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Supervisor
Dr. Muhammad Ahmad Chaudhary
Professor
Submitted By
Muhammad
08-EE-16
Imtiaz Hussain
08-EE-39
08-EE-46
Supervisor
Dr. Muhammad Ahmad Chaudhary
Professor
Submitted By
Muhammad
08-EE-16
Imtiaz Hussain
08-EE-39
08-EE-46
Undertaking
We certify that project work titled Simulation and Design of Three Phase Energy
Efficient SPWM Based VFD is our own work. No portion of the work presented in
this project has been submitted in support of another award or qualification either at
this institution or elsewhere. Where material has been used from other sources it has
been properly acknowledged / referred.
_______________
Muhammad
08-EE-16
_______________
Imtiaz Hussain
08-EE-39
_______________
Muhammad Ahtisham Asif
08-EE-46
iii
Acknowledgements
We must express our sincere thanks to Mr. Khalid Azizi, Director at Reverse
Engineering & Product Development Rawalpindi, for his enthusiastic response,
earnest co-operation, and timeliness without which this work could not have been
possible. We offer sincerest gratitude to our supervisor, Dr. Muhammad Ahmad
Chaudhary, who extended his valuable assistance whilst allowing us the room to
work in our own way.
Finally, we are thankful to our families and friends for their continuous
encouragement and moral support.
iv
Abstract
Squirrel-cage induction motors are the workhorse of industries for variable speed
applications in a wide power range that covers from fractional watt to megawatts.
However, the torque and speed control of these motors is difficult because of their
non-linear and complex structure. So, there is a need to adjust motors speed in such a
way that enable closer matching of motor output to load and thus results in energy
savings. This can be achieved using variable frequency drive. The complete system
consists of an AC voltage input that is put through a diode bridge rectifier to produce
a DC output which across a shunt capacitor will, in turn, feed the PWM inverter. The
PWM inverter is controlled to produce a desired sinusoidal voltage at a particular
frequency. Simulation is carried out using OrCAD Pspice v10.5 and NI Multisim
v12.0 and in the experimental work a prototype model is built to verify the simulation
results. PIC microcontroller (PIC18f4431) is used to generate the PWM pulses to
drive the 0.5 hp 3-phase Induction Motor.
Table of Contents
Undertaking _______________________________________________________ iii
Acknowledgements ________________________________________________ iv
Abstract ___________________________________________________________ v
Chapter 1 __________________________________________________________ 1
Introduction ________________________________________________________ 1
1.1
Background _____________________________________________________ 1
1.1.1
1.1.2
Cycloconverters ________________________________________________ 1
Variable Frequency Drives ________________________________________ 4
1.2
1.3
Chapter 2 __________________________________________________________ 7
Variable Frequency Drives __________________________________________ 7
2.1
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.1.3
2.1.4
2.1.5
2.1.6
2.1.7
2.1.8
2.1.9
2.1.10
2.1.11
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.2.5
2.2.6
2.2.7
2.2.8
2.3
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.3.3
2.3.4
2.3.5
21
22
23
24
25
27
28
30
35
35
36
36
36
vi
2.4
2.4.1
2.4.2
Chapter 3 _________________________________________________________ 42
Implementation of Project __________________________________________ 42
3.1
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.2
3.3
Transformer ____________________________________________________ 44
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.4
Rectifier ________________________________________________________ 48
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
3.4.4
3.5
49
50
51
52
Filter ___________________________________________________________ 52
3.5.1
3.5.2
3.5.3
3.5.4
3.6
Working _____________________________________________________
Capacitor Input Filter ___________________________________________
Ripple Voltage ________________________________________________
Ripple factor __________________________________________________
53
54
55
56
Regulator _______________________________________________________ 57
3.6.1
3.6.2
3.6.3
3.7
Inverter _________________________________________________________ 61
3.8
IGBTs __________________________________________________________ 62
3.8.1
3.8.2
3.8.3
3.9
IR2130__________________________________________________________ 68
3.9.1
3.9.2
3.10
ADVANTAGES ________________________________________________ 69
Applications __________________________________________________ 69
3.10.1
3.11
3.12
Implementation of Project________________________________________ 75
3.12.1
3.12.2
3.12.3
Chapter 4 _________________________________________________________ 81
vii
4.1.1
4.2
Issues _______________________________________________________ 82
4.2.2
4.2.3
4.2.4
4.3
4.4
4.5
Conclusion ________________________________________________________ 93
Future Recommendations __________________________________________ 94
Appendix _________________________________________________________ 95
A.1
Datasheets _____________________________________________________ 95
A.2
A.2.1
A.2.2
viii
List of Figures
Chapter 1 __________________________________________________________ 1
Introduction _______________________________________________________ 1
Figure1.1
Figure 1.2
Single-phase cycloconverter______________________________________ 2
Cycloconverter waveforms_______________________________________ 3
Chapter 2 __________________________________________________________ 7
Variable Frequency Drives __________________________________________ 7
Figure 2.1
Figure 2.2
Figure 2.3
Figure 2.4
Figure 2.5
Figure 2.6
Figure 2.7
Figure 2.8
Figure 2.9
Figure 2.10
Figure 2.11
Figure 2.12
Figure 2.13
Figure 2.14
Figure 2.15
Figure 2.16
Figure 2.17
Figure 2.18
Figure 2.19
Figure 2.20
Figure 2.21
Figure 2.22
Chapter 3 _________________________________________________________ 42
Implementation of Project _________________________________________ 42
ix
Figure 3.1
Figure 3.2
Figure 3.3
Figure 3.4
Figure 3.5
Figure 3.6
Figure 3.7
Figure 3.8
Figure 3.9
Figure 3.10
Figure 3.11
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13
Figure 3.14
Figure 3.15
Figure 3.16
Figure 3.17
Figure 3.18
Figure 3.19
Figure 3.20
Figure 3.21
Figure 3.22
Figure 3.23
Chapter 4 _________________________________________________________ 81
Simulations and Results ___________________________________________ 81
Figure 4.1
Figure 4.2
Figure 4.3
Figure 4.4
Figure 4.5
Figure 4.6
Figure 4.7
Figure 4.8
Figure 4.9
Figure 4.10
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
Background
Over the last 40 years, a revolution has occurred in the application of electric motors.
The development of solid-state motor drive packages has progressed to the point
where practically any power control problem can be solved by using them. With such
solid-state drives, it is possible to run dc motors from ac power supplies or ac motors
from de power supplies. It is even possible to change ac power at one frequency to ac
power at another frequency.
Furthermore, the costs of solid-state drive systems have decreased dramatically, while
their reliability has increased. The versatility and the relatively low cost of solid-state
controls and drives have resulted in many new applications for ac motors in which
they are doing jobs formerly done by dc machines. DC motors have also gained
flexibility from the application of solid-state drives.[1,2]
1.1.1 Cycloconverters
Before the advent of Variable frequency drives, cycloconverters were used for
converting AC power at one frequency to AC power at another frequency.
Although the details of a cyc1oconverter can become very complex, the basic idea
behind the device is simple. The input to a cyc1oconverter is a three-phase source
which consists of three voltages equal in magnitude and phase-shifted from each other
1
by 120. The desired output voltage is some specified waveform, usually a sinusoid at
a different frequency. The cycloconverter generates its desired output waveform by
selecting the combination of the three input phases which most closely approximates
the desired output voltage at each instant of time.
