The BCG matrix (aka B.C.G.

analysis, BCG-matrix, Boston Box, Boston Matrix, Boston

Consulting Group analysis, portfolio diagram) is a chart that had been created by Bruce
Henderson for the Boston Consulting Group in 1968 to help corporations with analyzing
their business units or product lines. This helps the company allocate resources and is
used as an analytical tool in brand marketing, product management, strategic
management, and portfolio analysis. [1]

BCG MATRIX
To use the chart, analysts plot a scatter graph to rank the business units (or products) on
the basis of their relative market shares and growth rates.

• Cash cows are units with high market share in a slow-growing industry. These
units typically generate cash in excess of the amount of cash needed to maintain
the business. They are regarded as staid and boring, in a "mature" market, and
every corporation would be thrilled to own as many as possible. They are to be
"milked" continuously with as little investment as possible, since such investment
would be wasted in an industry with low growth.
• Dogs, or more charitably called pets, are units with low market share in a mature,
slow-growing industry. These units typically "break even", generating barely
enough cash to maintain the business's market share. Though owning a break-
even unit provides the social benefit of providing jobs and possible synergies that
assist other business units, from an accounting point of view such a unit is
worthless, not generating cash for the company. They depress a profitable
company's return on assets ratio, used by many investors to judge how well a
company is being managed. Dogs, it is thought, should be sold off.
• Question marks (also known as problem child) are growing rapidly and thus
consume large amounts of cash, but because they have low market shares they do
not generate much cash. The result is a large net cash consumption. A question
mark has the potential to gain market share and become a star, and eventually a
cash cow when the market growth slows. If the question mark does not succeed in
becoming the market leader, then after perhaps years of cash consumption it will
degenerate into a dog when the market growth declines. Question marks must be
analyzed carefully in order to determine whether they are worth the investment
required to grow market share.
• Stars are units with a high market share in a fast-growing industry. The hope is
that stars become the next cash cows. Sustaining the business unit's market
leadership may require extra cash, but this is worthwhile if that's what it takes for
the unit to remain a leader. When growth slows, stars become cash cows if they
have been able to maintain their category leadership, or they move from brief
stardom to dogdom.[citation needed]

As a particular industry matures and its growth slows, all business units become either
cash cows or dogs. The natural cycle for most business units is that they start as question
marks, then turn into stars. Eventually the market stops growing thus the business unit
becomes a cash cow. At the end of the cycle the cash cow turns into a dog.
The overall goal of this ranking was to help corporate analysts decide which of their
business units to fund, and how much; and which units to sell. Managers were supposed
to gain perspective from this analysis that allowed them to plan with confidence to use
money generated by the cash cows to fund the stars and, possibly, the question marks. As
the BCG stated in 1970:

Only a diversified company with a balanced portfolio can use its strengths to
truly capitalize on its growth opportunities. The balanced portfolio has:

• stars whose high share and high growth assure the future;
• cash cows that supply funds for that future growth; and
• question marks to be converted into stars with the added funds.
 BCG Growth-Share Matrix

Resources are allocated to business units according to where they are situated
on the grid as follows:

• Cash Cow - a business unit that has a large market share in a mature,
slow growing industry. Cash cows require little investment and generate
cash that can be used to invest in other business units.
• Star - a business unit that has a large market share in a fast growing
industry. Stars may generate cash, but because the market is growing
rapidly they require investment to maintain their lead. If successful, a star
will become a cash cow when its industry matures.
• Question Mark (or Problem Child) - a business unit that has a small
market share in a high growth market. These business units require
resources to grow market share, but whether they will succeed and
become stars is unknown.
• Dog - a business unit that has a small market share in a mature industry.
A dog may not require substantial cash, but it ties up capital that could
better be deployed elsewhere. Unless a dog has some other strategic
purpose, it should be liquidated if there is little prospect for it to gain
market share.

The BCG matrix provides a framework for allocating resources among different
business units and allows one to compare many business units at a glance.
However, the approach has received some negative criticism for the following
reasons:

• The link between market share and profitability is questionable since

increasing market share can be very expensive.
 • The approach may overemphasize high growth, since it ignores the
potential of declining markets.
• The model considers market growth rate to be a given. In practice the firm
may be able to grow the market.

