voltage as shown.
3.4.3 Transformer Construction (single-phase)
Where:
VP - is the Primary Voltage
VS - is the Secondary Voltage
NP - is the Number of Primary Windings
NS - is the Number of Secondary Windings
(phi) - is the Flux Linkage
Notice that the two coil windings are not electrically connected but are
only linked magnetically. A single-phase transformer can operate to either
increase or decrease the voltage applied to the primary winding. When a
transformer is used to increase the voltage on its secondary winding
with respect to the primary, it is called a Step-up transformer. When it
is used to decrease the voltage on the secondary winding with respect
to the primary it is called a Step-down transformer.
However, a third condition exists in which a transformer produces the
same voltage on its secondary as is applied to its primary winding. In
other words, its output is identical with respect to voltage, current and
power transferred. This type of transformer is called an Impedance
Transformer and is mainly used for impedance matching or the isolation
of adjoining electrical circuits.
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The difference in voltage between the primary and the secondary

windings is achieved by changing the number of coil turns in the primary
winding ( NP ) compared to the number of coil turns on the secondary
winding ( NS ).
As the transformer is basically a linear device, a ratio now exists between
the number of turns of the primary coil divided by the number of turns of
the secondary coil. This ratio, called the ratio of transformation, more
commonly known as a transformers turns ratio, ( TR ). This turns ratio
value dictates the operation of the transformer and the corresponding
voltage available on the secondary winding.
3.4.4 A Transformers Turns Ratio
Assuming an ideal transformer and the phase angles: P S
Note that the order of the numbers when expressing a transformers turns
ratio value is very important as the turns ratio 3:1 expresses a very
different transformer relationship and output voltage than one in which
the turns ratio is given as: 1:3.
3.4.5 Transformer Action
When an alternating voltage ( VP ) is applied to the primary coil, current
flows through the coil which in turn sets up a magnetic field around itself,
called mutual inductance, by this current flow according to Faradays Law
of electromagnetic induction. The strength of the magnetic field builds up
as the current flow rises from zero to its maximum value which is given as
d/dt.
As the magnetic flux varies sinusoidally, = max sint, then the basic
relationship between induced emf, ( E ) in a coil winding of N turns is
given by:
emf = turns x rate of change
Where:
- is the flux frequency in Hertz, = /2
- is the number of coil windings.
- is the flux density in webers
This is known as the Transformer EMF Equation.
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3.4.6 Electrical Power in a Transformer

In an ideal transformer (ignoring any losses), the power available in the
secondary winding will be the same as the power in the primary winding,
they are constant wattage devices and do not change the power only the
voltage to current ratio. Thus, in an ideal transformer the Power Ratio is
equal to one (unity) as the voltage, V multiplied by the current, I will
remain constant.
Where: P is the primary phase angle and S is the secondary phase angle.
3.4.7 Transformer Efficiency
where: Input, Output and Losses are all expressed in units of power.
Generally when dealing with transformers, the primary watts are called
volt-amps, VA to differentiate them from the secondary watts. Then the
efficiency equation above can be modified to:
3.5 Single phase induction motor
3.5.1 Single phase ac motors
For lightning and general purposes in homes, offices, shops, small
factories single phase system is widely used as compared to three phase
system as the single phase system is more economical and the power
requirement in most of the houses, shops, offices are small, which can be
easily met by single phase system. The single phase motors are simple in
construction, cheap in cost, reliable and easy to repair and maintain. Due
to all these advantages the single phase motor finds its application in
vacuum cleaner, fans, washing machine, centrifugal pump, blowers,
washing machine, small toys etc.
3.5.2 Classification
The single phase ac motors are further classified as:
1. Single phase induction motors or asynchronous motors.
2. Single phase synchronous motors.
3. Commutator motors.
3.5.3 Construction of Single Phase Induction Motor
Like any other electrical motor asynchronous motor also have two main
parts namely rotor and stator.
Stator: As its name indicates stator is a stationary part of induction motor.
A single phase ac supply is given to the stator of single phase induction
motor.
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Rotor: The rotor is a rotating part of induction motor. The rotor is

connected to the mechanical load through the shaft. The rotor in single
phase induction motor is of squirrel cage rotor type.
The construction of single phase induction motor is almost similar to
the squirrel cage three phase motor except that in case of asynchronous
motor the stator have two windings instead of one as compare to the
single stator winding in three phase induction motor.
3.5.4 Working Principle of Single Phase Induction Motor
When single phase ac supply is given to the stator winding of single phase
induction motor, the alternating current starts flowing through the stator
or main winding. This alternating current produces an alternating flux
called main flux. This main flux also links with the rotor conductors and
hence cut the rotor conductors. According to the Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction, emf gets induced in the rotor. As the rotor
circuit is closed one so, the current starts flowing in the rotor. This current
is called the rotor current. This rotor current produces its own flux called
rotor flux. Since this flux is produced due to induction principle so, the
motor working on this principle got its name as induction motor. Now
there are two fluxes one is main flux and another is called rotor flux.
These two fluxes produce the desired torque which is required by the
motor to rotate.
3.5.5 Types of single phase induction motor
Depending upon the methods for making asynchronous motor as Self
Starting Motor, there are mainly four types of single phase induction
motor namely,
1. Split phase induction motor,
2. Capacitor start inductor motor,
3. Capacitor start capacitor run induction motor,
4. Shaded pole induction motor.
3.5.6 Comparison between Single Phase and Three Phase
Induction Motors
o Single phase induction motors are simple in construction,
reliable and economical for small power rating as compared to
three phase induction motors.
o The electrical power factor of single phase induction motors is
low as compared to three phase induction motors.
o For same size, the single phase induction motors develop
about 50% of the output as that of three phase induction
motors.
o The starting torque is also low for asynchronous motors.
o The efficiency of single phase induction motors is less as
compare it to the three phase induction motors.
3.6. Simple layout of thermal generation
3.6.1 Thermal power generation plant
Thermal power generation plant or thermal power station is the
most conventional source of electric power. Thermal power plant is also
referred as coal thermal power plant and steam turbine power plant.
Before going into detail of this topic, we will try to understand the line
diagram of electric power generation plant.
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3.6.2 Theory of Thermal Power Station

The theory of thermal power station or working of thermal power
station is very simple. A power generation plant mainly consists of
alternator runs with help of steam turbine. The steam is obtained from
high pressure boilers. Generally in India, bituminous coal, brown coal and
peat are used as fuel of boiler. The bituminous coal is used as boiler fuel
has volatile matter from 8 to 33 % and ash content 5 to 16 %. To increase
the thermal efficiency, the coal is used in the boiler in powder form.
In coal thermal power plant, the steam is produced in high pressure in
the steam boiler due to burning of fuel (pulverized coal) in boiler furnaces.
This steam is further supper heated in a super heater. This supper heated
steam then enters into the turbine and rotates the turbine blades. The
turbine is mechanically so coupled with alternator that its rotor will rotate
with the rotation of turbine blades. After entering in turbine the steam
pressure suddenly falls and corresponding volume of the steam increases.
After imparting energy to the turbine rotor the steam passes out of the
turbine blades into the condenser. In the condenser the cold water is
circulated with the help of pump which condenses the low pressure wet
steam. This condensed water is further supplied to low pressure water
heater where the low pressure steam increases the temperature of this
feed water, it is again heated in high pressure.
3.6.3 Functional Steps
For better understanding we furnish every step of function of a thermal
power station as follows,
1) First the pulverized coal is burnt into the furnace of steam boiler.
2) High pressure steam is produced in the boiler.
3) This steam is then passed through the super heater, where it further
heated up.
4) This supper heated steam is then entered into a turbine at high speed.
5) In turbine this steam force rotates the turbine blades that means here
in the turbine the stored potential energy of the high pressured steam is
converted into mechanical energy.
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Line Diagram of Power Plant

6) After rotating the turbine blades, the steam has lost its high pressure,
passes out of turbine blades and enters into a condenser.
7) In the condenser the cold water is circulated with help of pump which
condenses the low pressure wet steam.
8) This condensed water is then further supplied to low pressure water
heater where the low pressure steam increases the temperature of this
feed water, it is then again heated in a high pressure heater where the
high pressure of steam is used for heating.
9) The turbine in thermal power station acts as a prime mover of the
alternator.
3.6.4 Overview of Thermal Power Plant
A typical Thermal Power Station Operates on a Cycle which is shown
below.
The working fluid is water and steam. This is called feed water and steam
cycle. The ideal Thermodynamic Cycle to which the operation of a Thermal
Power Station closely resembles is the RANKINE CYCLE.
In steam boiler the water is heated up by burning the fuel in air in the
furnace & the function of the boiler is to give dry super heated steam at
required temperature.
The steam so produced is used in driving the steam Turbines. This turbine
is coupled to synchronous generator (usually three phase synchronous
alternator), which generates electrical energy.
The exhaust steam from the turbine is allowed to condense into water in
steam condenser of turbine, which creates suction at very low pressure
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and allows the expansion of the steam in the turbine to a very low
pressure. The principle advantages of condensing operation are the
increased amount of energy extracted per kg of steam and thereby
increasing efficiency and the condensate which is fed into the boiler again
reduces the amount of fresh feed water.
The condensate along with some fresh make up feed water is again fed
into the boiler by pump (called the boiler feed pump).
In condenser the steam is condensed by cooling water. Cooling water
recycles through cooling tower. This constitutes cooling water circuit.
The ambient air is allowed to enter in the boiler after dust filtration. Also
the flue gas comes out of the boiler and exhausted into atmosphere
through stacks. These constitute air and flue gas circuit. The flow of air
and also the static pressure inside the steam boiler (called draught) is
maintained by two fans called Forced Draught (FD) fan and Induced
Draught(ID) fan.
3.6.5 Scheme of operation
The total scheme of a typical thermal power station along with different
circuits is illustrated below.
Inside the boiler there are various heat exchangers, viz. Economiser,
Evaporator (not shown in the fig above, it is basically the water tubes,
i.e. downcomer riser circuit), Super Heater (sometimes Reheater,
air preheater are also present).
In Economiser the feed water is heated to considerable amount by the
remaining heat of flue gas.
The Boiler Drum actually maintains a head for natural circulation of two
phase mixture (steam + water) through the water tubes.
There is also Super Heater which also takes heat from flue gas and raises
the temperature of steam as per requirement.
3.6.6 Efficiency of Thermal Power Station or Plant
The overall efficiency of a thermal power station or plant varies from
20% to 26% and it depends upon plant capacity.
Installed
plant Average
overall
thermal
capacity
efficiency
pto 1MW
4%
1MW to 10MW
12%
10MW to 50MW
16%
50MW to 100MW
24%
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above 100MW
27%
3.6.7 Thermal Power Plant Location deciding factors
1) The electric power generation plant must be constructed at such a
place where the cost of land is quite reasonable.
2) The land should be such that the acquisition of private property must
be minimum.
3) A large quantity of cooling water is required for the condensers etc of
thermal power generation plant, hence the plant should preferably
situated beside big source of natural water source such as big river.
4) Availability of huge amount of fuel at reasonable cost is one of the
major criterion for choosing plant location.
5) The plant should be established on plane land.
6)The soil should be such that it should provide good and firm foundation
of plant and buildings.
7) The thermal power plant location should not be very nearer to dense
locality as there are smoke, noise steam, water vapors etc.
8) There must be ample scope of development of future demand.
9) Place for ash handling plant for thermal power station should also be
available very near by.
10) Very tall chimney of power station should not obstruct the traffics of
air ships.
3.6.8 Advantages of Thermal Power Station
1) Economical for low initial cost other than any generating plant.
2) Land required less than hydro power plant.
3) Since coal is main fuel & its cost is quite cheap than petrol/diesel so
generation cost is economical.
4) There are easier maintenance.
5) Thermal power plant can be installed in any location where
transportation & bulk of water are available.
3.6.9 Disadvantages of Thermal Power Station
1) The running cost for a thermal power station is comparatively high due
to fuel, maintenance etc.
2) Large amount of smoke causes air pollution. The thermal power station
is responsible for Global warming.
3) The heated water that comes from thermal power plant has an adverse
effect on the lives in the water and disturbs the ecology.
4) Overall efficiency of thermal power plant is low like less 30%.
3.7. Simple layout of hydro generation
3.7.1 Hydroelectric Power Plants
Hydroelectric power plants convert the hydraulic potential energy from
water into electrical energy. Such plants are suitable were water with
suitable head are available. The layout covered in this article is just a
simple one and only cover the important parts of hydroelectric plant.
3.7.2 Different parts of a hydroelectric power plant
(1) Dam
Dams are structures built over rivers to stop the water flow and form a
reservoir.The reservoir stores the water flowing down the river. This water
is diverted to turbines in power stations. The dams collect water during
the rainy season and stores it, thus allowing for a steady flow through the
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turbines throughout the year. Dams are also used for controlling floods
and irrigation. The dams should be water-tight and should be able to
withstand the pressure exerted by the water on it. There are different
types of dams such as arch dams, gravity dams and buttress dams. The
height of water in the dam is called head race.
(2) Spillway
A spillway as the name suggests could be called as a way for spilling of
water from dams. It is used to provide for the release of flood water from
a dam. It is used to prevent over toping of the dams which could result in
damage or failure of dams. Spillways could be controlled type or
uncontrolled type. The uncontrolled types start releasing water upon
water rising above a particular level. But in case of the controlled type,
regulation of flow is possible.
(3) Penstock and Tunnel
Penstocks are pipes which carry water from the reservoir to the turbines
inside power station. They are usually made of steel and are equipped
with gate systems.Water under high pressure flows through the penstock.
A tunnel serves the same purpose as a penstock. It is used when an
obstruction is present between the dam and power station such as a
mountain.
(4) Surge Tank
Surge tanks are tanks connected to the water conductor system. It serves
the purpose of reducing water hammering in pipes which can cause
damage to pipes. The sudden surges of water in penstock is taken by the
surge tank, and when the water requirements increase, it supplies the
collected water thereby regulating water flow and pressure inside the
penstock.
(5)
Power Station
Power station contains a turbine coupled to a generator (see the cross
section of a power house on the left). The water brought to the power
station rotates the vanes of the turbine producing torque and rotation of
turbine shaft. This rotational torque is transferred to the generator and is
converted into electricity. The used water is released through the tail race.
The difference between head race and tail race is called gross head and
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by subtracting the frictional losses we get the net head available to the
turbine for generation of electricity.
3.7.3 Working principle:
Hydro-electric power plant utilizes the potential energy of water stored in
a dam built across the river. The potential energy of the water is used to
run water turbine to which the electric generator is coupled. The
mechanical energy available at the shaft of the turbine is converted into
electrical
energy
by
means
of
the
generator.
3.7.4 General arrangement of a hydro-electric power plant:
Image below shows the schematic representation of the hydro-electric
power plant.
Water reservoir:
Continuous availability of water is the basic necessity for a hydro-electric
plant. Water collected from catchment area during rainy season is stored
in the reservoir. Water surface in the storage reservoir is known as head
race.
Dam:
The function of a dam is to increase the height of water level behind it,
which ultimately increases the reservoir capacity. The dam also helps to
increase the working head of the power plant.
Spillway:
Water in the dam after a certain level in the reservoir overflows through
spillway without allowing the increase in water level in the reservoir
during rainy season.
Pressure tunnel:
It carries water from the reservoir to surge tank.
Penstock:
Water from surge tank is taken to the turbine by means of pen stocks,
made up of reinforced concrete pipe or steel.
Surge tank:
There is sudden increase of pressure in the penstock due to sudden
backflow of water, as load on the turbine is reduced. The sudden rise of
pressure in the penstock is known as water hammer. The surge tank is
introduced between the dam and the power house to keep in reducing the
sudden rise of pressure in the penstock. Otherwise penstock will be
damaged by the water hammer.
Water turbine:
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Water through the penstock enters into the turbine through an inlet valve.
Prime motors which are in common use are pelton turbine, francis turbine
and kalpan turbine. The potential energy of water entering the turbine is
converted into mechanical energy. The mechanical energy available at the
turbine shaft is used to run the electric generator. The water is then
discharged through the draft tube.
Draft tube:
It is connected to the outlet of the turbine. It allows the turbine to be
placed over tail race level.
Tail race:
Tail race is a water way to lead the water discharged from the turbine to
the river. The water held in the tail race is called tail race water level.
Step-up transformer:
Its function is to rasie the voltage generated at the generator terminal
before transmitting the power consumers.
Power house:
The power house accommodates the turbine, generator, transformer and
control
room.
3.7.5 Classification of hydro-power plants
Hydro-plants are classified according to the head of water under which
they
work.
When the operating head of water exceeds 70 meters, the plant is known
as high head power plant. Peloton turbine is used as prime mover in
such
power
plants.
When the head of water range is from 15 to 70 meters then the power
plant is known as medium head plant. It uses francis turbine.
When the head is less than 15 meters the plant is named as low head
plant. It uses francis or Kaplan turbine as prime mover.
3.7.6 Advantages of hydro-electric power plants
1. Water is a renewable source of energy. Water which is the operating
fluid, is neither consumed or converted into something else..
2. Water is the cheapest source of energy because it exists as a free
gift of nature. The fuels needed for thermal, diesel and nuclear
plants are exhaustible and expensive.
3. There are no ash disposable problems as in case of thermal power
plant.
4. Hydro-plant does not pose the problem of air pollution as in the case
of thermal plant or radiation hazards as in the case of nuclear plant.
5. Variable loads do not affect the efficiency in the case of a hydroplant.
6. Life of hydro-plant is very long (1 or 2 centuries) compared with
thermal plant ( 3 to 4 decades). This is because the hydro-plants
operate at atmospheric temperature, whereas thermal plants
operate at very high temperature (about 500 to 800c).
7. Hydro plants provide additional benefits like irrigation, flood control,
fishery and recreation.
3.7.7 Disadvantages of hydro-electric power plant:
1. Hydro-plants are generally situated away from the load centres.
Hence long transmission lines are required for delivery of power.
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This increases the cost of transmission lines and also transmission