To understand the operation principles of cycloconverters, let us consider singlephase to single-phase cycloconverter (figure 1.1). This converter consists of back-toback connection of two full-wave rectifier circuits. Figure 1.2 shows the operating
waveforms for this converter with a resistive load.
Figure 1.1,
Consider the operation of the cycloconverter to get one-fourth of the input frequency
at the output. For the first two cycles of Vs, the positive converter operates supplying
current to the load. It rectifies the input voltage; therefore, the load sees 4 positive half
cycles as seen in figure 1.2(b). In the next two cycles, the negative converter operates
supplying current to the load in the reverse direction. The current waveforms are not
shown in the figures because the resistive load current will have the same waveform
as the voltage but only scaled by the resistance. Note that when one of the converters
operates the other one is disabled, so that there is no current circulating between the
two rectifiers.[3,4]
of these motors have done an excellent job in making motors with a very high
efficiency and power factor. Efficiencies of over 90% and power factors of over 80%
are common at full load. Some larger motors have power factors of up to 90% when
fully loaded. However, lightly loaded AC induction motors typically have low
efficiency and low power factor.
1.2
What is VFD
Every machine consists of three parts: the prime mover, the machine system, and the
transmission system. The prime mover is the motor or engine. The transmission
system consists of gears, shafts or pulley etc. The prime mover and the transmission
system together known as drive which keeps the machine working in motion. Thus
electric drive may be defined as a form of equipment, designed to convert electric
energy input into mechanical energy output or drive is an arrangement which keeps
the working machine in motion. It also provides control to the machine.
1.3
Why VFD
automatically control the flow. Hence we can eliminate the need of damper/throttle.
Our pay-back period can be even less than one year.
Nowadays, electric drives are being applied in an increasing number of industries due
to following advantages over mechanical drives:
(1) It is simple in construction and has less maintenance cost.
(2) Its speed control is very easy and smooth.
(3) It can be installed at any desired convenient place this affording more
flexibility in the layout.
(4) It can be remotely controlled.
(5) Being compact it requires less space.
(6) It is neat and clean and is free from smoke or flue gases.
(7) It can be started quickly without any loss of time.
(8) It has comparatively longer life.
Chapter 2
2.1
Induction Motor
One third of the world's electricity consumption is used for running induction motors
driving pumps, fans, compressors, elevators and machinery of various types. The AC
induction motor is a common form of asynchronous motor whose operation depends
on three electromagnetic phenomena:
Motor Action - When an iron rod (or other magnetic material) is suspended in
a magnetic field so that it is free to rotate, it will align itself with the field. If
7
the magnetic field is moving or rotating, the iron rod will move with the
moving field so as to maintain alignment.
Rotating Field - A rotating magnetic field can be created from fixed stator
poles by driving each pole-pair from a different phase of the alternating
current supply.
Transformer Action - The current in the rotor windings is induced from the
current in the stator windings, avoiding the need for a direct connection from
the power source to the rotating windings.
Figure 2.1,
When a current flows in the stator windings a current is induced in the shorted
secondary windings by transformer action. The magnitude of the rotor current will be
proportional to the flux density B in the air gap (and the relative motion, called the
slip, of the rotor with respect to the rotating field).
Many rotor types are used. The most popular AC motors use "squirrel cage" rotors
which are constructed from copper or aluminium bars fixed between conducting end
rings which provide the short circuit path for the currents induced in the bars.
Figure 2.2,
Once current is flowing in the rotor windings, the motor action due to the Lorentz
force on the conductors comes into effect. The reaction between the current flowing in
the rotor conductors and the magnetic flux in the air gap causes the rotor to rotate in
the same direction as the rotating flux as if it was being dragged along by the flux
wave.
T = k1 BI
Where k1 is a constant depending on the number of stator turns, the number of phases
and the configuration of the magnetic circuit.
10
The rotor speed builds up due to the motor action, but as it does so, the relative
motion between the rotating stator field and the rotating rotor conductors is reduced.
This in turn reduces the generator action and thus the current in the rotor conductors
and the torque on the rotor. As the speed of the rotor approaches the speed of the
rotating field, known as the synchronous speed, the torque on the rotor drops to zero.
Thus the speed of an induction motor can never reach the synchronous speed.
2.1.4 Slip
The relative motion between the rotating field and the rotating rotor is called the slip
and is given by:
S = Ns- N
Ns
Where S is the slip, Ns is the synchronous speed in RPM, and N is the rotor speed.
Since the rotor current is proportional to the relative motion between the rotating field
and the rotor speed, the rotor current and hence the torque are both directly
proportional to the slip.
The rotor current is proportional to the rotor resistance. Increasing the rotor resistance
will reduce the current and increase the slip; hence a form of speed and torque control
is possible with wound rotor motors. Increased rotor resistance also has the added
benefit of reducing the input surge current and increasing starting torque on switch on,
but all of these benefits are at the expense of more complex rotor designs and
unreliable slip rings to give access to the rotor windings.
11
2.1.5 Speed
Synchronous speed in RPM is given by:
Ns = 120 (f)
P
Where f is the power line frequency in Hz and P is the number of poles per phase. P
must be an even integer since for every north pole there is a corresponding south pole.
The actual speed of the motor depends on the load it must drive. Increasing the load
on the motor causes it to slow down increasing the slip. The motor speed will settle at
an equilibrium speed when the motor torque equals the load torque. This occurs when
the slip provides just enough current to deliver the required torque.[11,14]
Pole Changing
Early machines were designed with multiple poles to facilitate speed control
by pole changing. By switching in different numbers or combinations of poles
a limited number of fixed speeds could be obtained.
The speed of induction motors can however be varied over a limited range by
varying the rotor resistance as noted in the section on slip but only by using
wound rotor designs negating many of the advantages of the induction motor.
Variable Frequency
Since motor speed depends on the speed of the rotating field, speed control
12
As in most machines, the induction motor is designed to work with the flux
density just below the saturation point over most of its operating range to
achieve optimum efficiency.
B k 2 Vf
Where V is the applied voltage, f is the supply frequency and k2 is a constant
depending on the shape and configuration of the stator poles.
In other words if the flux density is constant, the Volts per Hertz is also a
constant. This is an important relationship and it has the following
consequences.
o For speed control, the supply voltage must increase in step with the
frequency; otherwise the flux in the machine will deviate from the
desired optimum operating point. Practical motor controllers based on
frequency control must therefore have a means of simultaneously
controlling the motor supply voltage. This is known as Volts/Hertz
control.
o Increasing the frequency without increasing the voltage will cause a
reduction of the flux in the magnetic circuit thus reducing the motor's
output torque. The reduced motor torque will tend to increase the slip
13
with respect to the new supply frequency. This in turn causes a greater
current to flow in the stator, increasing the IR volt drop across the
windings as well as the I2R copper losses in the windings. The result is
a major drop in the motor efficiency. Increasing the frequency still
further will ultimately cause the motor to stall.
o Increasing the voltage without increasing the frequency will cause the
material in the magnetic circuit to saturate. Excessive current will flow
giving rise to high heat dissipation due to I2R losses in the windings
and high eddy current losses in the magnetic circuit and ultimately
failure of the motor due to overheating. Increasing the voltage will not
force the motor to exceed the synchronous speed because as it
approaches the synchronous speed the torque drops to zero.[7,8]
Since the induced current in the rotor is proportional to the flux density and the flux
density in turn is proportional to the line voltage, the torque, which depends on the
product of the flux density and the rotor current, is proportional to the square of the
line voltage V.