Content of the marketing plan

A marketing plan for a small business typically includes Small Business Administration
Description of competitors, including the level of demand for the product or service and
the strengths and weaknesses of competitors

1. Description of the product or service, including special features

2. Marketing budget, including the advertising and promotional plan
3. Description of the business location, including advantages and disadvantages for
marketing
4. Pricing strategy
5. Market Segmentation

Medium-sized and large organizations

The main contents of a marketing plan are:[4]

1. Executive Summary
2. Situational Analysis
3. Opportunities / Issue Analysis - SWOT Analysis
4. Objectives
5. Strategy
6. Action Program (the operational marketing plan itself for the period under
review)
7. Financial Forecast
8. Controls

In detail, a complete marketing plan typically includes:[4]

1. Title page
2. Executive Summary
3. Current Situation - Macroenvironment[5]
o economy
o legal
o government
o technology
o ecological
o sociocultural
o supply chain
4. Current Situation - Market Analysis
 o market definition
o market size
o market segmentation
o industry structure and strategic groupings
o Porter 5 forces analysis
o competition and market share
o competitors' strengths and weaknesses
o market trends
5. Current Situation - Consumer Analysis [6]
o nature of the buying decision
o participants
o demographics
o psychographics
o buyer motivation and expectations
o loyalty segments
6. Current Situation - Internal
o company resources
 financial
 people
 time
 skills
o objectives
 mission statement and vision statement
 corporate objectives
 financial objective
 marketing objectives
 long term objectives
 description of the basic business philosophy
o corporate culture
7. Summary of Situation Analysis
o external threats
o external opportunities
o internal strengths
o internal weaknesses
o Critical success factors in the industry
o our sustainable competitive advantage
8. Marketing research
o information requirements
o research methodology
o research results
9. Marketing Strategy - Product[7]
o product mix
o product strengths and weaknesses
 perceptual mapping
o product life cycle management and new product development
o Brand name, brand image, and brand equity
 o the augmented product
o product portfolio analysis
 B.C.G. Analysis
 contribution margin analysis
 G.E. Multi Factoral analysis
 Quality Function Deployment
10. Marketing Strategy [8][9] - segmented marketing actions and market share
objectives
o by product,
o by customer segment,
o by geographical market,
o by distribution channel.
11. Marketing Strategy - Price
o pricing objectives
o pricing method (eg.: cost plus, demand based, or competitor indexing)
o pricing strategy (eg.: skimming, or penetration)
o discounts and allowances
o price elasticity and customer sensitivity
o price zoning
o break even analysis at various prices
12. Marketing Strategy - promotion
o promotional goals
o promotional mix
o advertising reach, frequency, flights, theme, and media
o sales force requirements, techniques, and management
o sales promotion
o publicity and public relations
o electronic promotion (eg.: Web, or telephone)
o word of mouth marketing (buzz)
o viral marketing
13. Marketing Strategy - Distribution
o geographical coverage
o distribution channels
o physical distribution and logistics
o electronic distribution
14. Implementation
o personnel requirements
 assign responsibilities
 give incentives
 training on selling methods
o financial requirements
o management information systems requirements
o month-by-month agenda
 PERT or critical path analysis
o monitoring results and benchmarks
o adjustment mechanism
 o contingencies (What if's)
15. Financial Summary
o assumptions
o pro-forma monthly income statement
o contribution margin analysis
o breakeven analysis
o Monte Carlo method
o ISI: Internet Strategic Intelligence
16. Scenarios
o Prediction of Future Scenarios
o Plan of Action for each Scenario
17. Appendix
o pictures and specifications of the new product
o results from research already completed

The four main fields of the Marketing mix. The term "marketing mix" was first used in
1953 when Neil Borden, in his American Marketing Association presidential address,
took the recipe idea one step further and coined the term "marketing-mix". A prominent
marketer, E. Jerome McCarthy, proposed a 4 P classification in 1960, which has seen
wide use. The four Ps concept is explained in most marketing textbooks and classes.