losses. But a thermal plant can be located near the load centre,
thereby the transmission cost and transmission losses are
considerably reduced.
2. The power produced by hydro-plant depends upon the quantity of
water which in turn is dependent upon the rainfall. The dry year
affects the hydro power generation considerably.
3. Initial cost of the plant is high.
4. Erection of hydro-plant (construction of dam) usually takes a long
period of time.
3.8. Fundamentals of fuses and circuit breakers
3.8.1. Introduction
Large power overloads may potentially destroy electrical equipment, or in
more serious cases, cause a fire. A fuse and circuit breaker both serve to
protect an overloaded electrical circuit by interrupting the continuity, or
the flow of electricity. How they interrupt the flow of electricity is very
different, however.
3.8.2 Fuses
A fuse is made up of a piece of metal that melts when overheated; a
circuit breaker has an internal switch mechanism that is tripped by an
unsafe surge of electricity. Fuses tend to be quicker to interrupt the flow of
power, but must be replaced after they melt, while circuit breakers can
usually simply be reset.
3.8.3 How Fuses Work
There are many different types of fuses for residential and commercial
use, but the most common type is made up of a metal wire or filament
that is enclosed in a glass or ceramic and metal casing. In a home, the
fuse is typically plugged into a central fuse box where all the buildings
wiring passes through. When the electricity is flowing normally, the fuse
permits the power to pass unobstructed across its filament, between
circuits. If an overload occurs, the filament melts, stopping the flow of
electricity.
It generally takes very little time for the filament in the type of fuse used
in a home to melt, so any power surge is quickly stopped. Once a fuse is
blown, however, it must be discarded and replaced with a new one. There
are many different voltage and ratings available that handle different
capacities of electricity, and the best fuse for a circuit is typically one that
is rated for slightly higher than the normal operating current.
3.8.4 How Circuit Breakers Work
A circuit breaker works in one of two ways, with an electromagnet (or
solenoid) or a bi-metal strip. In either case, the basic design is the same:
when turned on, the breaker allows electrical current to pass from a
bottom to an upper terminal across the solenoid or strip. When the current
reaches unsafe levels, the magnetic force of the solenoid becomes so
strong that a metal lever within the switch mechanism is thrown, and the
current is broken. Alternately, the metal strip bends, throwing the switch
and breaking the connection.
To reset the flow of electricity after the problem is resolved, the switch can
simply be turned back on, reconnecting the circuit. Circuit breakers are
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often found in a cabinet of individual switches, called a breaker box. The

simple switch action of a circuit breaker also makes it easy to turn off an
individual circuit in a house if it's necessary to work on the wiring in that
location.
Another use of the circuit breaker is a ground fault circuit interrupter
(GFCI) outlet, which functions to prevent electric shock instead of
overheating. It works by breaking the circuit in an outlet if the current
becomes unbalanced, and can be reset by the push of a button. This
technology is particularly useful in bathrooms or kitchens where
electrocution is a risk due to the frequent use of electric appliances near a
source of water.
3.8.5 Advantages of fuses
The fuse and circuit breaker both have advantages and disadvantages,
each of which can depend on the situation in which they are used. Fuses
are inexpensive and can be purchased from any hardware store. They also
tend to react very quickly to overloading, which means that they can offer
more protection to sensitive electronic devices. This quick reaction can be
a disadvantage, however, if the circuit is prone to surges that regularly
cause fuses to blow.
3.8.6 Disadvantages of fuses
Fuses must always be replaced once they are blown, which can be
challenging in a darkened room or if the appropriate replacement is not
immediately available. Another issue is that a do-it-yourselfer can
mistakenly select a fuse that has a voltage or current rating that is too
high for his needs, which can result in an overheated circuit. In addition,
there may be exposed electrical connections in a fuse box, which can pose
a danger to someone who does not follow the proper safety precautions.
3.8.7 Advantages of Circuit breakers
Circuit breakers have many advantages, not the least of which is how
quickly they can be reset. It is usually clear which switch has tripped, and
it can be easily reset in most cases. For the average homeowner, it is also
safer because there is no question about choosing the right fuse rating
and all of the electrical connections are hidden in a breaker box.
3.8.8 Disadvantages of Circuit breakers
A drawback to using a circuit breaker is that it is usually more expensive
to install and repair. A circuit breaker also typically does not react as
quickly as a fuse to surges in power, meaning that it is possible that
electronics connected to the circuit could be damaged by "let-through"
energy. It also is more sensitive to vibration and movement, which can
cause a switch to trip for reasons unrelated to an electricity overload.
3.8.9 Application
A fuse and circuit breaker are not interchangeable for all power
applications. For example, a fuse cannot be used in situations that require
a GFCI. Electricians are best qualified to determine whether a fuse or
circuit breaker system is better for a particular electrical installation or
upgrade.
PART B ELECTRONICS
UNIT IV
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS
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4.1.V-I Characteristics of diode

4.1.1 The PN Junction Diode
A PN Junction Diode is one of the simplest Semiconductor Devices around,
and which has the characteristic of passing current in only one direction
only. However, unlike a resistor, a diode does not behave linearly with
respect to the applied voltage as the diode has an exponential currentvoltage ( I-V ) relationship and therefore we can not described its
operation by simply using an equation such as Ohms law.
4.1.2 Forward biasing
If a suitable positive voltage (forward bias) is applied between the two
ends of the PN junction, it can supply free electrons and holes with the
extra energy they require to cross the junction as the width of the
depletion layer around the PN junction is decreased.
4.1.3 Reverse biasing
By applying a negative voltage (reverse bias) results in the free charges
being pulled away from the junction resulting in the depletion layer width
being increased. This has the effect of increasing or decreasing the
effective resistance of the junction itself allowing or blocking current flow
through the diode.
Then the depletion layer widens with an increase in the application of a
reverse voltage and narrows with an increase in the application of a
forward voltage. This is due to the differences in the electrical properties
on the two sides of the PN junction resulting in physical changes taking
place.
4.4.4 Junction Diode Symbol and Static I-V Characteristics.
But before we can use the PN junction as a practical device or as a

rectifying device we need to firstly bias the junction, ie connect a voltage
potential across it. On the voltage axis above, Reverse Bias refers to an
external voltage potential which increases the potential barrier. An
external voltage which decreases the potential barrier is said to act in the
Forward Bias direction.
4.1.5 Operating regions
There are two operating regions and three possible biasing conditions
for the standard Junction Diode and these are:
1. Zero Bias No external voltage potential is applied to the PN
junction diode.
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2. Reverse Bias The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve)

to the P-type material and positive, (+ve) to the N-type material
across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the PN junction
diodes width.
3. Forward Bias The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve)
to the P-type material and negative, (-ve) to the N-type material
across the diode which has the effect of Decreasing the PN junction
diodes width.
4.2. Half-wave rectifier without capacitor filter
4.2.1. Half-wave rectifier without capacitor filter
A simple Half Wave Rectifier is nothing more than a single pn junction

diode connected in series to the load resistor. If you look at the above
diagram, we are giving an alternating current as input. Input voltage is
given to a step down transformer and the resulting reduced output of
transformer is given to the diode D and load resistor RL. The output
voltage is measured across load resistor RL.
As part of our Basic Electronics Tutorial series, we have seen that
rectification is the most important application of a PN junction diode. The
process of rectification is converting alternating current (AC) to direct
current (DC).
4.2.2 Half Wave Rectifier Operation
The operation of a half wave rectifier is pretty simple. From the theory
part, you should know that a pn junction diode conducts current only in 1
direction. In other words, a pn junction diode conducts current only when
it is forward biased. The same principle is made use of in a half wave
rectifier to convert AC to DC. The input we give here is an alternating
current. This input voltage is stepped down using a transformer. The
reduced voltage is fed to the diode D and load resistance RL. During the
positive half cycles of the input wave, the diode D will be forward biased
and during the negative half cycles of input wave, the diode D will be
reverse biased. We take the output across load resistor RL. Since the
diode passes current only during one half cycle of the input wave, we get
an output as shown in diagram. The output is positive and significant
during the positive half cycles of input wave. At the same time output is
zero or insignificant during negative half cycles of input wave. This is
called half wave rectification.
4.2.3 Working of a Half wave rectifier
The half-wave rectifier circuit using a semiconductor diode (D) with a load
resistance RL but no smoothing filter is given in figure. The diode is
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connected in series with the secondary of the transformer and the load
resistance RL. The primary of the transformer is being connected to the ac
supply mains.
The ac voltage across the secondary winding changes polarities after
every half cycle of input wave. During the positive half-cycles of the input
ac voltage i.e. when upper end of the secondary winding is positive w.r.t.
its lower end, the diode is forward biased and therefore conducts current.
If the forward resistance of the diode is assumed to be zero (in practice,
however, a small resistance exists) the input voltage during the positive
half-cycles is directly applied to the load resistance R L, making its upper
end positive w.r.t. its lower end. The waveforms of the output current and
output voltage are of the same shape as that of the input ac voltage.
During the negative half cycles of the input ac voltage i.e. when the lower
end of the secondary winding is positive w.r.t. its upper end, the diode is
reverse biased and so does not conduct. Thus during the negative half
cycles of the input ac voltage, the current through and voltage across the
load remains zero. The reverse current, being very small in magnitude, is
neglected. Thus for the negative half cycles no power is delivered to the
load.
Thus the output voltage (VL) developed across load resistance R L is a
series of positive half cycles of alternating voltage, with intervening very
small constant negative voltage levels, It is obvious from the figure that
the output is not a steady dc, but only a pulsating dc wave. To make the
output wave smooth and useful in a DC power supply, we have to use a
filter across the load. Since only half-cycles of the input wave are used, it
is called a half wave rectifier.
4.2.4 Advantages of Half wave rectifier
A half wave rectifier is rarely used in practice. It is never preferred as the
power supply of an audio circuit because of the very high ripple factor.
High ripple factor will result in noises in input audio signal, which in turn
will affect audio quality.
Advantage of a half wave rectifier is only that its cheap, simple and easy
to construct. It is cheap because of the low number of components
involved. Simple because of the straight forwardness in circuit design.
Apart from this, a half wave rectifier has more number of disadvantages
than advantages!
4.2.5 Disadvantages of Half wave rectifier
1. The output current in the load contains, in addition to dc component, ac
components of basic frequency equal to that of the input voltage
frequency. Ripple factor is high and an elaborate filtering is, therefore,
required to give steady dc output.
2. The power output and, therefore, rectification efficiency is quite low.
This is due to the fact that power is delivered only during one half cycle of
the input alternating voltage.
3. Transformer utilization factor is low.
4. DC saturation of transformer core resulting in magnetizing current and
hysteresis losses and generation of harmonics.
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The DC output available from a half-wave rectifier is not satisfactory to

make a general power supply. However it can be used for some
applications like battery charging.
4.3.Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter
4.3.1 Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter
Output of half wave rectifier is not a constant DC voltage. You can observe
from the output diagram that its a pulsating dc voltage with ac ripples. In
real life applications, we need a power supply with smooth wave forms. In
other words, we desire a DC power supply with constant output voltage. A
constant output voltage from the DC power supply is very important as it
directly impacts the reliability of the electronic device we connect to the
power supply.
We can make the output of half wave rectifier smooth by using a filter (a
capacitor filter or an inductor filter) across the diode. In some cases an
resistor-capacitor coupled filter (RC) is also used. The circuit diagram
below shows a half wave rectifier with capacitor filter.
Half Wave Rectifier with Capacitor Filter Circuit Diagram & Output
Waveform
4.3.2 Half Wave Rectifier Analysis
The following parameters will be explained for the analysis of Half Wave
Rectifier:4.3.3 Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) rating of a diode is important in its design
stages. It is the maximum voltage that the rectifying diode has to
withstand, during the reverse biased period. When the diode is reverse
biased, during the negative half cycle, there will be no current flow
through the load resistor RL. Hence, there will be no voltage drop through
the load resistance RL which causes the entire input voltage to appear
across the diode. Thus VSMAX, the peak secondary voltage, appears across
the diode. Therefore,
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) of half wave rectifier = VSMAX
4.3.4 Average and Peak Currents in the diode
By assuming that the voltage across the transformer secondary be
sinusoidal of peak values VSMAX, instantaneous value of the voltage given
to the rectifier can be written as
Instantaneous value of voltage applied to Half Wave Rectifier
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Assuming that the diode has a forward resistance of RF ohms and infinite
reverse resistance value, the current flowing through the output load
resistance RL is
Current flowing through the diode