14
Regenerative braking
Dynamic Braking
15
2.1.8 Starting
Three phase induction motors and some synchronous motors are not self starting but
design modifications such as auxiliary or "damper" windings on the rotor are
incorporated to overcome this problem.
Usually an induction motor draws 5 to 7 times its rated current during starting before
the speed builds up and the current is modified by the back EMF. In wound rotor
motors the starting current can be limited by increasing the resistance in series with
the rotor windings.
In squirrel cage designs, electronic control systems are used to control the current to
prevent damage to the motor or to its power supply.
Even with current control the motor can still overheat because, although the current
can be limited, the speed build up is slower and the inrush current, though reduced, is
maintained for a longer period.
16
Various methods of power factor correction are used to reduce the current lag in order
to avoid losses due to poor power factor. The simplest is to connect a capacitor of
suitable size across the motor terminals. Since the current through a capacitor leads
the voltage, the effect of the capacitor is to counter-balance the inductive element in
the motor canceling out the current lag.
2.1.10
Characteristics
One of the major advantages of the induction motor is that it does not need a
commutator. Induction motors are therefore simple, robust, reliable, maintenance free
and relatively low cost. They are normally constant speed devices whose speed is
proportional to the mains frequency. Variable speed motors are also possible by using
motor controllers which provide a variable frequency output.
Figure 2.3,
The curve is nearly linear between no-load and full load. In this range, the
rotor resistance is much greater than the reactance, so the rotor current, torque
increase linearly with the slip.
The starting torque of the motor is slightly higher than its full-load torque, so
the motor will start carrying any load it can supply at full load.
The expression for the synchronous speed indicates that by changing the stator
frequency it can be changed. This can be achieved by using power electronic circuits
called inverters which convert dc to ac of desired frequency. Power electronic control
achieves smooth variation of voltage and frequency of the ac output. This when fed to
the machine is capable of running at a controlled speed. However, consider the
equation for the induced emf in the induction machine.
V = 4.44 N m f
where N is the number of the turns per phase, m is the peak flux in the air gap and f
is the frequency. Note that in order to reduce the speed, frequency has to be reduced.
If the frequency is reduced while the voltage is kept constant, thereby requiring the
amplitude of induced emf to remain the same, flux has to increase. This is not
advisable since the machine likely to enter deep saturation. If this is to be avoided,
then flux level must be maintained constant which implies that voltage must be
reduced along with frequency. The ratio is held constant in order to maintain the flux
level for maximum torque capability.[9-10]
The speed torque characteristics at any frequency may be estimated. There is one
curve for every excitation frequency considered corresponding to every value of
18
synchronous speed. The curves are shown in figure 2.4. It may be seen that the
maximum torque remains constant.
Figure 2.4,
2.1.11
Applications
Three phase induction motors are used wherever the application depends on AC
power from the national grid. Because they don't need commutators they are
particularly suitable for high power applications.
They are available with power handling capacities ranging from a few Watts to more
than 10 Megawatts.
They are mainly used for heavy industrial applications and for machine tools. The
availability of solid state inverters in recent years means that induction motors can
19
now be run from a DC source. They are now finding use in automotive applications
for electric and hybrid electric vehicles. Induction motors are seen as more rugged for
these applications than permanent magnet motors which are vulnerable to possible
degradation or demagnetization of the magnets due to over-temperature or accidental
over-current at power levels over about 5 kW.[11]
2.2
Any variable speed electrical drive system comprises of the following components:
The task of a variable speed electrical drive is to convert the electrical power supplied
by the mains into mechanical power with minimum loss. To achieve an optimum
technological process, the drive must be variable in speed. This will steep-lessly
adjust the speed of the driven machine. This is ensured by the low loss control using
solid state technology in electronic controllers. The controllers are connected to mains
supply and the electrical machine as shown in figure 2.5.
20
When the frequency applied to an induction motor is reduced, the applied voltage
must also be reduced to limit the current drawn by the motor at reduced frequencies.
The inductive reactance of an AC magnetic circuit is directly proportional to the
frequency according to the formula
XL = 2 f L
(Where:
Henrys.)
Variable speed AC drives will maintain a constant volts/hertz relationship from 0-50
Hertz. At low frequencies the voltage will be low, as the frequency increases the
voltage will increase. (Note: this ratio may be varied somewhat to alter the motor
performance characteristics such a providing a low-end boost to improve starting
torque.)
21
Depending on the type of AC drive, the microprocessor control adjusts the output
voltage waveform, by one of several methods, to simultaneously change the voltage
and frequency to maintain the constant volts/hertz ratio throughout the 0-50 Hz range.
On most AC variable speed drives the voltage is held constant above the 50 hertz
frequency. [7]
The V/Hz drive is a drive where the voltage applied to the motor is directly related to
the frequency. In the ideal motor, the magnetic circuit would be purely inductive and
keeping a constant V/Hz ratio would maintain a constant flux in the iron. The real
motor has resistance in series with the magnetizing inductance. This has no bearing on
the operation at line frequency, however as the frequency of the drive is reduced, the
resistance begins to become significant relative to the inductive reactance. This causes
the flux to reduce at very low frequencies and so it is difficult to get sufficient torque
at low speeds. For many applications, this low torque is not a problem, but there are
some that do need a high torque from a low speed. Early drives were designed with a
voltage boost to provide a measure of torque increase at low speed.
Vector drives have a mathematical model of the drive in software and by measuring
the current vectors in relation to the applied voltage, they are able to maintain a
constant field at all frequencies below the line frequency. These drives need to be
tuned to the motor and typically include a self tuning algorithm that is enabled at
22
commissioning to determine the component values for the mathematical model. If the
motor is replaced, the drive needs to be re-tuned to learn the characteristics of the new
motors.
1. Closed loop
2. Open loop
3. Direct torque control
The closed loop controllers were the first vector controllers and are still the best option
for accurate control at zero speed. The open loop vector and DTC are suitable for
applications requiring good control above 3 5 Hz.
Quite a number of modern drives can operate as V/Hz, open loop vector or closed
loop vector just by changing a parameter. Closed loop requires a shaft encoder to give
accurate speed feedback.
The major differentiation between modern VSDs are the enclosure, auxiliary
functionality, programming and user interface. Low cost drives are often very poorly
filtered and can create major RFI (EMC) issues. Some drives include no filtering and
must be installed with external filters, and others include all the filtering required. [1]
23
the diodes are considered to be ideal, that is, they have zero forward voltage drop and
reverse recovery time. This assumption is generally valid for the case of diode
rectifiers that use the mains, a low-frequency source, as the input, and when the
forward voltage drop is small compared with the peak voltage of the mains.
Furthermore, it is assumed that the load is purely resistive such that load voltage and
load current have similar waveforms.[4]
24
Figure 2.7, Current and voltage waveform of Single phase half wave rectification
By observing the voltage waveform of diode D it is clear that the peak inverse voltage
(PIV) of diode D is equal to Vm during the negative half-cycle of the transformer
secondary voltage. Hence the Peak Repetitive Reverse Voltage (VRRM) rating of diode
D must be chosen to be higher than Vm to avoid reverse breakdown. In the positive
half-cycle of the transformer secondary voltage, diode D has a forward current which
is equal to the load current and, therefore, the Peak Repetitive Forward Current (IFRM)
rating of diode D must be chosen to be higher than the peak load current. In addition,
the transformer has to carry a dc current that may result in a dc saturation problem of
the transformer core.[3-6]
25
the transformer, acts as a half-wave rectifier. The outputs of the two half-wave
rectifiers are combined to produce full-wave rectification in the load.