Four Ps
Elements of the marketing mix are often referred to as 'the four Ps':
 • Product - A tangible object or an intangible service that is mass produced or
manufactured on a large scale with a specific volume of units. Intangible products
are service based like the tourism industry & the hotel industry or codes-based
products like cellphone load and credits. Typical examples of a mass produced
tangible object are the motor car and the disposable razor. A less obvious but
ubiquitous mass produced service is a computer operating system. Packaging also
needs to be taken into consideration.
• Price – The price is the amount a customer pays for the product. It is determined
by a number of factors including market share, competition, material costs,
product identity and the customer's perceived value of the product. The business
may increase or decrease the price of product if other stores have the same
product.
• Place – Place represents the location where a product can be purchased. It is often
referred to as the distribution channel. It can include any physical store as well as
virtual stores on the Internet.
• Promotion represents all of the communications that a marketer may use in the
marketplace. Promotion has four distinct elements: advertising, public relations,
word of mouth and point of sale. A certain amount of crossover occurs when
promotion uses the four principal elements together, which is common in film
promotion. Advertising covers any communication that is paid for, from cinema
commercials, radio and Internet adverts through print media and billboards.
Public relations are where the communication is not directly paid for and includes
press releases, sponsorship deals, exhibitions, conferences, seminars or trade fairs
and events. Word of mouth is any apparently informal communication about the
product by ordinary individuals, satisfied customers or people specifically
engaged to create word of mouth momentum. Sales staff often plays an important
role in word of mouth and Public Relations (see Product above).

Broadly defined, optimizing the marketing mix is the primary responsibility of

marketing. By offering the product with the right combination of the four Ps marketers
can improve their results and marketing effectiveness. Making small changes in the
marketing mix is typically considered to be a tactical change. Parm Bains says making
large changes in any of the four Ps can be considered strategic. For example, a large
change in the price, say from $19.00 to $39.00 would be considered a strategic change in
the position of the product. However a change of $130 to $129.99 would be considered a
tactical change, potentially related to a promotional offer.

The term 'marketing mix' however, does not imply that the 4P elements represent options.
They are not trade-offs but are fundamental marketing issues that always need to be
addressed. They are the fundamental actions that marketing requires whether determined
explicitly or by default.
SWOT analysis is a strategic planning method used to evaluate the Strengths,
Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats involved in a project or in a business venture. It
involves specifying the objective of the business venture or project and identifying the
internal and external factors that are favorable and unfavorable to achieving that
objective. The technique is credited to Albert Humphrey, who led a convention at
Stanford University in the 1960s and 1970s using data from Fortune 500 companies.

A SWOT analysis must first start with defining a desired end state or objective. A SWOT
analysis may be incorporated into the strategic planning model. Strategic Planning,
including SWOT and SCAN analysis, has been the subject of much research.

• Strengths: attributes of the person or company that are helpful to

achieving the objective(s).
• Weaknesses: attributes of the person or company that are harmful
to achieving the objective(s).
• Opportunities: external conditions that are helpful to achieving the
objective(s).
• Threats: external conditions which could do damage to the
objective(s).

Identification of SWOTs are essential because subsequent steps in the process of

planning for achievement of the selected objective may be derived from the SWOTs.

First, the decision makers have to determine whether the objective is attainable, given the
SWOTs. If the objective is NOT attainable a different objective must be selected and the
process repeated.

The SWOT analysis is often used in academia to highlight and identify strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities and threats[citation needed]. It is particularly helpful in identifying
areas for development[citation needed].

Matching and converting

Another way of utilizing SWOT is matching and converting.

Matching is used to find competitive advantages by matching the strengths to

opportunities.

Converting is to apply conversion strategies to convert weaknesses or threats into •

strengths or opportunities.

An example of conversion strategy is to find new markets.

If the threats or weaknesses cannot be converted a company should try to minimize or
avoid them.[1]

Evidence on the Use of SWOT

SWOT analysis may limit the strategies considered in the evaluation. J. Scott Armstrong
notes that "people who use SWOT might conclude that they have done an adequate job of
planning and ignore such sensible things as defining the firm's objectives or calculating
ROI for alternate strategies." [2] Findings from Menon et al. (1999) [3] and Hill and
Westbrook (1997) [4] have shown that SWOT may harm performance. As an alternative to
SWOT, Armstrong describes a 5-step approach alternative that leads to better corporate
performance.[5]

These criticisms are addressed to an old version of SWOT analysis that precedes the
SWOT analysis described above under the heading "Strategic and Creative Use of SWOT
Analysis." This old version did not require that SWOTs be derived from an agreed upon
objective. Examples of SWOT analyses that do not state an objective are provided below
under "Human Resources" and "Marketing."