IMAX = VSMAX/(RF + RL)
4.3.5 DC Output Current
The dc output current is given as
Substituting the value of IMAX for the equation IMAX = VSMAX/(RF + RL),
we have
Idc = VSMAX/ = VSMAX/ RL if RL >> RF
4.3.6 DC Output Voltage
Dc value of voltage across the load is given by
Vdc = Idc RL = VSMAX/pi(RF + RL)X RL = VSMAX/{1+RF/RL }
If RL >> RF, Vdc = VSMAX/pi
4.3.7 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Current
RMS value of current flowing through the diode is given as
4.3.8 Root Mean Square (RMS) Value of Output Voltage

RMS value of voltage across the load is given as
VLrms = Irms RL = VSMAX RL /2(RF + RL) = VSMAX/2{1+RF/RL }
If RL >> RF, VLrms = VSMAX/2
4.3.9 Rectification Efficiency
Rectification efficiency is defined as the ratio between the output power to
the ac input power.
Efficiency, = DC power delivered to the load/AC input power from the
transformer = Pdc/Pac
DC power delivered to the load, Pdc = I2dc RL = (Imax/pi)2 RL
AC power input to the transformer, P ac = Power dissipated in diode
junction + Power dissipated in load resistance RL
= I2rms RF + I2rms RL = {I2MAX/4}[ RF + RL]
So, Rectification Efficiency, = Pdc/Pac = {4/2}[ RL/ (RF + RL)] = 0.406/
{1+ RF/RL }
The maximum efficiency that can be obtained by the half wave rectifier is
40.6%. This is obtained if RF is neglected.
4.3.10 Ripple Factor
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Ripple factor is in fact a measure of the remaining alternating components

in a filtered rectifier output. It is the ratio of the effective value of the ac
components of voltage (or current) present in the output from the rectifier
to the dc component in output voltage (or current).
The effective value of the load current is given as
I2 =I2dc+I21+I22+I24 = I2dc +I2ac
Where, I1,I2, I4 and so onare the rms values of fundamental, second, fourth
and so on harmonics and I2acis the sum of the squares if the rms values of
the ac components.
So, ripple factor, = Iac/ Idc = I2 I2dc)/ Idc = {( Irms/ Idc2)-1} = Kf2 1)
Where Kf is the form factor of the input voltage. For half wave rectifier,
form factor is given as
Kf = Irms /Iavg = (Imax/2)/ (Imax/pi) = pi/2 = 1.57
So, ripple factor, = (1.572 1) = 1.21
4.3.11 Regulation
The variation of the output voltage as a function of dc load current is
called regulation. Percentage regulation is given as
% Regulation = {(Vno-load Vfull-load)/ Vfull-load}* 100
Fror an ideal power supply, the output voltage should be independent of
load current and the percentage regulation should be equal to zero.
4.3.12 Uses of Half wave rectifier
Any rectifier is used to construct DC power supplies. The practical
application of any rectifier (be it half wave or full wave) is to be used as a
component in building DC power supplies. A half wave rectifier is not
special than a full wave rectifier in any terms. In order to build an efficient
& smooth DC power supply, a full wave rectifier is always preferred.
However for applications in which a constant DC voltage is not very
essential, you can use power supplies with half wave rectifier.
4.4. Full-wave rectifier without capacitor filter
4.4.1 Full Wave Rectifier
In a Full Wave Rectifier circuit two diodes are now used, one for each
half of the cycle. A multiple winding transformer is used whose secondary
winding is split equally into two halves with a common centre tapped
connection, (C). This configuration results in each diode conducting in turn
when its anode terminal is positive with respect to the transformer centre
point C producing an output during both half-cycles, twice that for the half
wave rectifier so it is 100% efficient as shown below.
4.4.2 Full Wave Rectifier Circuit
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The full wave rectifier circuit consists of two power diodes connected to a
single load resistance (RL) with each diode taking it in turn to supply
current to the load. When point A of the transformer is positive with
respect to point C, diode D1 conducts in the forward direction as indicated
by the arrows.
When point B is positive (in the negative half of the cycle) with respect to
point C, diode D2 conducts in the forward direction and the current flowing
through resistor R is in the same direction for both half-cycles. As the
output voltage across the resistor R is the phasor sum of the two
waveforms combined, this type of full wave rectifier circuit is also known
as a bi-phase circuit.
As the spaces between each half-wave developed by each diode is now
being filled in by the other diode the average DC output voltage across
the load resistor is now double that of the single half-wave rectifier circuit
and is about 0.637Vmax of the peak voltage, assuming no losses.
Where: VMAX is the maximum peak value in one half of the secondary
winding and VRMS is the rms value.
The peak voltage of the output waveform is the same as before for the
half-wave rectifier provided each half of the transformer windings have
the same rms voltage value. To obtain a different DC voltage output
different transformer ratios can be used. The main disadvantage of this
type of full wave rectifier circuit is that a larger transformer for a given
power output is required with two separate but identical secondary
windings making this type of full wave rectifying circuit costly compared to
the Full Wave Bridge Rectifier circuit equivalent.
4.4.3 The Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
Another type of circuit that produces the same output waveform as the
full wave rectifier circuit above, is that of the Full Wave Bridge
Rectifier. This type of single phase rectifier uses four individual rectifying
diodes connected in a closed loop bridge configuration to produce the
desired output. The main advantage of this bridge circuit is that it does
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not require a special centre tapped transformer, thereby reducing its size
and cost. The single secondary winding is connected to one side of the
diode bridge network and the load to the other side as shown below.
4.4.4 The Diode Bridge Rectifier
The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in series pairs with only
two diodes conducting current during each half cycle. During the positive
half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2 conduct in series while diodes
D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the load as
shown below.
4.4.5 The Positive Half-cycle
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in
series, but diodes D1 and D2 switch OFF as they are now reverse
biased. The current flowing through the load is the same direction as
before.
4.4.6The Negative Half-cycle
As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage

developed across the load is also unidirectional the same as for the
previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore the average DC voltage
across the load is 0.637Vmax.
4.4.7 Bridge Rectifier
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Typical Bridge Rectifier

However in reality, during each half cycle the current flows through two
diodes instead of just one so the amplitude of the output voltage is two
voltage drops ( 2 x 0.7 = 1.4V ) less than the input V MAX amplitude. The
ripple frequency is now twice the supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz
supply or 120Hz for a 60Hz supply.)
Although we can use four individual power diodes to make a full wave
bridge rectifier, pre-made bridge rectifier components are available offthe-shelf in a range of different voltage and current sizes that can be
soldered directly into a PCB circuit board or be connected by spade
connectors.
The image to the right shows a typical single phase bridge rectifier with
one corner cut off. This cut-off corner indicates that the terminal nearest
to the corner is the positive or +ve output terminal or lead with the
opposite (diagonal) lead being the negative or -ve output lead. The other
two connecting leads are for the input alternating voltage from a
transformer secondary winding.
4.5. Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor
4.5.1 Full-wave Rectifier with Smoothing Capacitor
The smoothing capacitor converts the full-wave rippled output of the

rectifier into a smooth DC output voltage. Generally for DC power supply
circuits the smoothing capacitor is an Aluminium Electrolytic type that has
a capacitance value of 100uF or more with repeated DC voltage pulses
from the rectifier charging up the capacitor to peak voltage.
4.5.2 Parameters
However, their are two important parameters to consider when choosing a
suitable smoothing capacitor and these are its Working Voltage, which
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must be higher than the no-load output value of the rectifier and its
Capacitance Value, which determines the amount of ripple that will appear
superimposed on top of the DC voltage.
Too low a capacitance value and the capacitor has little effect on the
output waveform. But if the smoothing capacitor is sufficiently large
enough (parallel capacitors can be used) and the load current is not too
large, the output voltage will be almost as smooth as pure DC. As a
general rule of thumb, we are looking to have a ripple voltage of less than
100mV peak to peak.
4.5.3 Ripple Voltage
The maximum ripple voltage present for a Full Wave Rectifier circuit is
not only determined by the value of the smoothing capacitor but by the
frequency and load current, and is calculated as:
Bridge Rectifier Ripple Voltage
Where: I is the DC load current in amps, is the frequency of the ripple or

twice the input frequency in Hertz, and C is the capacitance in Farads.
4.5.4 Advantages
The main advantages of a full-wave bridge rectifier is that it has a smaller
AC ripple value for a given load and a smaller reservoir or smoothing
capacitor than an equivalent half-wave rectifier. Therefore, the
fundamental frequency of the ripple voltage is twice that of the AC supply
frequency (100Hz) where for the half-wave rectifier it is exactly equal to
the supply frequency (50Hz).
4.5.5 Ripple reduction
The amount of ripple voltage that is superimposed on top of the DC supply
voltage by the diodes can be virtually eliminated by adding a much
improved -filter (pi-filter) to the output terminals of the bridge rectifier.
This type of low-pass filter consists of two smoothing capacitors, usually of
the same value and a choke or inductance across them to introduce a high
impedance path to the alternating ripple component
Another more practical and cheaper alternative is to use an off the shelf 3terminal voltage regulator IC, such as a LM78xx (where xx stands for the
output voltage rating) for a positive output voltage or its inverse
equivalent the LM79xx for a negative output voltage which can reduce the
ripple by more than 70dB (Datasheet) while delivering a constant output
current of over 1 amp.
4.6. Transistor - Construction & working
4.6.1 Junction Transistors
We already know what is p - type and n - type semiconductors. Now, in
this type of transistor any one type of semiconductors is sandwiched
between the other type of semiconductor. For example, an n - type can be
sandwiched between two p - type semiconductors or similarly one p - type
can be sandwiched between two n - type semiconductors. These are
called p - n - p and n - p - n transistors respectively. We will discuss about
them later. Now as there are two junctions of different types of
semiconductors, this is called junction transistor. Its called bipolar
because the conduction takes place due to both electrons as well as holes.
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4.6.2 Definition of BJT

A bipolar junction transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device
consisting of two p-n junctions which is able to amplify or magnify a
signal. It is a current controlled device. The three terminals of the BJT are
the base, the collector and the emitter. A signal of small amplitude if
applied to the base is available in the amplified form at the collector of the
transistor. This is the amplification provided by the BJT. Note that it does
require an external source of DC power supply to carry out the
amplification process.
The basic diagrams of the two types of bipolar junction transistors
mentioned above are given below.
From the above figure, we can see that every BJT has three parts named
emitter, base and collector. JE and JC represent junction of emitter and
junction of collector respectively. Now initially it is sufficient for us to know
that emitter based junction is forward biased and collector base junctions
is reverse biased. The next topic will describe the two types of this
transistors.
4.6.3 N-P-N Bipolar Junction Transistor
As started before in n - p - n bipolar transistor one p - type
semiconductor resides between two n - type semiconductors the diagram
below a n - p - n transistor is shown
Now IE, IC is emitter current and collect current respectively and VEB and
VCB are emitter base voltage and collector base voltage respectively.
According to convention if for the emitter, base and collector current IE, IB
and IC current goes into the transistor the sign of the current is taken as
positive and if current goes out from the transistor then the sign is taken
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as negative. We can tabulate the different currents and voltages inside the
n - p - n transistor.
Transistor
IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE
type
n-p-n
- ++- + +
4.6.4 P-N-P Bipolar Junction Transistor
Similarly for p - n - p bipolar junction transistor a n-type
semiconductors is sandwiched between two p-type semiconductors. The
diagram of a p - n - p transistor is shown below
For p - n - p transistors, current enters into the transistor through the

emitter terminal. Like any bipolar junction transistor, the emitter base
junction is forward biased and the collector base junction is reverse
biased. We can tabulate the emitter, base and collector current, as well as
the emitter base, collector base and collector emitter voltage for p - n - p
transistors also.
Transistor
IE IB IC VEB VCB VCE
type
p-n-p
+- - + - 4.6.5 Working Principle of BJT
Figure shows an n-p-n transistor biased in the active region (See transistor
biasing), the BE junction is forward biased whereas the CB junction is
reversed biased. The width of the depletion region of the BE junction is
small as compared to that of the CB junction. The forward bias at the BE
junction reduces the barrier potential and causes the electrons to flow
from the emitter to base. As the base is thin and lightly doped it consists
of very few holes so some of the electrons from the emitter (about 2%)
recombine with the holes present in the base region and flow out of the
base terminal. This constitutes the base current, it flows due to
recombination of electrons and holes (Note that the direction of
conventional current flow is opposite to that of flow of electrons). The
remaining large number of electrons will cross the reverse biased collector
junction to constitute the collector current. Thus by KCL,
The base current is very small as compared to emitter and collector
current.
Here, the majority charge carriers are electrons. The operation of a p-n-p
transistor is same as of the n-p-n, the only difference is that the majority
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charge carriers are holes instead of electrons. Only a small part current
flows due to majority carriers and most of the current flows due to
minority charge carriers in a BJT. Hence, they are called as minority carrier
devices.
4.6.6 Equivalent Circuit of BJT
A p-n junction is represented by a diode. As a transistor has two p-n
junctions, it is equivalent to two diodes connected back to back. This is
called as the two diode analogy of the BJT.
4.7. Input and output characteristics of CB and CE configuration
4.7.1 Bipolar Junction Transistors Characteristics
The three parts of a BJT are collector, emitter and base. Before knowing
about the bipolar junction transistor characteristics, we have to
know about the modes of operation for this type of transistors. The modes
are i) Common Base (CB) mode
ii) Common Emitter (CE) mode
iii) Common Collector (CC) mode
All three types of modes are shown below
Now coming to the characteristics of BJT there are different

characteristics for different modes of operation. Characteristics is nothing
but the graphical forms of relationships among different current and
voltage variables of the transistor. The characteristics for p - n - p
transistors are given for different modes and different parameters.
4.7.2. Common Base Input Characteristics
For p - n - p transistor, the input current is the emitter current (IE) and the
input voltage is the collector base voltage (VCB).
As the emitter - base junction is forward biased, therefore the graph of I E