26
As with the full-wave rectifier with center-tapped transformer, the Peak Repetitive
Forward Current (IFRM) rating of the employed diodes must be chosen to be higher
than the peak load current Vm=R. However, the peak inverse voltage (PIV) of the
diodes is reduced from 2Vm to Vm during their blocking state.
Figure 2.9, Voltage and current waveform of full wave center tapped transformer
27
Figure 2.11, Current and voltage waveforms of full wave bridge rectifier
28
29
Figure 2.13,
The output switches operate at a high frequency, typically between 3kHz and 16kHz,
and are controlled to produce a PWM output waveform which causes a sinusoidal
current to flow in the motor. There are many different PWM schemes and algorithms
with different advantages. [1]
2.2.8.1
Inverter Principle
Figure 2.14,
The figure 2.15 shows the switching sequence of the output transistors, SCRs, or
GTOs used in a VFD to produce a three-phase AC waveform. Since each these
devices are functioning as solid-state switches, the circuit operation can be easily
visualized by representing these devices as open or closed mechanical switches.
Switches closed to the positive bus are shown in red, switches closed to the negative
bus are shown in black, and open switches are shown in gray. When a particular
31
winding is connected to the same bus potential (either positive or negative) the
voltage across that winding will be zero. If a winding is connected so that the positive
voltage is connected to the first letter of the winding label (for example the A in AB)
the voltage produced across that winding is positive. If a winding is connected so that
the positive voltage is connected to the second letter of the winding label (for example
B in AB) the current flow reverses and the voltage produced across that winding will
be of a negative polarity.
Below each diagram is a table listing of the number of electrical degrees through
which the switches operate and the resultant phase voltage produced.
Note: On a six-step drive the output devices will be closed throughout the listed
operating range; on a PWM drive, pulses will be produced through this range.
32
Figure 2.15,
33
2.3
Figure 2.16,
this purpose. The switch is chosen on the basis of frequency at which PWM should be
generated, performance required and cost of the switch. These switching devices can
be;
MOSFET
IGBT
2.3.3 Advantages
Low Power Loss in switching devices
When a switch is off there is practically no current, and when it is on, there is
almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power loss, being the product of voltage and
current, is thus in both cases close to zero.
Voltage Regulation
PWM is used in switch mode power supplies and voltage regulators. The
required voltage is achieved by changing the duty cycle. Switching noise is removed
with the help of inductor and capacitors.
36
Power Control
The power to a circuit can also be controlled using pulse width modulation.
High frequency PWM power control systems are easily realizable with semiconductor
switches. As explained above, almost no power is dissipated by the switch in either on
or off state. However, during the transitions between on and off states, both voltage
and current are non-zero and thus power is dissipated in the switches. By quickly
changing the state between fully on and fully off (typically less than 100
nanoseconds), the power dissipation in the switches can be quite low compared to the
power being delivered to the load.
Telecommunications
Digital data transmission can be sent very easily by means of PWM where
90% duty cycle corresponds to logic 1 while 10% duty cycle corresponds to logic 0
2.4
37
To generate the signal, triangle wave as a carrier signal is compared with the
sinusoidal wave, whose frequency is the desired frequency.
In the following figures comparison of reference sinusoidal signal of 50Hz is
shown with triangular carrier signal. The resulting pulses are shown below and it can
be seen that there pulse width varies in sinusoidal fashion.
38
Ac
Ar
The modulation index should be less than 1 otherwise there will be areas
where there will be no intersection of carrier and reference signal. Some time slight
over modulation is also allowed to achieve higher voltage but it will make the
spectrum worse. [2-4]
39
Figure 2.22,
Now the effect of over modulation can be easily seen from figure 2.21 and 2.22. Full
voltage is applied in the portion where there is no intersection of carrier wave with
reference wave.
2.4.2
Advantages of SPWM
The output voltage control is easier with PWM than other schemes and can be
achieved without any additional components.
The entire control circuit can be digitized which reduces the susceptibility of
the circuit to interference.
By the use of SPWM the frequency of motors can easily be changed hence
their speed while torque remain constant. [4-7]
41
Chapter 3
Implementation of Project
In order to understand VFD, a review of some of the concepts that apply to inverters,
and a description of some of the components that are a part of most Inverters are
given in the following sections.
3.1
42
3.1.2 Inverter
This section takes the DC voltage from the intermediate section and, with the help of
the control section, fires each set of (transistors) to the three terminals of the motor. In
three phase drive hex bridge along with its related circuitry (like gate driver IC etc) is
used for this purpose.
3.2
Power Supply
During the design of variable frequency drive different dc voltages are required at
different places.
Gate pulses of 15V dc to turn on and turn off switching devices (IGBT).
43
We designed power supply to achieve these voltages for the proper operation of drive.
Most of the power supplies are designed to convert high voltage AC mains electricity
to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices. A power
supply can be broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function.
A typical block diagram of a 5V DC supply is:
Figure 3.1,
3.3
Transformer
As shown in above block diagram the first component of power supply is transformer
that converts AC electricity from one voltage to another with little loss of power.
Transformers work only with AC and this is one of the reasons why mains electricity
is AC.
The input coil is called the primary and the output coil is called the secondary. There
is no electrical connection between the two coils. Instead they are linked by an
alternating magnetic field created in the soft-iron core of the transformer. The two
lines in the middle of the circuit symbol represent the core.
Transformers waste very little power so the power out is (almost) equal to the power
in. Note that as voltage is stepped down current is stepped up.
The ratio of the number of turns on each coil, called the turns ratio, determines the
ratio of the voltages. A step-down transformer has a large number of turns on its
primary (input) coil which is connected to the high voltage mains supply, and a small
number of turns on its secondary (output) coil to give a low output voltage.
3.3.2.1
3.3.2.2
where the frequency will depend on the particular countrys specifications (either 60
or 50 Hz), the standard value for the flux density of normal steel stampings may be
taken as 1 Weber/sq.m, for ordinary steel material the value is 1.3 Weber/sq.m.
3.3.2.3
Basically three important parameters needs to be figured out while calculating the
primary winding of a transformer, they are as follows:
a. Current through the primary winding.
b. Number of turns of the primary winding.
c. Area of the primary winding.
3.3.2.4
(The average value for the efficiency of any transformer may be presumed to be 0.9 as
a standard figure).
Number of Turns = TPV Primary Volts
Primary Winding Area = Number of Turns / Turns per Sq. cm (from the table A given
in appendix. Reading Table A is easy just find out the relevant figures (wire SWG
and Turns per sq.cm.) by tallying them with the closest matching value of your
selected primary current.
3.3.2.5
As explained above, with the help of Table A we should be able to find the SWG of
the wire to be used for the secondary winding and the TPV simply by matching them
with the selected secondary current.
The Number of turns for the secondary winding is also calculated as explained for the
primary winding, however considering high loading conditions of this winding, 4 %
extra turns is preferably added to the overall number of turns. Therefore the formula
becomes:
Secondary Number of Turns = 1.04 (TPV secondary voltage),
Also secondary winding area = Secondary Turns / Turns per sq. cm. (from table A).
3.3.2.6
The core size of the steel stampings to be used may be easily found from Table B
(given in appendix) by suitably matching the relevant information with total winding
area of the transformer.
The Total Winding Area thus needs to be calculated first, its as follows:
47
Total Winding Area = (Primary Winding Area + Total Secondary Winding Area)
Space for external Insulation.