Internal and external factors

The aim of any SWOT analysis is to identify the key internal and external factors that are
important to achieving the objective. These come from within the company's unique
value chain. SWOT analysis groups key pieces of information into two main categories:

• Internal factors – The strengths and weaknesses internal to the

organization.
• External factors – The opportunities and threats presented by the
external environment to the organization. - Use a PEST or PESTLE
analysis to help identify factors

The internal factors may be viewed as strengths or weaknesses depending upon their
impact on the organization's objectives. What may represent strengths with respect to one
objective may be weaknesses for another objective. The factors may include all of the
4P's; as well as personnel, finance, manufacturing capabilities, and so on. The external
factors may include macroeconomic matters, technological change, legislation, and socio-
cultural changes, as well as changes in the marketplace or competitive position. The
results are often presented in the form of a matrix.

SWOT analysis is just one method of categorization and has its own weaknesses. For
example, it may tend to persuade companies to compile lists rather than think about what
is actually important in achieving objectives. It also presents the resulting lists
uncritically and without clear prioritization so that, for example, weak opportunities may
appear to balance strong threats.
It is prudent not to eliminate too quickly any candidate SWOT entry. The importance of
individual SWOTs will be revealed by the value of the strategies it generates. A SWOT
item that produces valuable strategies is important. A SWOT item that generates no
strategies is not important.

Use of SWOT Analysis

The usefulness of SWOT analysis is not limited to profit-seeking organizations. SWOT
analysis may be used in any decision-making situation when a desired end-state
(objective) has been defined. Examples include: non-profit organizations, governmental
units, and individuals. SWOT analysis may also be used in pre-crisis planning and
preventive crisis management. SWOT analysis may also be used in creating a
recommendation during a viability study.

Changes in relative performance are continually identified. Projects (or other units of
measurements) that could be potential risk or opportunity objects are highlighted.

SWOT-landscape also indicates which underlying strength/weakness factors that have

had or likely will have highest influence in the context of value in use (for ex. capital
value fluctuations).

Corporate planning
As part of the development of strategies and plans to enable the organization to achieve
its objectives, then that organization will use a systematic/rigorous process known as
corporate planning. SWOT alongside PEST/PESTLE can be used as a basis for the
analysis of business and environmental factors.[7]

• Set objectives – defining what the organization is going to do

• Environmental scanning
o Internal appraisals of the organization's SWOT, this needs
to include an assessment of the present situation as well as a
portfolio of products/services and an analysis of the
product/service life cycle
• Analysis of existing strategies, this should determine relevance
from the results of an internal/external appraisal. This may include gap
analysis which will look at environmental factors
• Strategic Issues defined – key factors in the development of a
corporate plan which needs to be addressed by the organization
• Develop new/revised strategies – revised analysis of strategic
issues may mean the objectives need to change
• Establish critical success factors – the achievement of objectives
and strategy implementation
• Preparation of operational, resource, projects plans for strategy
implementation
 • Monitoring results – mapping against plans, taking corrective
action which may mean amending objectives/strategies.[8]

Marketing

Main article: Marketing management

In many competitor analyses, marketers build detailed profiles of each competitor in the
market, focusing especially on their relative competitive strengths and weaknesses using
SWOT analysis. Marketing managers will examine each competitor's cost structure,
sources of profits, resources and competencies, competitive positioning and product
differentiation, degree of vertical integration, historical responses to industry
developments, and other factors.

Marketing management often finds it necessary to invest in research to collect the data
required to perform accurate marketing analysis. Accordingly, management often
conducts market research (alternately marketing research) to obtain this information.
Marketers employ a variety of techniques to conduct market research, but some of the
more common include:

• Qualitative marketing research, such as focus groups

• Quantitative marketing research, such as statistical surveys
• Experimental techniques such as test markets
• Observational techniques such as ethnographic (on-site)
observation
• Marketing managers may also design and oversee various
environmental scanning and competitive intelligence processes to help
identify trends and inform the company's marketing analysis.