Vs VEB is similar to the forward characteristics of a p - n diode. I E increases
for fixed VEB when VCB increases.
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4.7.3 Common Base Output Characteristics

The output characteristics shows the relation between output voltage and
output current IC is the output current and collector base voltage and the
emitter current IE is the input current and works as the parameters. The
figure below shows the output characteristics for a p - n - p transistor in
CB mode.
As we know for p - n - p transistors I E and VEB are positive and IC, IB, VCB are
negative. These are three regions in the curve, active region saturation
region and the cut off region. The active region is the region where the
transistor operates normally. Here the emitter junction is reverse biased.
Now the saturation region is the region where both the emitter collector
junctions are forward biased. And finally the cut off region is the region
where both emitter and the collector junctions are reverse biased.
4.7.4 Common Emitter Input Characteristics
IB (Base Current) is the input current, VBE (Base - Emitter Voltage) is the
input voltage for CE (Common Emitter) mode. So, the input characteristics
for CE mode will be the relation between IB and VBE with VCE as parameter.
The characteristics are shown below
The typical CE input characteristics are similar to that of a forward biased

of p - n diode. But as VCB increases the base width decreases.
4.7.5 Common Emitter Output characteristics
Output characteristics for CE mode is the curve or graph between
collector current (IC) and collector - emitter voltage (VCE) when the base
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current IB is the parameter. The characteristics is shown below in the

figure.
Like the output characteristics of common - base transistor CE mode has

also three regions named (i) Active region, (ii) cut-off regions, (iii)
saturation region. The active region has collector region reverse biased
and the emitter junction forward biased. For cut-off region the emitter
junction is slightly reverse biased and the collector current is not totally
cut-off. And finally for saturation region both the collector and the emitter
junction are forward biased.
4.7.6 Application of BJT
BJT's are used in discrete circuit designed due to availability of many
types, and obviously because of its high transconductane and output
resistance which is better than MOSFET. BJT's are suitable for high
frequency application also. Thats why they are used in radio frequency for
wireless systems. Another application of BJT can be stated as small signal
amplifier, metal proximity photocell, etc.
4.8. Transistor as an Amplifier
4.8.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifier
To understand the concept of Bipolar Junction Transistor Amplifier, we
should look through the diagram of a p-n-p transistor first.
4.8.2. Diagram of PNP transistor
4.8.3 Voltage drop

Now as the input voltage is changed a little, say Vi of the emitter - base
voltage changes the barrier height and the emitter current by IE. This
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change in emitter current develops a voltage drop VO across the load

resistance RL, where,
VO = - RLIC
VO gives the output voltage of the amplifier. There is a negative sign
because of the collector current gives a voltage drop across RL with
polarity opposite to the reference polarity.
4.8.4 Voltage gain
The voltage gain AV for the amplifier is given the ratio between the output
voltages VO to the input voltage Vi, so,
IC / IE = AI is called the current gain ratio of the transistor. From the

figure diagram shown above we can see that an increase in the emitter
voltage reduces the forward bias at the emitter junction thus decreases
the collector current. It indicates that the output voltage and the input
voltage are in phase.
4.8.5 Power gain
Now, finally the power gain Ap of the transistor is the ratio between the
output power and the input power
4.9. Principle and working of Hartley oscillator

4.9.1 Voltage Controlled Oscillator
If the amplitude of the oscillations decreases the bias decreases and the
gain of the amplifier increases, thus increasing the feedback. In this way
the amplitude of the oscillations are kept constant using a process known
as Automatic Base Bias.
One big advantage of automatic base bias in a Voltage Controlled
Oscillator, is that the oscillator can be made more efficient by providing a
Class-B bias or even a Class-C bias condition of the transistor. This has the
advantage that the collector current only flows during part of the
oscillation cycle so the quiescent collector current is very small. Then this
self-tuning base oscillator circuit forms one of the most common types
of LC parallel resonant feedback oscillator configurations called the
Hartley Oscillator circuit.
Hartley Oscillator Tank Circuit

4.9.2. The Hartley Oscillator
In the Hartley Oscillator the tuned LC circuit is connected between the
collector and the base of a transistor amplifier. As far as the oscillatory
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voltage is concerned, the emitter is connected to a tapping point on the

tuned circuit coil.
The feedback part of the tuned LC tank circuit is taken from the centre tap
of the inductor coil or even two separate coils in series which are in
parallel with a variable capacitor, C as shown.
The Hartley circuit is often referred to as a split-inductance oscillator
because coil L is centre-tapped. In effect, inductance L acts like two
separate coils in very close proximity with the current flowing through coil
section XY induces a signal into coil section YZ below.
An Hartley Oscillator circuit can be made from any configuration that uses
either a single tapped coil (similar to an autotransformer) or a pair of
series connected coils in parallel with a single capacitor as shown below.
4.9.3 Basic Hartley Oscillator Design
When the circuit is oscillating, the voltage at point X (collector), relative to point
Y (emitter), is 180o out-of-phase with the voltage at point Z (base) relative to
point Y. At the frequency of oscillation, the impedance of the Collector load is
resistive and an increase in Base voltage causes a decrease in the Collector
voltage. Then there is a 180 o phase change in the voltage between the Base and
Collector and this along with the original 180 o phase shift in the feedback loop
provides the correct phase relationship of positive feedback for oscillations to be
maintained.
The amount of feedback depends upon the position of the tapping point
of the inductor. If this is moved nearer to the collector the amount of
feedback is increased, but the output taken between the Collector and
earth is reduced and vice versa. Resistors, R1 and R2 provide the usual
stabilizing DC bias for the transistor in the normal manner while the
capacitors act as DC-blocking capacitors.
4.9.4 Frequency of Oscillation
In this Hartley Oscillator circuit, the DC Collector current flows through
part of the coil and for this reason the circuit is said to be Series-fed
with the frequency of oscillation of the Hartley Oscillator being given as.
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Note: LT is the total cumulatively coupled inductance if two separate coils are
used including their mutual inductance, M.
4.9.5 Shunt-fed Hartley Oscillator Circuit
In the shunt-fed Hartley oscillator circuit, both the AC and DC components of the
Collector current have separate paths around the circuit. Since the DC
component is blocked by the capacitor, C2 no DC flows through the inductive
coil, L and less power is wasted in the tuned circuit.
The Radio Frequency Coil (RFC), L2 is an RF choke which has a high

reactance at the frequency of oscillations so that most of the RF current is
applied to the LC tuning tank circuit via capacitor, C2 as the DC
component passes through L2 to the power supply. A resistor could be
used in place of the RFC coil, L2 but the efficiency would be less.
Hartley Oscillator Example
A Hartley Oscillator circuit having two individual inductors of 0.5mH
each, are designed to resonate in parallel with a variable capacitor that
can be adjusted between 100pF and 500pF. Determine the upper and
lower frequencies of oscillation and also the Hartley oscillators bandwidth.
From above we can calculate the frequency of oscillations for a Hartley
Oscillator as:
The circuit consists of two inductive coils in series, so the total inductance is
given as:
Hartley Oscillator Upper Frequency
Hartley Oscillator Lower Frequency
Hartley Oscillator Bandwidth
4.10. Principle and working of RC phase shift oscillator

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4.10.1 The RC Oscillator

In an RC Oscillator circuit the input is shifted 180 o through the amplifier
stage and 180o again through a second inverting stage giving us
180o + 180o = 360o of phase shift which is effectively the same as 0 o
thereby giving us the required positive feedback. In other words, the
phase shift of the feedback loop should be 0.
In a Resistance-Capacitance Oscillator or simply an RC Oscillator, we
make use of the fact that a phase shift occurs between the input to a RC
network and the output from the same network by using RC elements in
the feedback branch, for example.
4.10.2 RC Phase-Shift Network
The circuit on the left shows a single Resistor-Capacitor Network whose output
voltage leads the input voltage by some angle less than 90 o. An ideal singlepole RC circuit would produce a phase shift of exactly 90 o, and because 180o of
phase shift is required for oscillation, at least two single-poles must be used in an
RC oscillator design.
However in reality it is difficult to obtain exactly 90 o of phase shift so more

stages are used. The amount of actual phase shift in the circuit depends
upon the values of the resistor and the capacitor, and the chosen
frequency of oscillations with the phase angle ( ) being given as:
4.10.3 RC Phase Angle
In our simple example above, the values of R and C have been chosen so that at
the required frequency the output voltage leads the input voltage by an angle of
about 60o. Then the phase angle between each successive RC section increases
by another 60o giving a phase difference between the input and output of 180 o (3
x 60o) as shown by the following vector diagram.
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4.10.4 Vector Diagram
Then by connecting together three such RC networks in series we can

produce a total phase shift in the circuit of 180 o at the chosen frequency
and this forms the bases of a phase shift oscillator otherwise known as a
RC Oscillator circuit.
We know that in an amplifier circuit either using a Bipolar Transistor or an
Operational Amplifier, it will produce a phase-shift of 180 o between its
input and output. If a three-stage RC phase-shift network is connected
between this input and output of the amplifier, the total phase shift
necessary for regenerative feedback will become 3 x 60 o + 180o = 360o as
shown.
The three RC stages are cascaded together to get the required slope for a stable
oscillation frequency. The feedback loop phase shift is -180 o when the phase shift
of each stage is -60o. This occurs when = 2 = 1.732/RC as (tan 60o = 1.732).
Then to achieve the required phase shift in an RC oscillator circuit is to use
multiple RC phase-shifting networks such as the circuit below.
4.10.5 Basic RC Oscillator Circuit
The basic RC Oscillator which is also known as a Phase-shift Oscillator,

produces a sine wave output signal using regenerative feedback obtained from
the resistor-capacitor combination. This regenerative feedback from the RC
network is due to the ability of the capacitor to store an electric charge, (similar
to the LC tank circuit).
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This resistor-capacitor feedback network can be connected as shown

above to produce a leading phase shift (phase advance network) or
interchanged to produce a lagging phase shift (phase retard network) the
outcome is still the same as the sine wave oscillations only occur at the
frequency at which the overall phase-shift is 360o.
By varying one or more of the resistors or capacitors in the phase-shift
network, the frequency can be varied and generally this is done by
keeping the resistors the same and using a 3-ganged variable capacitor.
If all the resistors, R and the capacitors, C in the phase shift network are
equal in value, then the frequency of oscillations produced by the RC
oscillator is given as:
Where:
r is the Output Frequency in Hertz
R is the Resistance in Ohms
C is the Capacitance in Farads
N is the number of RC stages. (N = 3)
Since the resistor-capacitor combination in the RC Oscillator circuit also acts as

an attenuator producing an attenuation of -1/29th ( Vo/Vi = ) per stage, the
gain of the amplifier must be sufficient to overcome the circuit losses. Therefore,
in our three stage RC network above the amplifier gain must be greater than 29.
The loading effect of the amplifier on the feedback network has an effect
on the frequency of oscillations and can cause the oscillator frequency to
be up to 25% higher than calculated. Then the feedback network should
be driven from a high impedance output source and fed into a low
impedance load such as a common emitter transistor amplifier but better
still is to use an Operational Amplifier as it satisfies these conditions
perfectly.
RC Oscillators are stable and provide a well-shaped sine wave output
with the frequency being proportional to 1/RC and therefore, a wider
frequency range is possible when using a variable capacitor. However, RC
Oscillators are restricted to frequency applications because of their
bandwidth limitations to produce the desired phase shift at high
frequencies.
RC Oscillator Example
A 3-stage RC Phase Shift Oscillator is required to produce an oscillation
frequency of 6.5kHz. If 1nF capacitors are used in the feedback circuit,
calculate the value of the frequency determining resistors and the value of
the feedback resistor required to sustain oscillations. Also draw the circuit.
The standard equation given for the phase shift RC Oscillator is:
The circuit is to be a 3-stage RC oscillator which will therefore consist of three
resistors and three 1nF capacitors. As the frequency of oscillation is given as
6.5kHz, the value of the resistors are calculated as:
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The operational amplifiers gain must be equal to 29 in order to sustain

oscillations. The resistive value of the three oscillation resistors are 10k,
therefore the value of the op-amps feedback resistor Rf is calculated as:
RC Oscillator Op-amp Circuit
4.11. Construction and working of JFET.