The third parameter i.e. the space for the insulation/former etc. may be taken
approximately 25% to 35% of the sum of the first two parameters. Therefore, the
above formula becomes:
Normally, a core having a square central pillar is preferred and used other factors
involved are also appropriately illustrated in the adjoining figure and calculated as
follows:
Gross Core Area = Core Area from Table B / 0.9 (sq.cm.)
Tongue Width = Gross Core Area (cm)
After calculating the Tongue Width, it may be used as a reference value and matched
appropriately in Table B to acquire the actual CORE TYPE.
Stack Height = Gross Core Area / Tongue Width.
3.4
Rectifier
After transforming the voltage to the desired level the next step is rectification of AC
voltage into DC voltage. There are many types of rectifiers such as half wave rectifier,
Full wave center tapped rectifier, Full wave Bridge rectifier, Three phase half wave
rectifier, three phase full wave rectifier.
48
We used full wave bridge rectifier in our project so its construction and working is
discussed below in detail.
Figure 3.2,
The bridge rectifier uses four diodes connected as shown in figure 3.2. When the input
cycle is positive as in figure 3.3(a), diodes D1 and D2 are forward-biased and conduct
current in the direction shown. A voltage is developed across RL that looks like the
positive half of the input cycle. During this time, diodes D3 and D4 are reverse-biased.
When the input cycle is negative as in Figure 3.3(b), diodes D3 and D4 are forwardbiased and conduct current in the same direction through RL as during the positive
half- cycle. During the negative half-cycle, Dl and D2 are reverse-biased. A full-wave
rectified output voltage appears across RL as a result of this action. [4]
49
Vpout = Vpsec
50
As we can see in figure 3.4(b), two diodes are always in series with the load resistor
during both the positive and negative half-cycles. If these diode drops are taken into
account, the output voltage is
Figure 3.4,
51
PIV = Vpout
If the diode drops of the forward-biased diodes are included as shown in figure 3.5(b),
the peak inverse voltage across each reverse-biased diode in terms of Vpout is
PIV=Vpout + 1.4V
Figure 3.5,
3.5
Filter
The third step is smoothing of DC and this is achieved using Filter. The working of a
filter is described below. [3]
52
Figure 3.6,
3.5.1 Working
In most power supply applications, the standard 50 Hz ac power line voltage must be
converted to an approximately constant dc voltage. The 50 Hz pulsating dc output of a
half wave rectifier or the 100 Hz pulsating output of a full-wave rectifier must be
filtered to reduce the large voltage variations. Figure 3.7 illustrates the filtering
concept showing a nearly smooth dc output voltage from the filter. The small amount
of fluctuation in the filter output voltage is called ripple.
Figure 3.7,
Figure 3.8,
During the positive first quarter-cycle of the input, the diode is forward-biased,
allowing the capacitor to charge to within 0.7 V of the input peak, as illustrated in
figure 3.8(a). When the input begins to decrease below its peak, as shown in figure
3.8(b), the capacitor retains its charge and the diode becomes reverse-biased because
the cathode is more positive than the anode. During the remaining part of the cycle,
the capacitor can discharge only through the load resistance at a rate determined by
the R-L-C time constant, which is normally long compared to the period of the input.
The larger the time constant, the less the capacitor will discharge. During the first
quarter of the next cycle, as illustrated in figure 3.8(c), the diode will again become
forward-biased when the input voltage exceeds the capacitor voltage by
approximately 0.7 V. [4]
R = Vrpp / Vdc
where Vrpp is the peak-to-peak ripple voltage and Vdc is the dc (average) value of the
filter's output voltage, as illustrated in figure.
Figure 3.9,
The lower the ripple factor, the better the filter. The ripple factor can be lowered by
increasing the value of the filter capacitor or increasing the load resistance.
For a full-wave rectifier with a capacitor-input filter, approximations for the peak-topeak ripple voltage, Vrpp and the dc value of the filter output voltage, Vdc, are given
in the following expressions. The variable Vprect is the unfiltered peak rectified
voltage.
56
3.6
Regulator
The final step in designing of power supply is regulation of DC voltage. This purpose
is achieved in smaller power supply as 5V and 15V in our case using electronic
regulators such as LM7805 and LM7815. This group of regulators is called LM78XX
regulators.
While in case of high voltage power supplies as 155V DC power supply in our case
zener diode may be used for regulation purpose.
The LM78XX gives positive voltage while LM79XX gives negative voltage both are
discussed below.
57
response. The input capacitor is used to prevent unwanted oscillations when the
regulator is at some distance from the power supply filter such that the line has a
significant inductance. The 78XX series can produce output currents up to in excess
of 1A when used with an adequate heat sink. The input voltage must be at least 2V
above the output voltage in order to maintain regulation. The circuits have internal
thermal overload protection and short circuit current-limiting features. Thermal
overload occurs when the internal power dissipation becomes excessive and the
temperature of the device exceeds a certain value. Almost all applications of
regulators require that the device be secured to a heat sink to prevent thermal
overload. [3-6]
58
If an application requires more than the maximum current that the regulator can
deliver, an external pass transistor Qext can be used. Figure 3.11 illustrates a threeterminal regulator with an external pass transistor for handling currents in excess of
the output current capability of the basic regulator.
Figure 3.11,
The value of the external current-sensing resistor, Rext determines the value of current
at which Qext begins to conduct because it sets the base-to-emitter voltage of the
transistor. As long as the Current is less than the value set by Rext, the transistor Qext is
off, and the regulator operates normally. This is because the voltage drop across R ext
is less than the 0.7 V base-to-emitter voltage required to turn on Qext. Rext is
determined by the following formula, where Imax is the highest current that the voltage
regulator is to handle internally.
59
When the current is sufficient to produce at least a 0.7V drop across Rext the external
pass transistor Qext turns on and conducts any current in excess of Imax. Qext will
conduct more or less, depending on the load requirements. For example, if the total
load current is 3A and Imax was selected to be 1A, the external pass transistor will
conduct 2A, which is the excess over the internal voltage regulator current Imax.
The external pass transistor is typically a power transistor with a heat sink that must
be capable of handling a maximum power of
Pext = Iext (Vin - Vout)
3.6.3.2
Current limiting
A drawback of the circuit is that the external transistor is not protected from excessive
current, such as would result from a shorted output. An additional current limiting
circuit (Qlim and Rlim) can be added to protect Qext from excessive current and possible
burn out.
Figure 3.12,
3.7
Inverter
Inverter is the main part of variable frequency drive. As stated earlier it consists of
hex bridge along with related circuitry. Hex bridge consists of six switches arranged
in three legs of inverter as shown below.
Q1
IRG4BC30UD/TO
Q2
IRG4BC30UD/TO
Q4
IRG4BC30UD/TO
Q5
IRG4BC30UD/TO
Figure 3.13,
Q3
IRG4BC30UD/TO
Q6
IRG4BC30UD/TO
These switches should be on and off at a very high speed in variable frequency drive
that is why electronic switches like MOSFETs and IGBTs are used. We used
IGBTs because of its suitability for many applications in power electronics, such as
in Pulse Width Modulated (PWM), servo and three-phase drives requiring high
dynamic range control and low noise. Now the IGBTs and its comparison with
MOSFETs will be discussed in detail.
61
3.8
IGBTs
The Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT) is a minority-carrier device with high
input impedance and large bipolar current-carrying capability. Many designers view
IGBT as a device with MOS input characteristics and bipolar output characteristic that
is a voltage-controlled bipolar device. To make use of the advantages of both Power
MOSFET and BJT, the IGBT has been introduced. Its a functional integration of
Power MOSFET and BJT devices in monolithic form. It combines the best attributes
of both to achieve optimal device characteristics.