Using SWOT to analyse the market position of a small management consultancy with
specialism in HRM.[8]

Strengths Weaknesses Opportunities Threats

Reputation in Shortage of Well established Large consultancies
marketplace consultants at position with a well operating at a minor
operating level rather defined market niche level
than partner level
Expertise at partner Unable to deal with Identified market for Other small
level in HRM multi-disciplinary consultancy in areas consultancies looking
consultancy assignments because other than HRM to invade the
of size or lack of marketplace
ability
Market planning process
Planning is one those things that we all know is good for us, but that no one wants to take
the time to do. While it may seem that planning only takes time away from running your
business, operating a business without a plan is like going to a grocery store without a list
and trying to remember all the items that are needed. One comes out of the store having
forgotten something critical - and having purchased a number of items that are totally
frivolous and may never be used. It is the same for a business operating without a plan.
Critical issues do not get addressed - and some tasks get done that have no relationship to
the direction the business needs to go. For a business, however, the consequences of these
unaddressed issues can range from inconvenience to bankruptcy.

Part of this reluctance is due to how complicated the process is viewed. Yet a
complicated plan is almost as useless as none. The real question is how to make
something simple that fits your business' needs. Can a good grocery list system be
devised that isn't unnecessarily burdensome for all involved? Of course. Let's take a look
as what planning really entails.

The word "plan" originated from then Medieval Latin word planus which meant a level
or flat surface. This evolved in French into being a map or a drawing of any object made
by projection upon a flat surface. In English this has become a more general sense of a
scheme of action, design or method. Planning in its current usage in business implies a
consciousness of what is happening in the business. It does not preclude creativity or
instinct, but it does add a layer of awareness that spells the difference between survival
and extinction in a changing environment. Planning does involve:

• an understanding of the business' history

• an examination of the business' environment
• an assessment of the business' mission
• goals
• a process for reaching those goals
• a process for gathering information
• a realization that planning is a continuing process that is constantly evolving

Planning does not necessarily mean trying to project the future, but being aware of a
range of likely futures and being prepared for them as occur.
The planning process - diagram

Why a plan?

Ponder this:

• No major battle has been ever won without a plan.

 • No major project has been ever completed without a plan.
• And no restaurant has been ever able to succeed without a marketing plan
either.

Here's a "bird-eye" view of the Restaurant Commando Marketing Planning

Process:
The extent to which each part of the above process needs to be carried out depends on the
size and complexity of the business.

In an un diversified business, where senior management have a strong knowledge and detailed
understanding of the overall business, it may not be necessary to formalise the marketing
planning process.

By contrast, in a highly diversified business, top level management will not have knowledge
and expertise that matches subordinate management. In this situation, it makes sense to put
formal marketing planning procedures in place throughout the organisation.

Marketing management is a business discipline which is focused on the practical

application of marketing techniques and the management of a firm's marketing resources
and activities. Rapidly emerging forces of globalization have compelled firms to market
beyond the borders of their home country making International Marketing highly
significant and an integral part of a firm's marketing strategy.[1] Marketing managers are
often responsible for influencing the level, timing, and composition of customer demand
accepted definition of the term. In part, this is because the role of a marketing manager
can vary significantly based on a business' size, corporate culture, and industry context.
For example, in a large consumer products company, the marketing manager may act as
the overall general manager of his or her assigned product [2]
From this perspect, it consists of 5 steps, beginning with the market & environment
research. After fixing the targets and setting the strategies, they will be realised by the
marketing mix in step 4. The last step in the process is the marketing
controlling.Marketing management strategy and design effective, cost-efficient
implementation programs, firms must possess a detailed, objective understanding of their
own business and the market in which they operate.[3] In analyzing these issues, the
discipline of marketing management often overlaps with the related discipline of strategic
planning.

Traditionally, marketing analysis was structured into three areas: Customer analysis,
Company analysis, and Competitor analysis (so-called "3Cs" analysis). More recently, it
has become fashionable in some marketing circles to divide these further into certain five
"Cs": Customer analysis, Company analysis, Collaborator analysis, Competitor analysis,
and analysis of the industry Context.

Department analysis is to develop a schematic diagram for market segmentation,

breaking down the market into various constituent groups of customers, which are called
customer segments or market segmentations. Marketing managers work to develop
detailed profiles of each segment, focusing on any number of variables that may differ
among the segments: demographic, psychographic, geographic, behavioral, needs-
benefit, and other factors may all be examined. Marketers also attempt to track these
segments' perceptions of the various products in the market using tools such as perceptual
mapping.