4.11.1. JFET
JFETs are of two types, namely N-channel JFETs and P-channel JFETs.
Generally N-channel JFETs are more preferred than P-channel. N-channel
and P-channel JFETs are shown in the figures below.
JFET - Junction Field Effect Transistors

4.11.2 Basic Construction.
The structure is quite simple. In an N-channel JFET an N-type silicon bar,
referred to as the channel, has two smaller pieces of P-type silicon
material diffused on the opposite sides of its middle part, forming P-N
junctions, as illustrated in figure. The two P-N junctions forming diodes or
gates are connected internally and a common terminal, called the gate
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terminal, is brought out. Ohmic contacts (direct electrical connections) are

made at the two ends of the channelone lead is called the Source
terminal S and the other Drain terminal D.
The silicon bar behaves like a resistor between its two terminals D and S.
The gate terminal is analogous to the base of an ordinary transistor(BJT).
It is used to control the flow of current from source to drain. Thus, source
and drain terminals are analogous to emitter and collector terminals
respectively of a BJT.
4.11.3 Standard Notations in FET:
Source The terminal through which the majority carriers enter the
channel, is called the source terminal S and the conventional current
entering the channel at S is designated as Ig.
Drain The terminal, througih which the majority carriers leave the
channel, is called the drain terminal D and the conventional current
leaving the channel at D is designated as I D. The drain-to-source voltage is
called VDS, and is positive if D is more positive than source S
Gate There are two internally connected heavily doped impurity regions
formed by alloying, by diffusion, or by any other method available to
create two P-N junctions. These impurity regions are called the gate G. A
voltage VGS is applied between the gate and source in the direction to
reverse-bias the P-N junction. Conventional current entering the channel
at G is designated as IG.
Channel The region between the source and drain, sandwiched
between the two gates is called the channel and the majority carriers
move from source to drain through this channel.
4.11.4 Schematic Symbols of JFET

The schematic symbols for N-type and P-type JFETs are shown in the figure
below. The vertical line in the symbol may be thought as channel and
source S and drain D connected to the line.
Note that the direction of the arrow at the gate indicates the direction in
which the gate current flows when the gate junction is forward biased.
Thus for the N-channel JFET, the arrow at the gate junction points into the
device and in P-channel JFET, it is away from the device.
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Polarity Conventions of JFET

4.11.5 Polarity Conventions-JFET
The polarities for N-channel and P-channel JFETs are shown in figures. In
both of the cases the voltage between the gate and source is such that
the gate is reverse biased. This is the normal method of connection of
JFETs. The drain and source terminals are interchangeable, that is either
end can be used as a source and the other end as a drain. The source
terminal is always connected to that end of the drain voltage supply which
provides the necessary charge carriers, that is, in an N-channel JFET
source terminal, S is connected to the negative end of the drain voltage
supply for obtaining.
Bias-Circuit-for-JFET
4.11.6 Operation of JFET
Let us consider an N-channel JFET for discussing its operation.
1. When neither any bias is applied to the gate (i.e. when V GS = 0) nor any
voltage to the drain w.r.t. source (i.e. when VDS = 0), the depletion regions
around the P-N junctions , are of equal thickness and symmetrical.
2. When positive voltage is applied to the drain terminal D w.r.t. source
terminal S without connecting gate terminal G to supply, as illustrated in
fig. 9.4, the electrons (which are the majority carriers) flow from terminal
S to terminal D whereas conventional drain current I D flows through the
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channel from D to S. Due to flow of this current, there is uniform voltage

drop across the channel resistance as we move from terminal D to
terminal S. This voltage drop reverse biases the diode. The gate is more
negative with respect to those points in the channel which are nearer to
D than to S. Hence, depletion layers penetrate more deeply into the
channel at points lying closer to D than to S. Thus wedge-shaped
depletion regions are formed, as shown in figure. when Vd s is applied. The
size of the depletion layer formed determines the width of the channel
and hence the magnitude of current ID flowing through the channel.
To see how the width of the channel varies with the variation in gate
voltage, let us assume that the gate is negative biased with respect to the
source while the drain is applied with positive bias with respect to the
source. This is shown in the figure above. The P-N junctions are then
reverse biased and depletion regions are formed. P regions are heavily
doped compared to the N-channel, so the depletion regions penetrate
deeply into the channel. Since a depletion region is a regions depleted of
the charge carriers, it behaves as an insulator. The result is that the
channel is narrowed, the resistance is increased and drain current I D is
reduced. If the negative voltage at the gate is again increased, depletion
layers meet at the centre and the drain current s cut-off completely. If the
negative bias to the gate is reduced, the width of the depletion layers gets
reduced causing decrease in resistance and , therefore, increase in drain
current ID.(The gate-source voltage VGS at which drain current ID is cut-off
completely (pinched off) is called the pinch-off voltage Vp. It is also to be
noted that the amount of reverse bias is not the same throughout the
length of the P-N junction. When the drain current flows through the
channel, there is a voltage drop along its length. The result is that the
reverse bias at the drain end is more than that at the source end making
the width of depletion layer more at the drain. To see how the width of the
channel varies with the variation in gate, go through the figure above.
4.12. Construction and working of MOSFET.
4.12.1 The MOSFET Metal Oxide FET
MOSFETs are three terminal devices with a Gate, Drain and Source and
both P-channel (PMOS) and N-channel (NMOS) MOSFETs are available. The
main difference this time is that MOSFETs are available in two basic forms:
1. Depletion Type
the transistor requires the Gate-Source
voltage, ( VGS ) to switch the device OFF. The depletion mode
MOSFET is equivalent to a Normally Closed switch.
2. Enhancement Type
the transistor requires a Gate-Source
voltage, ( VGS ) to switch the device ON. The enhancement mode
MOSFET is equivalent to a Normally Open switch.
The symbols and basic construction for both configurations of MOSFETs
are shown below.
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The four MOSFET symbols above show an additional terminal called the
Substrate and is not normally used as either an input or an output connection
but instead it is used for grounding the substrate. It connects to the main
semiconductive channel through a diode junction to the body or metal tab of the
MOSFET. Usually in discrete type MOSFETs, this substrate lead is connected
internally to the source terminal. When this is the case, as in enhancement types
it is omitted from the symbol for clarification.
The line between the drain and source connections represents the
semiconductive channel. If this is a solid unbroken line then this
represents a Depletion (normally closed) type MOSFET and if the
channel line is shown dotted or broken it is an Enhancement (normally
open) type MOSFET. The direction of the arrow indicates either a P-channel
or an N-channel device.
4.12.2 Basic MOSFET Structure and Symbol
The construction of the Metal Oxide Semiconductor FET is very different to that
of the Junction FET. Both the Depletion and Enhancement type MOSFETs use an
electrical field produced by a gate voltage to alter the flow of charge carriers,
electrons for N-channel or holes for P-channel, through the semiconductive drainsource channel. The gate electrode is placed on top of a very thin insulating layer
and there are a pair of small N-type regions just under the drain and source
electrodes.
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With a insulated gate MOSFET device no such limitations apply so it is

possible to bias the gate of a MOSFET in either polarity, positive (+ve) or
negative (-ve). This makes the MOSFET device especially valuable as
electronic switches or to make logic gates because with no bias they are
normally non-conducting and this high gate input resistance means that
very little or no control current is needed as MOSFETs are voltage
controlled devices. Both the P-channel and the N-channel MOSFETs are
available in two basic forms, the Enhancement type and the Depletion
type.
4.12.3 Depletion-mode MOSFET
The Depletion-mode MOSFET, which is less common than the
enhancement types is normally switched ON without the application of a
gate bias voltage making it a normally-closed device. However, a gate
to source voltage ( VGS ) will switch the device OFF. Similar to the JFET
types. For an N-channel MOSFET, a positive gate voltage widens the
channel, increasing the flow of the drain current and decreasing the drain
current as the gate voltage goes more negative.
In other words, for an N-channel depletion mode MOSFET: +VGS means
more electrons and more current. While a -VGS means less electrons and
less current. The opposite is also true for the P-channel types. Then the
depletion mode MOSFET is equivalent to a normally-closed switch.
4.12.4 Depletion-mode N-Channel MOSFET and circuit Symbols
The depletion-mode MOSFET is constructed in a similar way to their JFET

transistor counterparts were the drain-source channel is inherently
conductive with the electrons and holes already present within the N-type
or P-type channel. This doping of the channel produces a conducting path
of low resistance between the Drain and Source with zero Gate bias.
4.12.5 Enhancement-mode MOSFET
The more common Enhancement-mode MOSFET is the reverse of the
depletion-mode type. Here the conducting channel is lightly doped or
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even undoped making it non-conductive. This results in the device being

normally OFF when the gate bias voltage is equal to zero.
A drain current will only flow when a gate voltage ( VGS ) is applied to the
gate terminal greater than the threshold voltage ( VTH ) level in which
conductance takes place making it a transconductance device. This
positive +ve gate voltage pushes away the holes within the channel
attracting electrons towards the oxide layer and thereby increasing the
thickness of the channel allowing current to flow. This is why this kind of
transistor is called an enhancement mode device as the gate voltage
enhances the channel.
Increasing this positive gate voltage will cause the channel resistance to
decrease further causing an increase in the drain current, ID through the
channel. In other words, for an N-channel enhancement mode MOSFET:
+VGS turns the transistor ON, while a zero or -VGS turns the transistor
OFF. Then, the enhancement-mode MOSFET is equivalent to a
normally-open switch.
4.12.6 Enhancement-mode N-Channel MOSFET and circuit
Symbols
Enhancement-mode MOSFETs make excellent electronics switches due to their

low ON resistance and extremely high OFF resistance as well as their
infinitely high gate resistance. Enhancement-mode MOSFETs are used in
integrated circuits to produce CMOS type Logic Gates and power switching
circuits in the form of as PMOS (P-channel) and NMOS (N-channel) gates. CMOS
actually stands for Complementary MOS meaning that the logic device has both
PMOS and NMOS within its design.
UNIT V
DIGITAL ELECTRONICS
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5.1.Boolean algebra
5.1.1 Description
Boolean Algebra is a system of mathematics based on logic that has its
own set of rules or laws which are used to define and reduce Boolean
expressions.
5.1.2 Variables Used
The variables used in Boolean Algebra only have one of two possible
values, a logic 0 and a logic 1 but an expression can have an infinite
number of variables all labelled individually to represent inputs to the
expression, For example, variables A, B, C etc, giving us a logical
expression of A + B = C, but each variable can ONLY be a 0 or a 1.
Examples of these individual laws of Boolean, rules and theorems for
Boolean Algebra are given in the following table.
5.1.3 Truth Tables for the Laws of Boolean
Boolean
Equivalent
Boolean
Algebra
Expressio Description
Switching Circuit Law or Rule
n
A+1=1
A in parallel with closed

= "CLOSED"
Annulment
A+0=A
A in parallel with open

= "A"
Identity
A.1=A
A in series with closed

= "A"
Identity
A.0=0
A in series with open

= "OPEN"
Annulment
A + A = A A in parallel with A = "A"
Indempotent
A . A = A A in series with A = "A"
Indempotent
NOT A
A
Double Negation
= NOT
NOT
A
(double negative) = "A"
A+A=1
A in parallel with not A

= "CLOSED"
Complement
A.A=0
A in series with not A

= "OPEN"
Complement
A+B
B+A
= A in parallel with B =
B in parallel with A
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87
A.B = B.A
A in series with B =
B in series with A
Commutative
A+B = A. invert and replace OR

de
Morgans
B
with AND
Theorem
A.B = A+ invert and replace AND
de
Morgans
B
with OR
Theorem
5.1.4 Description of the Laws of Boolean Algebra
Annulment Law A term ANDed with a 0 equals 0 or ORed with
a 1 will equal 1.
o A . 0 = 0, A variable ANDed with 0 is always equal to 0.
o A + 1 = 1, A variable ORed with 1 is always equal to 1.
Identity Law A term ORed with a 0 or ANDed with a 1 will
always equal that term.
o A + 0 = A, A variable ORed with 0 is always equal to the
variable.
o A . 1 = A, A variable ANDed with 1 is always equal to the
variable.
Indempotent Law An input ANDed with itself or ORed with itself
is equal to that input.
o A + A = A, A variable ORed with itself is always equal to the
variable.
o A . A = A, A variable ANDed with itself is always equal to
the variable.
Complement Law A term ANDed with its complement equals 0
and a term ORed with its complement equals 1.
o A . A = 0, A variable ANDed with its complement is always
equal to 0.
o A + A = 1, A variable ORed with its complement is always
equal to 1.
Commutative Law The order of application of two separate terms
is not important.
o A . B = B . A, The order in which two variables are ANDed
makes no difference.
o A + B = B + A, The order in which two variables are ORed
makes no difference.
Double Negation Law A term that is inverted twice is equal to the
original term.
o A = A,
A double complement of a variable is always equal to
the variable.
de Morgans Theorem There are two de Morgans rules or
theorems,
o Two separate terms NORed together is the same as the two
terms inverted (Complement) and ANDed for example,
A+B = A. B.
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o Two separate terms NANDed together is the same as the two

terms inverted (Complement) and ORed for example, A.B = A
+B.
5.1.5 Other algebraic Laws of Boolean
Distributive Law This law permits the multiplying or factoring out of an
expression.
o A(B + C) = A.B + A.C
(OR Distributive Law)
o A + (B.C) = (A + B).(A + B)
(AND Distributive Law)
Absorptive Law This law enables a reduction in a complicated
expression to a simpler one by absorbing like terms.
o A + (A.B) = A
(OR Absorption Law)
o A(A + B) = A
(AND Absorption Law)
Associative Law This law allows the removal of brackets from an
expression and regrouping of the variables.
o A + (B + C) = (A + B) + C = A + B + C
(OR Associate Law)
o A(B.C) = (A.B)C = A . B . C
(AND Associate Law)
Laws of Boolean Algebra Example
Using the above laws, simplify the following expression: (A + B)(A + C)
Q
(A + B)(A + C)
=
AA + AC + AB +
Distributive law
BC
Identity AND law (A.A =
A + AC + AB + BC
A)
A(1 + C) + AB +
Distributive law
BC
Identity OR law (1 + C
A.1 + AB + BC
= 1)
A(1 + B) + BC
Distributive law
Identity OR law (1 + B
A.1 + BC
= 1)
Q
Identity AND law (A.1 =
A + BC
=
A)
Then the expression: (A + B)(A + C) can be simplified to A + BC
5.2.Reduction of Boolean expressions

Here are some examples of Boolean algebra simplifications. Each line
gives a form of the expression, and the rule or rules used to derive it from
the previous one. Generally, there are several ways to reach the result.
Here is the list of simplification rules.
5.2.1 Simplify: C + BC:
Expressi
Rule(s) Used
on
C + BC Original Expression
C + (B +
DeMorgan's Law.
C)
(C + C) Commutative, Associative
+B
Laws.
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T+B
Complement Law.
T
Identity Law.
5.2.2 Simplify: AB(A + B)(B + B):
Expression
Rule(s) Used
AB(A + B)(B +
Original Expression
B)
AB(A + B)
Complement law, Identity law.
(A + B)(A + B) DeMorgan's Law
Distributive law. This step uses the fact that or distributes
A + BB
over and. It can look a bit strange since addition does not
distribute over multiplication.
A
Complement, Identity.
5.2.3 Simplify: (A + C)(AD + AD) + AC + C:
Expression
Rule(s) Used
(A + C)(AD + AD) + AC
Original Expression
+C
(A + C)A(D + D) + AC
Distributive.
+C
(A + C)A + AC + C
A((A + C) + C) + C
Commutative, Distributive.
A(A + C) + C
Associative, Idempotent.
AA + AC + C
Distributive.
Idempotent,
Identity,
A + (A + T)C
Distributive.
A+C
Identity, twice.
You can also use distribution of or over and starting from A(A+C)+C to
reach the same result by another route.
5.2.4 Simplify: A(A + B) + (B + AA)(A + B):
Expression
Rule(s) Used
A(A + B) + (B + AA)(A + B) Original Expression
AA + AB + (B + A)A + (B +
Idempotent (AA to A), then Distributive, used twice.
A)B
Complement, then Identity. (Strictly speaking, we
AB + (B + A)A + (B + A)B
also used the Commutative Law for each of these
applications.)
AB + BA + AA + BB + AB
Distributive, two places.
Idempotent (for the A's), then Complement and
AB + BA + A + AB
Identity to remove BB.
AB + AB + AT + AB
Commutative, Identity; setting up for the next step.
AB + A(B + T + B)
Distributive.
AB + A
Identity, twice (depending how you count it).
A + AB
Commutative.
(A + A)(A + B)
Distributive.
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A+B
5.3. De-Morgans theorem