The IGBT is suitable for many applications in power electronics, such as in Pulse
Width Modulated (PWM) servo and three-phase drives requiring high dynamic range
control and low noise. It also can be used in Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS),
Switched-Mode Power Supplies (SMPS), and other power circuits requiring high
switch repetition rates. IGBT improves dynamic performance and efficiency and
reduced the level of audible noise. It is equally suitable in resonant-mode converter
circuits. Optimized IGBT is available for both low conduction loss and low switching
loss.
The main advantages of IGBT over a Power MOSFET and a BJT are:
It has a very low on-state voltage drop due to conductivity modulation and has
superior on-state current density. So smaller chip size is possible and the cost
can be reduced.
Low driving power and a simple drive circuit due to the input MOS gate
structure. It can be easily controlled as compared to current controlled devices
(thyristor, BJT) in high voltage and high current applications.
62
63
Figure 3.14,
Structure of IGBT
Some IGBTs, manufactured without the N+ buffer layer, are called non-punch
through (NPT) IGBTs whereas those with this layer are called punch-through (PT)
IGBTs. The presence of this buffer layer can significantly improve the performance of
the device if the doping level and thickness of this layer are chosen appropriately.
Despite physical similarities, the operation of an IGBT is closer to that of a power
BJT than a power MOSFET. It is due to the P+ drain layer (injecting layer) which is
responsible for the minority carrier injection into the N--drift region and the resulting
conductivity modulation.
Based on the structure, a simple equivalent circuit model of an IGBT can be drawn as
shown in figure 3.15.
64
Figure 3.15,
It contains MOSFET, JFET, NPN and PNP transistors. The collector of the PNP is
connected to the base of the NPN and the collector of the NPN is connected to the
base of the PNP through the JFET. The NPN and PNP transistors represent the
parasitic thyristor which constitutes a regenerative feedback loop. The resistor RB
represents the shorting of the base-emitter of the NPN transistor to ensure that the
thyristor does not latch up,
which
the constriction of current between any two neighboring IGBT cells. It supports most
of the voltage and allows the MOSFET to be a low voltage type and consequently
have a low RDS (on) value. A circuit symbol for the IGBT is shown in Figure below.
It has three terminals called Collector (C), Gate (G) and Emitter (E). [1-4]
Figure 3.16,
Symbol of IGBT
65
Figure 3.17,
A distinguishing feature of the characteristics is the 0.7V offset from the origin. The
entire family of curves is translated from the origin by this voltage magnitude. It may
be recalled that with a P+ collector, an extra P-N junction has been incorporated in the
IGBT structure. This P-N junction makes its function fundamentally different from
the power MOSFET.
current due to the stored charge in the N--drift region. The tail current increases the
turnoff loss and requires an increase in the dead time between the conduction of two
devices in a half-bridge circuit. The figures 3.18 and 3.19 shows a test circuit for
switching characteristics and the corresponding current and voltage turn-on and turnoff waveforms.
Figure 3.18,
Figure 3.19,
The turn-off speed of an IGBT is limited by the lifetime of the stored charge or
minority carriers in the N--drift region which is the base of the parasitic PNP
transistor. The base is not accessible physically thus the external means cannot be
applied to sweep out the stored charge from the N--drift region to improve the
switching time. The only way the stored charge can be removed is by recombination
within the IGBT. Traditional lifetime killing techniques or an N+ buffer layer to
collect the minority charges at turn-off are commonly used to speed-up recombination
time.
The turn-on energy Eon is defined as the integral of IC. VCE within the limit of 10% ICE
rise to 90% VCE fall. The amount of turn on energy depends on the reverse recovery
behavior of the free-wheeling diode, so special attention must be paid if there is a
free-wheeling diode within the package of the IGBT (Co-Pack).
The turn-off energy Eoff is defined as the integral of IC. VCE within the limit of 10%
VCE rise to 90% IC fall. Eoff plays the major part of total switching losses in IGBT.
3.9
IR2130
To operate hex bridge in proper manner additional circuitry like gate driver IC is
required. We used IR2130 gate driver IC for this purpose. IR2130 MOSFET and
IGBT gate driver IC is the simplest, smallest and low cost solution to drive IGBTs up
to 600V in applications up to 12kW, and can save over 30% in part count in a 50%
smaller PCB area compared to a discrete opto-coupler or transformer based solution.
With the addition of few external components, IR gate driver ICs provide full driver
68
capability with extremely fast switching speeds, designed-in ruggedness and lowpower dissipation.
IR2130 generate the current and voltage necessary to turn MOSFETs or IGBTs on
and off from the logic output of a DSP, micro-controller or other logic device. The
input is typically a 3.3 volt logic-level signal. All IR gate driver ICs are CMOS
compatible, and most are TTL compatible. Output currents are up to 2A.
3.9.1 ADVANTAGES
3.9.2 Applications
Motor Drive
Lighting Ballast
Automotive
69
3.9.2.1
IR Gate Driver ICs are specifically designed with motor drive applications in mind.
The newest soft-turn-on limits voltage and current spike and reduce EMI. In addition,
they have up to 50V/ns dV/dt immunity and are tolerant to negative voltage transient.
The under-voltage lock-out available for most drivers prevents shoot-through currents
and device failures during power-up and power-down without any additional
circuitry. The output drivers feature a high pulse current buffer stage designed for
minimum driver cross-conduction.
Noise immunity is important for the high-side position which has a floating voltage
and is susceptible to high noise levels, particularly in motor drive applications. Noise
immunity ensures that the MOSFET or IGBT doesn't turn on accidentally. Noise
immunity is obtained by using Schmitt-triggered input with pull-down. Additional
noise immunity is obtained with separate logic and ground pins in some ICs, such as
the 600V ICs in 14-pin packages.
3.9.2.2
IR Gate Drive ICs have ten times better delay matching performance than optocoupler-based solutions. Delay matching between the low-side and high-side driver is
typically within 50ns (and as low as 10ns for some specialty products), allowing
complete dead-time control for better speed range and torque control in motor drive
applications. Fast switching also reduces switching power losses and allows
leveraging the full benefits of the fastest IGBTs available on the market today for
better torque control over a wider speed range.
70
3.10.1
PIC 18f4431 has architecture which is very similar to rest of micro controllers of
PIC18f series. Here we will discuss only those registers which are very closely related
to Power control PWM generation.
Figure 3.20,
As evident from figure 3.20 it is a 40 pin IC. Most of the pins are multiplexed and are
capable of performing different functions. There function depends upon the
configuration of registers. For example by configuration of ADCON register the pins
of port A and port E can be used as analog inputs. While at other configuration they
can be used as digital I/O pins.
Dead Time Control function is very useful because otherwise a lot of circuitry will be
required to generate dead time to avoid short circuit in the inverter.
72
There are also 14 registers that are configured as seven register pairs of 16 bits. These
are used for the configuration values of specific features. They are;
PWM Time Base Registers (PTMRH and PTMRL)
PWM Time Base Period Registers (PTPERH and PTPERL)
PWM Special Event Trigger Compare Registers (SEVTCMPH and
SEVTCMPL)
PWM Duty Cycle # 0 Registers (PDC0H and PDC0L)
PWM Duty Cycle # 1 Registers (PDC1H and PDC1L)
PWM Duty Cycle #2 Registers (PDC2H and PDC2L)
PWM Duty Cycle #3 Registers (PDC3H and PDC3L)
Above eight registers are used to set the duty cycle of 4 PWM channels with
complementary out puts.