In company analysis, marketers focus on understanding the company's cost structure and
cost position relative to competitors, as well as working to identify a firm's core
competencies and other competitively distinct company resources. Marketing managers
may also work with the accounting department to analyze the profits the firm is
generating from various product lines and customer accounts. The company may also
conduct periodic brand audits to assess the strength of its brands and sources of brand
equity.[4]

The firm's collaborators may also be profiled, which may include various suppliers,
distributors and other channel partners, joint venture partners, and others. An analysis of
complementary products may also be performed if such products exist.

Marketing management employs various tools from economics and competitive strategy
to analyze the industry context in which the firm operates. These include Porter's five
forces, analysis of strategic groups of competitors, value chain analysis and others.[5]
Depending on the industry, the regulatory context may also be important to examine in
detail.

In Competitor analysis, marketers build detailed profiles of each competitor in the

market, focusing especially on their relative competitive strengths and weaknesses using
SWOT analysis. Marketing managers will examine each competitor's cost structure,
sources of profits, resources and competencies, competitive positioning and product
differentiation, degree of vertical integration, historical responses to industry
developments, and other factors.

Marketing management often finds it necessary to invest in research to collect the data
required to perform accurate marketing analysis. As such, they often conduct market
research (alternately marketing research) to obtain this information. Marketers employ a
variety of techniques to conduct market research, but some of the more common include:

• Qualitative marketing research, such as focus groups

• Quantitative marketing research, such as statistical surveys
• Experimental techniques such as test markets
• Observational techniques such as ethnographic (on-site) observation

Marketing managers may also design and oversee various environmental scanning and
competitive intelligence processes to help identify trends and inform the company's
marketing analysis.

Contents
[hide]

• 1 Marketing strategy
• 2 Implementation planning
• 3 Project, process, and vendor management
• 4 Organizational management and leadership
• 5 Reporting, measurement, feedback and control systems
• 6 See also
• 7 References
• 8 Further reading

• 9 External links

Marketing strategy

Main article: Marketing strategy

Once the company has obtained an adequate understanding of the customer base and its
own competitive position in the industry, marketing managers are able to make key
strategic decisions and develop a marketing strategy designed to maximize the revenues
and profits of the firm. The selected strategy may aim for any of a variety of specific
objectives, including optimizing short-term unit margins, revenue growth, market share,
long-term profitability, or other goals.

To achieve the desired objectives, marketers typically identify one or more target
customer segments which they intend to pursue. Customer segments are often selected as
targets because they score highly on two dimensions: 1) The segment is attractive to
serve because it is large, growing, makes frequent purchases, is not price sensitive (i.e. is
willing to pay high prices), or other factors; and 2) The company has the resources and
capabilities to compete for the segment's business, can meet their needs better than the
competition, and can do so profitably.[3] In fact, a commonly cited definition of marketing
is simply "meeting needs profitably." [6]

The implication of selecting target segments is that the business will subsequently
allocate more resources to acquire and retain customers in the target segment(s) than it
will for other, non-targeted customers. In some cases, the firm may go so far as to turn
away customers that are not in its target segment.The doorman at a swanky nightclub, for
example, may deny entry to unfashionably dressed individuals because the business has
made a strategic decision to target the "high fashion" segment of nightclub patrons.

In conjunction with targeting decisions, marketing managers will identify the desired
positioning they want the company, product, or brand to occupy in the target customer's
mind. This positioning is often an encapsulation of a key benefit the company's product
or service offers that is differentiated and superior to the benefits offered by competitive
products.[7] For example, Volvo has traditionally positioned its products in the automobile
market in North America in order to be perceived as the leader in "safety", whereas
BMW has traditionally positioned its brand to be perceived as the leader in
"performance."

Ideally, a firm's positioning can be maintained over a long period of time because the
company possesses, or can develop, some form of sustainable competitive advantage.[8]
The positioning should also be sufficiently relevant to the target segment such that it will
drive the purchasing behavior of target customers.[7]

[edit] Implementation planning

Main article: Marketing plan

The Marketing Metrics Continuum provides a framework for how to categorize metrics
from the tactical to strategic.
After the firm's strategic objectives have been identified, the target market selected, and
the desired positioning for the company, product or brand has been determined,
marketing managers focus on how to best implement the chosen strategy. Traditionally,
this has involved implementation planning across the "4Ps" of marketing: Product
management, Pricing, Place (i.e. sales and distribution channels), and Promotion.