The two theorems suggested by De-Morgan which are extremely useful in
Boolean Algebra are as following.
5.3.1 Theorem 1
The left hand side (LHS) of this theorem represents a NAND gate
with input A and B where the right hand side (RHS) of the theorem
represents an OR gate with inverted inputs.
This OR gate is called as Bubbled OR.
5.3.2 Theorem 1 Diagramatic representation
5.3.3 Theorem 1 Verification table

Table showing verification of the De-Morgans's first theorem
5.3.4 Theorem 2
The LHS of this theorem represented a NOR gate with input A and B
whereas the RHS represented an AND gate with inverted inputs.
This AND gate is called as Bubbled AND.
5.3.4 Theorem 2 Diagramatic representation

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5.3.6 Theorem 2 Verification table

Table showing verification of the De-Morgans's second theorem
5.4. Logic gates

5.4.1 Logic Gate Truth Tables
The table used to represent the boolean expression of a logic gate
function is commonly called a Truth Table. A logic gate truth table shows
each possible input combination to the gate or circuit with the resultant
output depending upon the combination of these input(s).
5.4.2 2-input AND Gate
For a 2-input AND gate, the output Q is true if BOTH input A AND input B
are both true, giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = A and B ).
Symbol
Truth Table
A
B
Q
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
Boolean Expression Q = A.B
Read as A AND B gives Q
Note that the Boolean Expression for a two input AND gate can be written
as: A.B or just simply AB without the decimal point.
5.4.3 2-input OR (Inclusive OR) Gate
For a 2-input OR gate, the output Q is true if EITHER input A OR input B
is true, giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = A or B ).
Symbol
Truth Table
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A
0
0
1
1
Read as
B
Q
0
0
1
1
0
1
1
1
A OR B gives Q
Boolean Expression Q = A+B

5.4.4 NOT Gate
For a single input NOT gate, the output Q is ONLY true when the input is
NOT true, the output is the inverse or complement of the input giving
the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = NOT A ).
Symbol
Truth Table
A
Q
0
1
1
Read as inversion of A gives

Q
The NAND and the NOR Gates are a combination of the AND and OR Gates
with that of a NOT Gate or inverter.
5.4.5 2-input NAND (Not AND) Gate
For a 2-input NAND gate, the output Q is true if BOTH input A and input B
are NOT true, giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = not(A and B) ).
Symbol
Truth Table
A
B
Q
0
0
1
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
Read as A AND B gives NOTBoolean Expression Q = A .B
Q
5.4.6 2-input NOR (Not OR) Gate
For a 2-input NOR gate, the output Q is true if BOTH input A and input B
are NOT true, giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = not(A or B) ).
Boolean Expression Q = NOT A or A
Symbol
Truth Table
A
B
Q
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
0
Boolean Expression Q = A+B
Read as A OR B gives NOT-Q
As well as the standard logic gates there are also two special types of
logic gate function called an Exclusive-OR Gate and an Exclusive-NOR
Gate. The actions of both of these types of gates can be made using the
above standard gates however, as they are widely used functions, they
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are now available in standard IC form and have been included here as
reference.
5.4.7 2-input EX-OR (Exclusive OR) Gate
For a 2-input Ex-OR gate, the output Q is true if EITHER input A or if input
B is true, but NOT both giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q = (A and NOT
B) or (NOT A and B) ).
Symbol
Truth Table
A
B
Q
0
0
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
0
Boolean Expression Q = A
B
5.4.8 2-input EX-NOR (Exclusive NOR) Gate
For a 2-input Ex-NOR gate, the output Q is true if BOTH input A and input
B are the same, either true or false, giving the Boolean Expression of: ( Q
= (A and B) or (NOT A and NOT B) ).
Symbol
Truth Table
A
B
Q
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
0
1
1
1
Boolean Expression Q = A
B
The following table gives a list of the common logic functions and their
equivalent Boolean notation.
Logic Function
Boolean Notation
AND
A.B
OR
A+B
NOT
A
NAND
A .B
NOR
A+B
EX-OR
(A.B) + (A.B) or A
B
EX-NOR
(A.B) + or A
B
5.5. Implementation of Boolean expressions
If the operation of a circuit is defined by a Boolean expression, a logiccircuit diagram can he implemented directly from that expression.
Suppose that we wanted to construct a circuit whose output is y = AC+
BC' + A'BC. This Boolean expression contains three terms (AC, BC', A'BC),
which are OR ed together. This tells us that a three-input OR gate is
required with inputs that are equal to AC, BC', and A'BC, respectively.
Each OR-gate input is an AND product term, which means that an AND
gate with appropriate inputs can be used to generate each of these terms.
Note the use of Inverters to produce the A' and C' terms required in the
expression.
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5.6. Flip flops - RS, JK, T and D.

5.6.1 Flip flop
A flip flop is a binary storage device. It can store binary bit either 0 or 1. It
has two stable states HIGH and LOW i.e. 1 and 0. It has the property to
remain in one state indefinitely until it is directed by an input signal to
switch over to the other state. It is also called bistable multivibrator.
The basic formation of flip flop is to store data. They can be used to keep
a record or what value of variable (input, output or intermediate). Flip flop
are also used to exercise control over the functionality of a digital circuit
i.e. change the operation of a circuit depending on the state of one or
more flip flops. These devices are mainly used in situations which require
one or more of these three.
Operations, storage and sequencing.
5.6.2 Latch Flip Flop
Operation
The R-S (Reset Set) flip flop is the simplest flip flop of all and easiest to
understand. It is basically a device which has two outputs one output
being the inverse or complement of the other, and two inputs. A pulse on
one of the inputs to take on a particular logical state. The outputs will then
remain in this state until a similar pulse is applied to the other input. The
two inputs are called the Set and Reset input (sometimes called the preset
and clear inputs).
Such flip flop can be made simply by cross coupling two inverting gates
either NAND or NOR gate could be used Figure 1(a) shows on RS flip flop
using NAND gate and Figure (b) shows the same circuit using NOR gate.
Circuit Diagram
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Figure : Latch R-S Flip Flop Using NAND and NOR Gates
Truth Table
Table : Simple NAND R-S Flip Flop Truth
Table
SR Q
0 0 indeterminate
0 1 Set (1)
1 0 Reset(0)
1 1 No Change
When NOR gate are used the R and S inputs are transposed compared
with the NAND version. Also the stable state when R and S are both 0. A
change of state is effected by pulsing the appropriate input to the 1 state.
The indeterminate state is now when both R and S are simultaneously at
logic 1. Table 3 shows this operation.
Table : NOR Gate R-S Flip Flop
Truth Table
S
No Change
Reset (0)
Set (1)
1 1
Indeterminate
5.6.3 Clocked RS Flip Flop
Operation
In the clocked R-S flip flop the appropriate levels applied to their inputs
are blocked till the receipt of a pulse from an other source called clock.
The flip flop changes state only when clock pulse is applied depending
upon the inputs.
Circuit Diagram
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Figure : Clocked RS Flip Flop

Truth Table
Table : The truth table for the Clocked R-S
flip flop
Initial Conditions
Inputs
(Pulsed)
Final Output
Q (t + 1)
indeterminate
indeterminate
Excitation table
The excitation table for R-S flip flop is very simply derived as given below
Table : Excitation table for R-S
Flip Flop
S
No Change
Reset (0)
Set (1)
Indeterminate
5.6.4 D Flip Flop

A D type (Data or delay flip flop) has a single data input in addition to the
clock input as shown in Figure .
Circuit Diagram
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Figure : D Flip Flop

Truth Table
Table : Truth table for D Flip Flop
S
Q(t + 1)
1
1
1
The excitation table for D flip flop is very simply derived given as under.
Excitation table
Table : Excitation table for D Flip
Flop
S
1
1
5.6.5 JK Flip Flop
One of the most useful and versatile flip flop is the JK flip flop the unique
features of a JK flip flop are:
1. If the J and K input are both at 1 and the clock pulse is applied, then
the output will change state, regardless of its previous condition.
2. If both J and K inputs are at 0 and the clock pulse is applied there
will be no change in the output. There is no indeterminate condition,
in the operation of JK flip flop i.e. it has no ambiguous state. The
circuit diagram for a JK flip flop is shown in Figure 4.
Circuit Diagram
Figure : JK Flip Flop

Truth Table
Table : The truth table for the JK flip flop
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Initial Conditions
Inputs
(Pulsed)
Final Output
Q (t + 1)
98
Table : The truth table for the JK flip flop

Initial Conditions
Inputs
(Pulsed)
Final Output
1
1
1
0
The excitation table for JK flip flop is very simply derived as given in table.
Excitation table
Table : Excitation table for JK
Flip Flop
S
No Change
Toggle
5.6.6 T Flip Flop

A method of avoiding the indeterminate state found in the working of RS
flip flop is to provide only one input ( the T input ) such, flip flop acts as a
toggle switch. Toggle means to change in the previous stage i.e. switch to
opposite state. It can be constructed from clocked RS flip flop be
incorporating feedback from output to input as shown in Figure.
Circuit Diagram
Figure: T Flip Flop

Truth Table
Table: Truth table for T Flip Flop
Qn
Qn + 1
1
1
0
The excitation table for T flip flop is very simply derived as shown in Table
.
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Excitation table
Table : Excitation table for T
Flip Flop
T
Qn
5.6.7 Master Slave Flip Flop

Figure shows the schematic diagram of master sloave J-K flip flop
Schematic Diagram
Figure : Master Slave JK Flip Flop

A master slave flip flop contains two clocked flip flops. The first is called
master and the second slave. When the clock is high the master is active.
The output of the master is set or reset according to the state of the input.
As the slave is incative during this period its output remains in the
previous state. When clock becomes low the output of the slave flip flop
changes because it become active during low clock period. The final
output of master slave flip flop is the output of the slave flip flop. So the
output of master slave flip flop is available at the end of a clock pulse.
5.7. Combinational logic 5.7.1 Combinational circuit
Combinational circuit is circuit in which we combine the different gates in
the circuit for example encoder, decoder, multiplexer and demultiplexer.
5.7.2 Characteristics
Some of the characteristics of combinational circuits are following.
The output of combinational circuit at any instant of time, depends
only on the levels present at input terminals.
The combinational circuit do not use any memory. The previous
state of input does not have any effect on the present state of the
circuit.
A combinational circuit can have a n number of inputs and m
number of outputs.
5.7.2 Block diagram
We're going to elaborate few important combinational circuits as follows.

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5.8. Half Adder

5.8.1 Description
Half adder is a combinational logic circuit with two input and two output.
The half adder circuit is designed to add two single bit binary number A
and B. It is the basic building block for addition of two single bit numbers.
This circuit has two outputs carry and sum.
5.8.2 Block diagram
5.8.3 Truth Table
5.8.4 Circuit Diagram
5.9. Full Adder

5.9.1 Description
Full adder is developed to overcome the drawback of Half Adder circuit. It
can add two one-bit numbers A and B, and carry c. The full adder is a
three input and two output combinational circuit.
5.9.2 Block diagram
Truth Table
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Circuit Diagram
5.10. Half Subtractors

5.10.1 Description
Half subtractor is a combination circuit with two inputs and two outputs
(difference and borrow). It produces the difference between the two binary
bits at the input and also produces a output (Borrow) to indicate if a 1 has
been borrowed. In the subtraction (A-B), A is called as Minuend bit and B is
called as Subtrahend bit.
5.10.2 Truth Table

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5.11. Full Subtractors

5.11.1 Description
The disadvantage of a half subtractor is overcome by full subtractor. The
full subtractor is a combinational circuit with three inputs A,B,C and two
output D and C'. A is the minuend, B is subtrahend, C is the borrow
produced by the previous stage, D is the difference output and C' is the
borrow output.
5.11.2 Truth Table
5.12. Sequential logic 5.12.1 Sequential Logic circuits

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The output state of a sequential logic circuit is a function of the

following three states, the present input, the past input and/or the
past output.
Sequential Logic circuits remember these conditions and stay fixed in their
current state until the next clock signal changes one of the states, giving
sequential logic circuits Memory.
Sequential logic circuits are generally termed as two state or Bistable
devices which can have their output or outputs set in one of two basic
states, a logic level 1 or a logic level 0 and will remain latched
(hence the name latch) indefinitely in this current state or condition until
some other input trigger pulse or signal is applied which will cause the
bistable to change its state once again.
5.12.2 Sequential Logic Representation
The word Sequential means that things happen in a sequence, one after
another and in Sequential Logic circuits, the actual clock signal determines
when things will happen next.
Simple sequential logic circuits can be constructed from standard

Bistable circuits such as: Flip-flops, Latches and Counters and which
themselves can be made by simply connecting together universal NAND
Gates and/or NOR Gates in a particular combinational way to produce the
required sequential circuit.
5.13. Ripple Counter
5.13.1 Description
A ripple counter is an asynchronous counter where only the first flip-flop is
clocked by an external clock. All subsequent flip-flops are clocked by the
output of the preceding flip-flop. Asynchronous counters are also called
ripple-counters because of the way the clock pulse ripples it way through
the flip-flops.
5.13.2 Mod
The MOD of the ripple counter or asynchronous counter is 2n if n flip-flops
are used. For a 4-bit counter, the range of the count is 0000 to 1111 (2 41).
5.13.3 Count up / Count down
A counter may count up or count down or count up and down depending
on the input control. The count sequence usually repeats itself. When
counting up, the count sequence goes from 0000, 0001, 0010, ... 1110 ,
1111 , 0000, 0001, ... etc. When counting down the count sequence goes
in the opposite manner: 1111, 1110, ... 0010, 0001, 0000, 1111, 1110, ...
etc.
The complement of the count sequence counts in reverse direction. If the
uncomplemented output counts up, the complemented output counts
down. If the uncomplemented output counts down, the complemented
output counts up.
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5.13.4 Ways of implementation

There are many ways to implement the ripple counter depending on the
characteristics of the flip flops used and the requirements of the count
sequence.
Clock Trigger: Positive edged or Negative edged
JK or D flip-flops
Count Direction: Up, Down, or Up/Down
5.13.5 Asynchronous / Synchronous
Asynchronous counters are slower than synchronous counters because of
the delay in the transmission of the pulses from flip-flop to flip-flop. With a
synchronous circuit, all the bits in the count change synchronously with
the assertion of the clock. Examples of synchronous counters are the Ring
and Johnson counter.
It can be implemented using D-type flip-flops or JK-type flip-flops.
The circuit below uses 2 D flip-flops to implement a divide-by-4 ripple
counter (2n = 22 = 4). It counts down.
5.14. The Shift Register