Apart from the PWM generation the microcontroller was used for LCD and Serial
port interface.
73
But in our project we interfaced the controller using 4-bit mode. It uses only 4 data
lines. In this mode the 8-bit ASCII data is divided into 2 parts which are sent
sequentially through data lines DB4 DB7 with its own data strobe through the E
line. The idea of 4-bit communication is to save as much pins that used to interface
with LCD. The 4-bit communication is a bit slower when compared to 8-bit. The
speed difference is only minimal, as LCDs are slow speed devices the tiny speed
difference between these two modes is not significant.
74
75
Figure 3.21,
76
3.12.2
After successfully completing the simulation of single phase variable frequency drive,
we extended our work towards the three phase variable frequency drive. The block
diagram of this scheme explaining its methodology of implementation is shown in
figure. The brief explanation of this scheme is that three phase sinusoidal waveforms
are compared with variable frequency reference triangular waveform through a
comparator. Thus SPWM signals are generated.
Each of the comparator has two outputs, one non-inverted through the multiplier
circuit and one inverted through the inverter. Now how this scheme will work for
floating ground issue? The non-inverted pulse will be given at 170V i.e. 15V plus the
DC input of the inverter, to the upper three IGBTs of the inverter. While the inverted
pulses will drive the gates of IGBTs present on the lower side of the inverter.
77
Comparator
3
Comparator
2
Comparator
1
155 VDC
78
3.12.3
The scheme of figure 3.23 is the final scheme of the project. This scheme consists of
three transformers. First transformer steps down 220V (rms) to 18V (rms). Then this
18V will serve as the input for the two regulated power supplies. 5V regulated power
supply for PIC microcontroller and 15V for gate driver IC so that it can convert the
5V SPWM pulses generated from the microcontroller to 15V pulses in order to give to
the gates of the IGBTs.
Another isolated power supply is designed especially for serial port. The reason for
the isolation of this supply is to save our computer from any electrical mishap. So,
second transformer serves as the input for this power supply.
Now as the final stage of this project is DC to AC inverter. To supply 110V rms
motor we require 150V dc. So another DC of 150V is required and this is addressed
by 220V rms to 110V rms transformer.
The brief functions of the components are:
1.
2.
3.
Driver IC will convert the 5V SPWM pulses into 15V pulses plus it will also
take the issues of floating ground & dead time into account automatically.
4.
Serial port will handle the two way communication between the computer &
the PIC microcontroller.
79
Figure 3.23,
Three Phase SPWM based VFD block diagram Using PIC 18f4431
80
Chapter 4
We started our work with simulation of single phase inverter using OrCAD Pspice.
The methodology was to compare sinusoidal wave form with triangular waveform to
get sinusoidal PWM. The triangular waveform was generated using op amps and
combination of resistors and capacitors as shown in figures 4.1 and 4.2.
Figure 4.1,
Figure 4.2,
4.1.1 Issues
First problem encountered in the simulation of digital gates using OrCAD Pspice was
that the simulation of digital circuits was not according to scale. Only pulses are
shown in the diagram without any scale of voltage. The output pulses of AND gates
and NOT gates are shown in figure 4.3, It is evident that they are not according to
scale.
Figure 4.3,
Output of AND and NOT gate using OrCAD Pspice (not to scale)
Secondly, the opto-coupler or gate driver IC (used to remove the issue of floating
ground) package was not available in Orcad.
So we used multiplier blocks in place of the driver IC before the H-bridge. Moreover
the problem of digital logic gates was also taken account by these blocks.
The complete single phase inverter circuit with simulation results is shown in figures
4.4 and 4.5.
82
12
12
V4
V3
R1
1k
V1
15Vdc
V2
15Vdc
R3
V+ 5
OS2
OUT
- 4 OS1
V-
U3 7
1meg
2
LM741
C2
.001u
R6
47k
2
LM741
U2 7
+
V+ 5
OS2
OUT
- 4 OS1
V-
100n
C1
1k
R2
R4
100k
R5
10k
VOFF = 0
VAMPL = 8
FREQ = 50
VOFF = 0
VAMPL = 8
FREQ = 50
V5
R10
R7
1k
2
LM741
U1 7
+
U4 7
+
V+ 5
OS2
OUT
U5 7
+
6
1
V33
1.5
- 4 OS1
V-
OUT
V+ 5
OS2
- 4 OS1
V-
OUT
V+ 5
OS2
- 4 OS1
V-
LM741
2
LM741
R14
2
LM741
U6 7
+
V34
15
V+ 5
OS2
OUT
V37
15
- 4 OS1
V-
15.67
15.67
2
LM741
V10
V36
1.5
V+ 5
OS2
V11
U7 7
+
OUT
- 4 OS1
V-
M6
V9
220
M5
IRF740
R13
IRF740
M3
IRF740
M4
50
IRF740
V-
V+
83
R8
1k
1k
R9
1k
V6
VOFF = 0
VAMPL = 1
FREQ = 50
V32
1k
0
R15
1k
Figure 4.4,
Figure 4.5,
4.2
We extended this single phase inverter circuit simulation towards three phase inverter.
We did our simulation in the OrCAD Pspice first but shifted to the MULTISIM 12.0
which is another simulation package available at the NI website.
The reasons behind our shifting were:
1-
2-
84
Figure 4.6,
85
V7
7 Vpk
50 Hz
240
V1
7 Vpk
50 Hz
0
V2
7 Vpk
50 Hz
120
R3
1.0k
R13
1.0k
R1
1.0k
R4
1.0k
R14
1.0k
R2
1.0k
7
5
V8
15 V
V9
15 V
U2
1
5
V4
15 V
V5
15 V
V3
15 V
V6
15 V
U4
LM741AH/883
U1
LM741AH/883
LM741AH/883
A
_
B
_
XSC5
C9
10nF
Ext Trig
+
_
V29
12 V
V30
12 V
R39
1k
C1
10nF
C4
10nF
V10
12 V
V11
12 V
R20
1k
V17
12 V
V18
12 V
R16
1k
Ext Trig
+
7
1
R19
C5
15k
100nF
R18
10k
V16
U7
LM741AH/883
B
7 Vpk
50 Hz
0
LM741AH/883
U6
LM741AH/883
R12
C2
15k
100nF
U9
LM741AH/883
Ext Trig
+
_
R40
1k
R21
1k
V19
12 V
V20
12 V
V12
12 V
A
_
V13
12 V
B
_
Ext Trig
+
XSC10
OPAMP_5T_VIRTUAL
U18
1k
R5
R6
XSC4
R15
A
_
1k
R17
100k
10k
U8
R10
100k
R22
B
_
XSC11
R11
10k
1k
V31
12 V
R9
A
_
V33
R38
C10
15k
100nF
U17
LM741AH/883
V32
12 V
10k
3
7
U16
LM741AH/883
R37
10k
7 Vpk
50 Hz
120
R41
R36
100k
1k
R35
7
1
10k
3
7
U10
U3
A
_
XSC3
B
_
XSC1
Ext Trig
+
OPAMP_5T_VIRTUAL
OPAMP_5T_VIRTUAL
Ext Trig
+
C7
10nF
C3
10nF
C11
10nF
V14
12 V
V15
12 V
R32
1k
V21
12 V
V22
12 V
R27
1k
V27
12 V
V34
12 V
R46
1k
7
1
U14
100nF
C8
15k
R31
LM741AH/883
LM741AH/883
R30
10k
R33
1k
1k
R28
R29
R24
100k
R25
10k
Ext Trig
+
V28
R26
C6
15k
100nF
U12
LM741AH/883
U11
7 Vpk
50 Hz
240
LM741AH/883
R43
100k
1k
R23
R34
XSC13
R7
U5
1k
R8
100k
10k
10k
U19
LM741AH/883
U20
100nF
C12
15k
R45
LM741AH/883
1k
R47
R48
1k
R42
R44
10k
10k
V25
12 V
V26
12 V
V23
12 V
V24
12 V
V35
12 V
V36
12 V
U15
B
_
XSC6
B
_
XSC8
OPAMP_5T_VIRTUAL
U13
A
_
B
_
Ext Trig
+
Ext Trig
+
Ext Trig
+
XSC12
OPAMP_5T_VIRTUAL
U21
OPAMP_5T_VIRTUAL
Y
X
A1
A2
1 V/V 0 V
V39
2.4 V
Y
X
A3
1 V/V 0 V
Y
X
A4
1 V/V 0 V
V40
2.4 V
V41
2.4 V
Y
X
A5
1 V/V 0 V
V42
2.4 V
Y
X
A6
1 V/V 0 V
V43
2.4 V
Y
X
1 V/V 0 V
V44
2.4 V
V37
220 V
S1
S2
S4
S3
S5
S6
XSC2
3PH
V38
Ext Trig
+
200 V 100 Hz
86
4.2.3 PHASE 01
In the first phase, the simulation is performed by using the six multiplier blocks
before the Hex-Bridge. These multiplier blocks just convert the 5V 180 degree
conduction pulses, generated by comparing six sinusoidal pulses (three inverted &
three non-inverted) with reference triangular waveform, into 15V conduction pulses
for gate to source firing of IGBTS.