Taken together, the company's implementation choices across the 4Ps are often described
as the marketing mix, meaning the mix of elements the business will employ to "go to
market" and execute the marketing strategy. The overall goal for the marketing mix is to
consistently deliver a compelling value proposition that reinforces the firm's chosen
positioning, builds customer loyalty and brand equity among target customers, and
achieves the firm's marketing and financial objectives.

In many cases, marketing management will develop a marketing plan to specify how the
company will execute the chosen strategy and achieve the business' objectives. The
content of marketing plans varies from firm to firm, but commonly includes:

• An executive summary
• Situation analysis to summarize facts and insights gained from market research
and marketing analysis
• The company's mission statement or long-term strategic vision
• A statement of the company's key objectives, often subdivided into marketing
objectives and financial objectives
• The marketing strategy the business has chosen, specifying the target segments to
be pursued and the competitive positioning to be achieved
• Implementation choices for each element of the marketing mix (the 4Ps)
Ansoff matrix
The Ansoff Product-Market Growth Matrix is a marketing tool created by Igor Ansoff
and first published in his article "Strategies for Diversification" in the Harvard Business
Review (1957). The matrix allows marketers to consider ways to grow the business via
existing and/or new products, in existing and/or new markets – there are four possible
product/market combinations. This matrix helps companies decide what course of action
should be taken given current performance. The matrix consists of four strategies:

• Market penetration (existing markets, existing products): Market penetration

occurs when a company enters/penetrates a market with current products. The
best way to achieve this is by gaining competitors' customers (part of their market
share). Other ways include attracting non-users of your product or convincing
current clients to use more of your product/service, with advertising or other
promotions. Market penetration is the least risky way for a company to grow.
• Product development (existing markets, new products): A firm with a market for
its current products might embark on a strategy of developing other products
catering to the same market (although these new products need not be new to the
market; the point is that the product is new to the company). For example,
McDonald's is always within the fast-food industry, but frequently markets new
burgers. Frequently, when a firm creates new products, it can gain new customers
for these products. Hence, new product development can be a crucial business
development strategy for firms to stay competitive.
• Market development (new markets, existing products): An established product in
the marketplace can be tweaked or targeted to a different customer segment, as a
strategy to earn more revenue for the firm. For example, Lucozade was first
marketed for sick children and then rebranded to target athletes. This is a good
 example of developing a new market for an existing product. Again, the market
need not be new in itself, the point is that the market is new to the company.
• Diversification (new markets, new products): Virgin Cola, Virgin Megastores,
Virgin Airlines, Virgin Telecommunications are examples of new products
created by the Virgin Group of UK, to leverage the Virgin brand. This resulted in
the company entering new markets where it had no presence before.

The matrix illustrates, in particular, that the element of risk increases the further the
strategy moves away from known quantities - the existing product and the existing
market. Thus, product development (requiring, in effect, a new product) and market
extension (a new market) typically involve a greater risk than `penetration' (existing
product and existing market); and diversification (new product and new market)
generally carries the greatest risk of all. In his original work [1], which did not use the
matrix form, Igor Ansoff stressed that the diversification strategy stood apart from the
other three.

While the latter are usually followed with the same technical, financial, and
merchandising resources which are used for the original product line, diversification
usually requires new skills, new techniques, and new facilities. As a result it almost
invariably leads to physical and organizational changes in the structure of the business
which represent a distinct break with past business experience.

For this reason, most marketing activity revolves around penetration.

Positioning
In marketing, positioning has come to mean the process by which marketers try to create
an image or identity in the minds of their target market for its product, brand, or
organization.

Re-positioning involves changing the identity of a product, relative to the identity of

competing products, in the collective minds of the target market.

De-positioning involves attempting to change the identity of competing products,

relative to the identity of your own product, in the collective minds of the target market.

The original work on Positioning was consumer marketing oriented, and was not as much
focused on the question relative to competitive products as much as it was focused on
cutting through the ambient "noise" and establishing a moment of real contact with the
intended recipient. In the classic example of Avis claiming "No.2, We Try Harder", the
point was to say something so shocking (it was by the standards of the day) that it cleared
space in your brain and made you forget all about who was #1, and not to make some
philosophical point about being "hungry" for business.