5.14.1 Description
The Shift Register is another type of sequential logic circuit that can be
used for the storage or the transfer of data in the form of binary numbers.
This sequential device loads the data present on its inputs and then
moves or shifts it to its output once every clock cycle, hence the name
shift register.
5.14.2 Construction
A shift register basically consists of several single bit D-Type Data
Latches, one for each data bit, either a logic 0 or a 1, connected
together in a serial type daisy-chain arrangement so that the output from
one data latch becomes the input of the next latch and so on.
5.14.3 Ways of shifting
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Data bits may be fed in or out of a shift register serially, that is one after
the other from either the left or the right direction, or all together at the
same time in a parallel configuration.
5.14.4 Latches
The number of individual data latches required to make up a single Shift
Register device is usually determined by the number of bits to be stored
with the most common being 8-bits (one byte) wide constructed from
eight individual data latches.
5.14.5 Usage
Shift Registers are used for data storage or for the movement of data and
are therefore commonly used inside calculators or computers to store data
such as two binary numbers before they are added together, or to convert
the data from either a serial to parallel or parallel to serial format. The
individual data latches that make up a single shift register are all driven
by a common clock ( Clk ) signal making them synchronous devices.
5.14.6 Modes of operation
Shift register ICs are generally provided with a clear or reset connection
so that they can be SET or RESET as required. Generally, shift
registers operate in one of four different modes with the basic movement
of data through a shift register being:
Serial-in to Parallel-out (SIPO) - the register is loaded with serial
data, one bit at a time, with the stored data being available at the
output in parallel form.
Serial-in to Serial-out (SISO) - the data is shifted serially IN and
OUT of the register, one bit at a time in either a left or right
direction under clock control.
Parallel-in to Serial-out (PISO) - the parallel data is loaded into
the register simultaneously and is shifted out of the register serially
one bit at a time under clock control.
Parallel-in to Parallel-out (PIPO) - the parallel data is loaded
simultaneously into the register, and transferred together to their
respective outputs by the same clock pulse.
UNIT VI
COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER SYSTEMS
6.1.Model of communication system
Shannon's Model of the Communication Process
Shannon's model, as shown in Figure, breaks

communication down into eight discrete components:
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the
process
of
6.1.1 Source
An information source. Presumably a person who creates a
message.
6.1.2 Message
The message, which is both sent by the information source and
received by the destination.
6.1.3 Transmitter
A transmitter. For Shannon's immediate purpose a telephone
instrument that captures an audio signal, converts it into an
electronic signal, and amplifies it for transmission through the
telephone network. Transmission is readily generalized within
Shannon's information theory to encompass a wide range of
transmitters. The simplest transmission system, that associated with
face-to-face communication, has at least two layers of transmission.
The first, the mouth (sound) and body (gesture), create and
modulate a signal. The second layer, which might also be described
as a channel, is built of the air (sound) and light (gesture) that
enable the transmission of those signals from one person to another.
A television broadcast would obviously include many more layers,
with the addition of cameras and microphones, editing and filtering
systems, a national signal distribution network (often satellite), and
a local radio wave broadcast antenna.
6.1.4 Signal
The signal, which flows through a channel. There may be multiple
parallel signals, as is the case in face-to-face interaction where
sound and gesture involve different signal systems that depend on
different channels and modes of transmission. There may be
multiple serial signals, with sound and/or gesture turned into
electronic signals, radio waves, or words and pictures in a book.
6.1.5 Channel
A carrier or channel, which is represented by the small unlabeled
box in the middle of the model. The most commonly used channels
include air, light, electricity, radio waves, paper, and postal systems.
Note that there may be multiple channels associated with the
multiple layers of transmission, as described above.
6.1.6 Noise
Noise, in the form of secondary signals that obscure or confuse the
signal carried. Given Shannon's focus on telephone transmission,
carriers, and reception, it should not be surprising that noise is
restricted to noise that obscures or obliterates some portion of the
signal within the channel. This is a fairly restrictive notion of noise,
by current standards, and a somewhat misleading one. Today we
have at least some media which are so noise free that compressed
signals are constructed with an absolutely minimal amount
information and little likelihood of signal loss. In the process,
Shannon's solution to noise, redundancy, has been largely replaced
by a minimally redundant solution: error detection and correction.
Today we use noise more as a metaphor for problems associated
with effective listening.
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6.1.7 Receiver
A receiver. In Shannon's conception, the receiving telephone
instrument. In face to face communication a set of ears (sound)
and eyes (gesture). In television, several layers of receiver,
including an antenna and a television set.
6.1.8 Destination
A destination. Presumably a person who consumes and
processes the message.
6.2. Analog and digital Communication
6.2.1 COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Communications is the field of study concerned with the transmission of
information through various means. It can also be defined as technology
employed in transmitting messages. It can also be defined as the intertransmitting the content of data (speech, signals, pulses etc.) from one
node to another.
A communication system is a combination of processes and the hardware
used to accomplish the transfer of the Information (communication).
Communication system consists of Analog and Digital communication.
6.2.2 ANALOG COMMUNICATION
Analog communication is a communication method of conveying voice,
data, image, signal or video information using a continuous signal which
varies in amplitude, phase, or some other property in proportion to that of
a variable.
Analog systems are very tolerant to noise, make good use of bandwidth,
and are easy to manipulate mathematically. However, analog signals
require hardware receivers and transmitters that are designed to perfectly
fit the particular transmission.
Analog signals are signals with continuous values. Analog signals are used
in many systems, although the use of analog signals has declined with the
advent of cheap digital signals.
6.2.3 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION
Digital communications is the physical transfer of data (a digital bit
stream) over a point-to-point or point-to-multi point transmission medium.
Examples of such media are copper wires, optical fibers, wireless
communication media, and storage media.
Digital communication enables the data to be transmitted in an efficient
manner through the use of digitally encoded information sent through
data signals. These data signals are easily compressed and, as such, can
be transmitted with accuracy and speed.
6.2.4 ADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION:
a). It is fast and easier.
b). No paper is wasted.
c). The messages can be stored in the device for longer times, without
being damaged, unlike paper files that easily get damages or attacked by
insects.
d). Digital communication can be done over large distances through
internet and other things.
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e). It is comparatively cheaper and the work which requires a lot of people
can be done simply by one person as folders and other such facilities can
be maintained.
6.2.5 DISADVANTAGES OF DIGITAL COMMUNICATION:
a). It is unreliable as the messages cannot be recognised by signatures.
Though software can be developed for this, yet the softwares can be
easily hacked.
b). Sometimes, the quickness of digital communication is harmful as
messages can be sent with the click of a mouse. The person oes not think
and sends the message at an impulse.
c). Digital Communication has completely ignored the human touch. A
personal touch cannot be established because all the computers will have
the same font!
6.3. Wired and wireless channel.
6.3.1 Telecommunication
Data or telecommunications is the process of the electronically sending
and receiving messages between two points. In communications, both
analog and digital signals move data over communication channels.
6.3.2 Types of communication
The two main types of communication through the internet connection is
Wired and Wireless.
6.3.3 Wired communication
Wired transmission media for data travel is still widely used. A twisted
pair wire is a copper cable used for telephone and data communications.
The twisted pair wire or a basic telephone connection is cheap, but the
speed does not work well enough to carry vidoes, voice notes, and data at
the same time. Other wired communication methods are a coaxial cable,
a copper wire surrounded by a layer of braided wire. This wire transfers
data at rates of 10 Mbps.
6.3.4 Wireless Communication
Wireless Communication is often more popular these days. Wireless
communication is used in our everyday lives not only by internet
connection but through the use of radio, microwaves, satellites, and even
devices such as bluetooth.
6.3.5 Examples
Infrared is a wireless transmission used through beams of light that travel
through the air. Bluetooth technology is another wireless communication
method that has become very popular in the past couple of years.
6.4. Block diagram of Microwave communication systems
6.4.1 Microwave
Microwave refer to high frequencies (above 300MHz) and short wave
lengths, at the microwave components depends on the changing electro
magnetic fields instead of current in the conductor or voltage across the 2
points a microwave propagated through the line of sight , there fore it is
necessary to install repeater station at about 50km interval.
6.4.2 Uses
Microwave signal are used for communication over long distance
continental or intercontinental. Microwave is the communication link
J.C.Vijayshree
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which make the communication possible. The basic block diagram of

microwave communication system is shown in figure.
6.4.3 Block Diagram
6.4.4 Construction:
Antenna:- Mostly a parabolic refractor types of antenna are used which is
used to transmit and receive the signal.
Circulator: A circulator is used to isolate transmitter with the receiver
input and to couple transmitter to antenna and antenna to receiver input.
Protection Circuitry: It provides safety to the mixer from overloads.
Mixer (Receiver): It has two outputs. One is the incoming signal and
other is the signal from lower band pass filter (BPF).The mixer gives an IF
signal of 70Mhz.
Band pass filter (BPF): It provides the necessary selectivity to the
receiver and it prevents the interference.
IF amplifier and AGC:- It amplifies the signal up to a intermediate
frequency of 70Mhz. and its gain is controlled through AGC (automatic
gain control)
Amplitude limiter: As the signal is frequency modulated one so as
amplitude limiter is used to avoid unwanted amplitude variations.
Mixer (Transmitter): It is used to convert IF frequency to transmitting
microwave frequency band to pass through it and hence prevent
interference.
POWER AMPLIFIER:-This amplifier amplifies the transmitted power from
a repeater section in the range of 0.2W to 10W.
MICROWAVE SOURCE:- Klystron & Gunn Oscillators were used as
microwave source. Now, V H F transistor crystal oscillators are used for
microwave source.
POWER SPLITTER:- It divides the output power from a microwave source
and feeds a large portion to the transmitter mixer, which converts it into
transmitting microwave frequency.
SHIFT OSCILATOR:- It provides one of the inputs to the balanced mixer
so that it produces 70MHz IF at the output of receiver mixer.
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This microwave link communicates with 600 to 2700 channels per

carrier. Thus the number of carriers in each direction can be four to
twelve.
6.5. Block diagram of satellite communication systems
6.5.1 Natural satellite
Moon is a natural satellite of earth. However we are not interested in the
natural satellites. We want to learn something different about the artificial
(man made) satellites.
6.5.2 Artificial satellite
An artificial satellite orbits or revolves around the earth in exactly the
same manner as electrons revolve around the nucleus of an atom. The
path in which satellites move are call as orbits. The orbits are of different
types such as synchronous orbits, polar orbits and inclined orbits, out of
which the synchronous or geostationary orbit is used by the geostationary
satellites. The geostationary satellites take exactly 24 hours to complete
one revolution around the earth, therefore they appear to be stationary.
6.5.3 Types of satellites
The satellites can be used for variety of purposes. Depending on the type
of application, the satellites are classified into the following categories:
1.Communication Satellites
2.Remote sensing Satellites
3.Weather Satellites
4.Scientific Satellites
A geostationary communication satellite is basically a relay station in
space. It receives signal from one earth station, amplifies it, improves the
signal quality and radiate the signal back to other earth stations. Such a
relay system allows us to communicate with any corner of the world.
6.5.4 Block Diagram of a Satellite Communication System
6.5.5 Basic operation of satellite communication system

The block diagram of a satellite communication system is shown in
above fig.
An earth station transmits information signal to the satellite using a
highly directional dish antenna.
The satellite receives this signal, processes it and transmits it back
at a reduced frequency.
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The receiving earth stations will receive this signal using parabolic
dish antennas pointed towards the satellite.
The signal which being transmitted upwards to the satellite is called
as the "up-link" and it is normally at a frequency of 6 GHz.
The signal which is transmitted back to the receiving earth station is
called as the "down-link" and it is normally at a frequency of 4 GHz.
Thus a satellite has to receive, process and transmit the signal. All
these functions are performed by a unit called satellite transponder.
A communication satellite generally has two sets of transponders,
each set having 12 transponders making it a total of 24
transponders. Each transponder has a bandwidth of 36 MHz which is
sufficient to handle at least one TV channel.
The up-link signal received by a transponder is a weak and downlink signal transmitted by the transponder is strong. Therefore to
avoid interference between them, the up-link and down-link
frequencies are selected to be of different value
The operation of satellite takes place at a very high signal
frequencies in the microwave range. The typical band of signal
frequencies used for the communication satellites are as follows:
1.C band : 4/6 GHz
2.Ku band : 11/14 GHz
3.Ka band : 20/30 GHz
The C band frequencies of 4/6 GHz indicate that the down-link frequency
is
4
GHz
while
the up-link frequency is 6 GHz. One of the advantages of operating at
such
a
high
frequency is reduction in the size of antennas and other components of
the system.
It is extremely important to maintain the position of the satellite
with respect to earth. Therefore control routines such as station
keeping and altitude control are executed from the control room in
the earth stations.
Multiple access methods such as FDMA (frequency division multiple
access), TDMA (time division multiple access) and CDMA (code
division multiple access) are used to allow the access of a satellite
to the maximum number of earth stations.
The power requirement of a satellite is satisfied by solar panels and
a set of nickel cadmium batteries, carried by the satellite itself.
6.6. Block diagram of optical fiber communication systems
6.6.1 optical fiber communication systems
The transmission media used for the communication of signals from one
point to another are copper wires, coaxial cables, wave-guides and radio
links. All these media have their own advantages and disadvantages.
Recently, the most modern medium of transmission for communication
has been developed. This modern medium of transmission, called optical
fiber, has presented the new frontier in the field of telecommunication
transmission.
Light is an old friend to the human beings. Light was used as a medium
for communication in the earliest days. About two hundreds years ago
J.C.Vijayshree
112
light was used for transmission of information over long distances. But
after many years of research and experience gained so far with the new
technology, communication has developed into the present state. The
idea of harnessing light as a communications medium was transformed
into a practical communication system. The practical use of optical fibers
was made possible by the perfection of the Laser and manufacturing of
hair-thin glass lines called "optical fiber". In the optical fiber a modulated
beam of light are used to carry the information on the principle of total
internal reflection.
6.6.2 Optical Fiber Transmitter
Explanation
Optical transmitter is a device that generates the signal sent through
optical fibers. The basic elements of optical fiber transmitter are shown in
above Fig:
Electronic Interface
There is wires standard electronic connection or pins energizing the
transmitter. They provide power Electronic I/P and Optical O/P signals.
Optical Interface
There are actually the connectors between the light source and fiber may
have different forms.
Drive CKT
This depends on application, requirements, data format and the light
source.
Electronic Processing
In some transmitters the I/P Electrical signals are electronically processed
to put them into of suitable from to drive the light source.
Optical Monitor
It Monitors the O/P of the LASER and provides feedback to the drive CKT so
that the O/P power remains stable.
Temperature Monitor
The characteristic of semi-conductor LASER changes in temperature. The
life time of LASER decreases with increase in operating temp and the O/P
power also decrease which produce some change in 0/p wave length of
the
light,
to
keep
the
operating
temp
stable
the
Thermo-electric coolers are used in optical fiber transmitters these coolers
control the temp of LASER.
Attenuation
The optical fiber transmitters should produce some standard level of
power and this level should not desired for the receivers, to handle the
J.C.Vijayshree
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receiver I/P power, the attenuator is used in the transmitter to reduce the
O/P level of the transmitter to a safe value for the receivers.
External modulator
The external modulation means modulation of light source by on external
device in order to prevent spreading of wave-length range of light emitted
by LASER.
6.6.3 Optical Fiber Receiver
This is a device that converts the optical signal received through the fiber
into Electrical from for the use of other devices as an I/P signals; the basic
elements of optical receiver either analog or digital are shown below.
Detector
The 1st stage of optical fiber receiver is a detector, which converts the
received signal into an Electrical from.
Amplification Stages
In the amplification stages there are 2, stage of amplifier are used which
amplifies the converted signal, for further processing.
De modulator or Decision CKT
It reproduces the original Electrical signal from modulated incoming
signals.
6.6.4 Merits of Optical Fiber System
1. Using optical fiber the transmission loss is very low.
2. Also the long distance transmission is possivle with fibers with out
the need to ampligy and retransmits the signal along the way.
3. Fiber is lighter and less bulky than equivalent copper cable
4. In fiber optic communication, there is no need of electrical
connection between the sender and receiver.
5. Optical fiber is more reliable than copper cables.
6. Optical fiber can be bending at any signal angle or even in circle.
6.6.5 Demerits of Optical Fiber System
1. The joining of fiber optics cables need greater care because if the
Joining is not correct; a lot of attenuation will produce in high Wave
length.
2. As the fiber optics have no electrical conductivity, there fore
additional Copper cable is not used with optical fiber to provide
power supply to the repeaters.
3. The installation cost is very high as compare to the other types of
T/N lines.
4. The big and base disadvantage of optical fiber is its cost, means its
cost is slightly more expansive than copper cable. However its cast
is falling day by day. When it comes down in price, then the fiber will
be the choice of everyone for network/communication cabling.
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6.7.Block diagram of cellular mobile communication systems