Figure 4.8,
87
introduced three inverted ICs after three multipliers. We took two outputs from each
multiplier, one inverted and one non-inverted. Three non-inverted pulses (positive)
were applied to the switches present in the upper part of the Hex bridge legs and viceversa.
Finally, the three sinusoidal waveforms having 120 degree phase difference, having
155V peak & 110V rms were applied to the load model and simulated as cleared from
the simulation results shown in figure 4.9.
Figure 4.9,
Output waveforms
88
4.3
Now up to this point our simulation was complete and the project was ready for
hardware implementation but there were some issues which are discussed below.
As no practical IC model exists that could generate directly 3-phase sinusoidal
waveform of variable frequency while keeping the phase difference between the
waveforms constant. So, how a three phase sinusoidal waveform of variable
frequency could e generated while keeping the phase difference constant?
1. Capacitive reactance is frequency dependent. As the frequency is changed
its reactance will change so, the solution of phase difference by using RC
phase shifter would also not work on variable frequency.
2. Another advanced solution we found is to answer this issue is to use
AD9833IC. But no simulation package is available for simulating
AD9833.
3. Another solution was proposed was to use EEPROM memory for storing
the sine waveform data and to generate sinusoidal waveform by adding a
Digital to analog converter. But this solution was rejected as the project
would become uneconomical then.
So, by keeping in mind the above solutions we finally decided to move on PIC
microcontroller that is an efficient and cost effective way of generating PWM signals.
We choose PIC 18f4431 for this purpose as it has built in six PWM channels & also it
takes the dead time issue into account automatically.
89
4.4
By using six PWM channels of PIC 18f4431 we generated six SPWM pulses that
were sent to the gate driver IC IR2130. This IC converts these SPWM pulses to the
required potential and finally sent them to the gates of IGBTs in hex bridge for
switching. This IC eliminates the need of the opto-couplers. The microcontroller
simulation performed in Proteus is shown in figure 4.10.
Figure 4.10,
Figure 4.11,
91
4.5
Figure 4.12,
92
Conclusion
A PIC microcontroller (18f4431) based PWM controlled inverter fed Induction Motor
drive has been designed and implemented successfully. The simulation and hardware
implementation results are presented to verify the feasibility of the system. The
implementation of the proposed work shows the practical industrial application of
PWM variable frequency drives.
93
Future Recommendations
Feedback loop can be added to make the operation more accurate by using
feedback loop one can easily control the whole frequency drive.
Use of GSM module can extend the distance of operation of drive from
control room.
High voltage variable frequency drives can be designed just by using high
rating components, safety is required to achieve that goal.
94
Appendix
A.1
Datasheets
Features
IGBT co-packaged with HEXFREDTM ultrafast, ultra-soft-recovery antiparallel diodes for use in bridge configurations
Lead-free
95
Benefits
96
A.1.2
PIC18F4431
(40-Pin Enhanced, Flash Microcontrollers with nanoWatt Technology,
High Performance PWM and A/D)
Microcontroller Features
97
A.1.3
Features
98
99
A.2
A.2.1 Table A
The table below helps you to select the gauge and turns per sq. cm of copper wire by
matching them with the selected current rating of the winding appropriately.
100
A.2.2 Table B
This Table B enables you to make your own transformer design by comparing the
calculated Winding Area with the relevant required Tongue Width and Lamination
Type number.
Type -------------------Tongue----------Winding
No. ---------------------Width-------------Area
17(E/I) -------------------- 1.270------------1.213
12A(E/12I) ---------------1.588-----------1.897
74(E/I) --------------------1.748-----------2.284
23(E/I) --------------------1.905-----------2.723
30(E/I)--------------------2.000-----------3.000
21(E/I)--------------------1.588-----------3.329
31(E/I)--------------------2.223-----------3.703
10(E/I)--------------------1.588-----------4.439
15(E/I)-------------------2.540-----------4.839
33(E/I)--------------------2.800----------5.880
1(E/I)----------------------2.461----------6.555
14(E/I)--------------------2.540----------6.555
11(E/I)---------------------1.905---------7.259
34(U/T)--------------------1/588---------7.259
3(E/I)-----------------------3.175---------7.562
9(U/T)----------------------2.223----------7.865
9A(U/T)----------------------2.223----------7.865
11A(E/I)-----------------------1.905-----------9.072
4A(E/I)-----------------------3.335-----------10.284
102
2(E/I)-----------------------1.905-----------10.891
16(E/I)---------------------3.810-----------10.891
5(E/I)----------------------3.810-----------12.704
4AX(U/T) ----------------2.383-----------13.039
13(E/I)--------------------3.175-----------14.117
75(U/T)-------------------2.540-----------15.324
4(E/I)----------------------2.540----------15.865
7(E/I)----------------------5.080-----------18.969
6(E/I)----------------------3.810----------19.356
35A(U/T)-----------------3.810----------39.316
8(E/I)---------------------5.080----------49.803
103
References
[1].
[2].
Bin Wu, High-Power Converters and AC Drives, Wiley IEEE Press, USA,
2006, ISBN: 0-471-73171-4
[3].
Stephen J. Chapman, Electric Machinery Fundamentals, 2005, Mc GrawHill, ISBN: 0072465239, 9780072465235
[4].
[5].
[6].
[7].
[8].
[9].
Aung Zaw Latt; Ni Ni Win, Variable speed drive of a single phase induction
motor using frequency control in: Education Technology and Computer, 2009.
ICETC '09. International Conference on 17-20 April 2009 in Singapore, ISBN:
978-0-7695-3609-5
[10].
[11].
[12].
[13].
[14].
[15].
Vinod Kumar Khanna, Insulated Gate Bipolar Transistor (IGBT): Theory and
Design IEEE Press, Wiley-Interscience
105