6.7.1 Mobile Network
6.7.2 The GSM System

Global System for Mobile Communications is the standard for mobile
telephone systems in the world. In GSM, the signaling and speech
channels are digital, therefore GSM is considered a 2G (Second
Generation) system. This helps wide-spread implementation of data
communication applications. There are five different cell sizes in a GSM
network These are macro, micro, pico, femto and umbrella cells.
6.7.3 Macro cells
Macro cells are cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast
above average roof top level. Micro cells are cells whose antenna height is
under average roof top level.
6.7.4 Pico cells
Pico cells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few dozen metres.
These are mainly used in indoors applications.
6.7.5 Femto cells
Femto cells are cells designed for use in residential or small business
environments and connect to the service providers network via a
broadband internet connection.
6.7.6 Umbrella cells
Umbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill
in gaps in coverage between those cells.Horizontal radius of the cell varies
depending on the antenna height, antenna gain and propagation
conditions. Maximum distance the GSM supports is 35 kilometers. Most 2G
GSM networks operate in the 900 MHz or 1800 MHz bands while 3G GSM
in the 2100 MHz frequency band.
6.7.7 What happens when we make a call?
1. When we switch on the mobile phone, it tries for an SID on the
Control channel. The Control channel is a special frequency that the
phone and base station use to talk to one another. If the Mobile
J.C.Vijayshree
115
phone finds difficulty to get link with the control channel, it displays
a no service message.
2. If the Mobile phone gets the SID, it compares the SID with the SID
programmed in the phone. If both SID match, the phone identifies
that the cell it is communicating is the part of its home system.
3. The phone also transmits a registration request along with the SID
and the MTSO keeps track of your phones location in a database.
MTSO knows in which cell you are when it wants to ring the phone.
4. The MTSO then gets the signal, it tries to find the phone. The MTSO
looks in its database to find the cell in which the phone is present.
The MTSO then picks a frequency pair to take the call.
5. The MTSO communicates with the Mobile phone over the control
channel to tell it what frequencies to use. Once the Mobile phone
and the tower switch on those frequencies, the call is connected.
6. When the Mobile phone move toward the edge of the cell, the cells
base station will note that the signal strength is diminishing. At the
same time, the base station in the cell in which the phone is moving
will be able to see the phones signal strength increasing.
7. The two base stations coordinate themselves through the MTSO. At
some point, the Mobile phone gets a signal on a control channel and
directs it to change frequencies. This will switch the phone to the
new cell.
6.8. Network model
6.8.1 Computer Networks
Computer networks are bunch of interconnected PC or computers that
facilitate the exchange of data or some other purposeful work. The first
computer network to be designed was the "Advanced Research Projects
Agency Network" (ARPANET) for the United States Department of Defense
in the late 1960s and early 1970s. From then on, numerous new network
technologies have been developed.
Computer networks can be classified into different types based on their
scale of operation.
6.8.2 Personal Area Network
A personal area network, or PAN, is a computer network organized
around an individual person within a single building. This could be inside a
small office or residence. A typical PAN would include one or more
computers, telephones, peripheral devices, video game consoles and
other personal entertainment devices.
If multiple individuals use the same network within a residence, the
network is sometimes referred to as a home area network, or HAN. In a
very typical setup, a residence will have a single wired Internet connection
connected to a modem. This modem then provides both wired and
wireless connections for multiple devices. The network is typically
managed from a single computer but can be accessed from any device.
This type of network provides great flexibility. For example, it allows you
to:
Send a document to the printer in the office upstairs while you are
sitting on the couch with your laptop.
Upload the photo from your cell phone to your desktop computer.
J.C.Vijayshree
116
Watch movies from an online streaming service to your TV.

If this sounds familiar to you, you likely have a PAN in your house without
having called it by its name.
6.8.3 Local Area Network
A local area network, or LAN, consists of a computer network at a
single site, typically an individual office building. A LAN is very useful for
sharing resources, such as data storage and printers. LANs can be built
with relatively inexpensive hardware, such as hubs, network adapters and
Ethernet cables.
The smallest LAN may only use two computers, while larger LANs can
accommodate thousands of computers. A LAN typically relies mostly on
wired connections for increased speed and security, but wireless
connections can also be part of a LAN. High speed and relatively low cost
are the defining characteristics of LANs.
LANs are typically used for single sites where people need to share
resources among themselves but not with the rest of the outside world.
Think of an office building where everybody should be able to access files
on a central server or be able to print a document to one or more central
printers. Those tasks should be easy for everybody working in the same
office, but you would not want somebody just walking outside to be able
to send a document to the printer from their cell phone! If a local area
network, or LAN, is entirely wireless, it is referred to as a wireless local
area network, or WLAN.
6.8.4 Metropolitan Area Network
A metropolitan area network, or MAN, consists of a computer network
across an entire city, college campus or small region. A MAN is larger than
a LAN, which is typically limited to a single building or site. Depending on
the configuration, this type of network can cover an area from several
miles to tens of miles. A MAN is often used to connect several LANs
together to form a bigger network. When this type of network is
specifically designed for a college campus, it is sometimes referred to as a
campus area network, or CAN.
6.8.5 Wide Area Network
A wide area network, or WAN, occupies a very large area, such as an
entire country or the entire world. A WAN can contain multiple smaller
networks, such as LANs or MANs. The Internet is the best-known example
of a public WAN.
WAN, in contrast to a LAN, refers to a wide area network. The name is
exactly what it sounds like: a network that covers an area wider than a
LAN. Beyond that, the definition is less clear. Distances can range from a
network connecting multiple buildings on a corporate or college campus
to satellite links connecting offices in different countries. The most popular
WAN is the one you're using to read this article: the Internet. It's actually a
collection of other networks, including other LANs and WANs - hence, the
name.
WANs can be wired, using fiber-optic cable, for example, or wireless. A
wireless WAN might use microwave or infrared (IR) transmission
technology, or even satellite. Laying fiber may make sense when
connecting a campus but becomes more expensive when connecting
J.C.Vijayshree
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greater distances. To save money, an organization may opt for wireless

technology or lease lines from a third party.
6.9.Circuit and packet switching
6.9.1 Circuit Switching
In circuit switching network dedicated channel has to be established
before the call is made between users. The channel is reserved between
the users till the connection is active. For half duplex communication, one
channel is allocated and for full duplex communication, two channels are
allocated. It is mainly used for voice communication requiring real time
services without any much delay.
As shown in the figure, if user-A wants to use the network; it need to first
ask for the request to obtain the one and then user-A can communicate
with user-C. During the connection phase if user-B tries to
call/communicate with user-D or any other user it will get busy signal from
the network.
6.9.2 Packet Switching
In packet switching network unlike CS network, it is not required to
establish the connection initially. The connection/channel is available to
use by many users. But when capacity or number of users increases then
it will lead to congestion in the network. Packet switched networks are
mainly used for data and voice applications requiring non-real time
scenarios.
As shown in the figure, if user-A wants to send data/information to user-C

and if user-B wants to send data to user-D, it is simultaneously possible.
Here information is padded with header which contains addresses of
source and destination. This header is sniffed by intermediate switching
nodes to determine their route and destination.
In packet switching, station breaks long message into packets. Packets are
sent one at a time to the network. Packets are handled in two ways, viz.
datagram and virtual circuit.
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118
In datagram, each packet is treated independently. Packets can take up

any practical route. Packets may arrive out of order and may go missing.
In virtual circuit, preplanned route is established before any packets are
transmitted. The handshake is established using call request and call
accept messages. Here each packet contains virtual circuit identifier (VCI)
instead of the destination address. In this type, routing decisions for each
packet are not needed.
6.9.3 Comparison between CS vs. PS networks
Packet
Packet
Switching(Virtual
Circuit Switching
Switching(Datagram
Circuit type)
type)
Dedicated path
No Dedicated path
No Dedicated path
Path is established
Route is established Route is established for entire
for
entire
for each packet
conversation
conversation
packet
transmission call setup delay as well as
Call setup delay
delay
packet transmission delay
Overload may block call
Overload may block Overload
increases
setup and increases packet
call setup
packet delay
delay
Fixed bandwidth
Dynamic bandwidth
Dynamic bandwidth
No
overhead
bits overhead bits in each
overhead bits in each packet
after call setup
packet
6.10.Overview of ISDN.
6.10.1 ISDN
ISDN [I*SD'N] n. 1. Integrated Services Digital Network. 2. A digital
telephone service that provides fast, accurate data transmission over
existing copper telephone wiring. 3. The way fast way to go online.
6.10.2 The Basics
ISDN is based on a number of fundamental building blocks. First, there are
two types of ISDN "channels" or communication paths:
B-channel
The Bearer ("B") channel is a 64 kbps channel which can be used for
voice, video, data, or multimedia calls. B-channels can be
aggregated together for even higher bandwidth applications.
D-channel
The Delta ("D") channel can be either a 16 kbps or 64 kbps channel
used primarily for communications (or "signaling") between
switching equipment in the ISDN network and the ISDN equipment
at your site.
6.10.3 Configurations
These ISDN channels are delivered to the user in one of two pre-defined
configurations:
Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
BRI is the ISDN service most people use to connect to the Internet.
An ISDN BRI connection supports two 64 kbps B-channels and one 16 kbps
D-channel over a standard phone line. BRI is often called "2B+D" referring
to its two B-channels and one D-channel. The D-channel on a BRI line can
J.C.Vijayshree
119
even support low-speed (9.6 kbps) X.25 data, however, this is not a very
popular application in the United States.
Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
ISDN PRI service is used primarily by large organizations with
intensive communications needs. An ISDN PRI connection supports 23 64
kbps B-channels and one 64 kbps D-channel (or 23B+D) over a high speed
DS1 (or T-1) circuit. The European PRI configuration is slightly different,
supporting 30B+D.
BRI is the most common ISDN service for Internet access. A single BRI line
can support up to three calls at the same time because it is comprised of
three channels (2B+D). Two voice, fax or data "conversations," and one
packet switched data "conversation" can take place at the same time.
Multiple channels or even multiple BRI lines can be combined into a single
faster connection depending on the ISDN equipment you have. Channels
can be combined as needed for a specific application (a large multimedia
file transfer, for example), then broken down and reassembled into
individual channels for different applications (normal voice or data
transmissions).
6.10.4 Uses
ISDN offers the speed and quality that previously was only available to
people who bought expensive, point-to-point digital leased lines.
Combined with its flexibility as a dial-up service, ISDN has become the
service of choice for many communications applications. Popular ISDN
applications include:
Internet access
Telecommuting/remote access to corporate computing
Video conferencing
Small and home office data networking
6.10.5 ISDN Benefits
Even faster
By combining your two B-channels you have access to up to 128
kbps -- more than four times as fast as a 28.8 kbps modem on a
standard phone line. And ISDN's digital technology assures you the
cleanest connection to the Internet so you won't be slowed down by
re-transmissions because of old analog technology.
More efficient and economical
ISDN brings increased capabilities, reduced costs and improved
productivity to organizations both large and small. When you're
looking for something on the Internet, you can get there faster. You
can be more productive because you aren't waiting as long to get to
that next website or download that large file.
J.C.Vijayshree
120

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T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

T104 BASIC ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

2. Rajendra Prasad , Fundamentals of Electronic Engineering, Cengage

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Voltage is a representation of the electric potential energy per unit charge.

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Current is the same through

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Examples of Liner Circuits and Linear Elements

Examples of NonLinear Circuits and Elements

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

1.2.8 Distributive elements

1.3. Ohms law

By knowing any two values of the Voltage, Current or Resistance

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

1.3.3 To find the Voltage, ( V )

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

When analysing either DC circuits or AC circuits using Kirchoffs Circuit

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Circuit a circuit is a closed loop conducting path in which an

1.4.8 Application of Kirchoffs Circuit Laws

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

which helps to reduce the amount of mathematics required by using

The circuit has 3 branches, 2 nodes (A and B) and 2 independent loops.

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

o Assume two loop currents

We rewrite these as:

around loops abda and bcdb and

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

and then get

from the first two

equations into this equation we get

, in consistent with the

The node-voltage method based on KCL:

each of the remaining

nodes is an unknown to be obtained.

3. Solve the equation system with

equations for the

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

as the only unknown in the

into the equation, we get

Solving this we get

(independent of resistors in series). The

o resistor branches with

where the reciprocal of the resistance

is called the conductance.

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Example 3: Solve the following circuit with

. This circuit has 3 independent loops and 3

Loop current method:

Assume three loop currents

(top) all in clock-wise

(right). Applying KCL to

The voltages are the same as before.

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

3. What is Ohm's Law?

Figure 1 Diagram of the

Example 5: If 0.6A current flows through a resistor shown in

T104 Basic Electrical & Electronics Engineering

Electric circuits often consist of several elements, some combined in