The growth of high-tech marketing may have had much to do with the shift in definition
towards competitive positioning.
Contents
[hide]

• 1 Definitions
• 2 Product positioning process
• 3 Positioning concepts
• 4 Measuring the positioning
• 5 Repositioning a company
• 6 See also
• 7 References

• 8 External links

Definitions
Although there are different definitions of Positioning, probably the most common is:
identifying a market niche for a brand, product or service utilizing traditional marketing
placement strategies (i.e. price, promotion, distribution, packaging, and competition).

Positioning is a concept in marketing which was first popularized by Al Ries and Jack
Trout in their bestseller book " Positioning - The Battle for Your Mind."

This differs slightly from the context in which the term was first published in 1969 by
Jack Trout in the paper "Positioning" is a game people play in today’s me-too market
place" in the publication Industrial Marketing, in which the case is made that the typical
consumer is overwhelmed with unwanted advertising, and has a natural tendency to
discard all information that does not immediately find a comfortable (and empty) slot in
the consumers mind. It was then expanded into their ground-breaking first book,
"Positioning: The Battle for Your Mind", in which they define Positioning as "an
organized system for finding a window in the mind. It is based on the concept that
communication can only take place at the right time and under the right circumstances."
(p. 19 of 2001 paperback edition).

What most will agree on is that Positioning is something (perception) that happens in the
minds of the target market. It is the aggregate perception the market has of a particular
company, product or service in relation to their perceptions of the competitors in the
same category. It will happen whether or not a company's management is proactive,
reactive or passive about the on-going process of evolving a position. But a company can
positively influence the perceptions through enlightened strategic actions.

Product positioning process

Generally, the product positioning process involves:
 1. Defining the market in which the product or brand will compete (who the relevant
buyers are)
2. Identifying the attributes (also called dimensions) that define the product 'space'
3. Collecting information from a sample of customers about their perceptions of
each product on the relevant attributes
4. Determine each product's share of mind
5. Determine each product's current location in the product space
6. Determine the target market's preferred combination of attributes (referred to as
an ideal vector)
7. Examine the fit between:
o The position of your product
o The position of the ideal vector
8. Position.

The process is similar for positioning your company's services. Services, however, don't
have the physical attributes of products - that is, we can't feel them or touch them or show
nice product pictures. So you need to ask first your customers and then yourself, what
value do clients get from my services? How are they better off from doing business with
me? Also ask: is there a characteristic that makes my services different?

Write out the value customers derive and the attributes your services offer to create the
first draft of your positioning. Test it on people who don't really know what you do or
what you sell, watch their facial expressions and listen for their response. When they
want to know more because you've piqued their interest and started a conversation, you'll
know you're on the right track.

Positioning concepts
More generally, there are three types of positioning concepts:

1. Functional positions
o Solve problems
o Provide benefits to customers
o Get favorable perception by investors (stock profile) and lenders
2. Symbolic positions
o Self-image enhancement
o Ego identification
o Belongingness and social meaningfulness
o Affective fulfillment
3. Experiential positions
o Provide sensory stimulation
o Provide cognitive stimulation
 Measuring the positioning
•
Positioning is facilitated by a graphical technique called perceptual mapping, various
survey techniques, and statistical techniques like multi dimensional scaling, factor
analysis, conjoint analysis, and logit analysis.

Repositioning a company
In volatile markets, it can be necessary - even urgent - to reposition an entire company,
rather than just a product line or brand. Take, for example, when Goldman Sachs and
Morgan Stanley suddenly shifted from investment to commercial banks. The expectations
of investors, employees, clients and regulators all need to shift, and each company will
need to influence how these perceptions change. Doing so involves repositioning the
entire firm.

This is especially true of small and medium-sized firms, many of which often lack strong
brands for individual product lines. In a prolonged recession, business approaches that
were effective during healthy economies often become ineffective and it becomes
necessary to change a firm's positioning. Upscale restaurants, for example, which
previously flourished on expense account dinners and corporate events, may for the first
time need to stress value as a sale tool.

Repositioning a company involves more than a marketing challenge. It involves making

hard decisions about how a market is shifting and how a firm's competitors will react.
Often these decisions must be made without the benefit of sufficient information, simply
because the definition of "volatility" is that change becomes difficult or impossible to
predict.

A brand is a name, sign, symbol, slogan or anything that is used to identify and
distinguish a specific product, service, or business.[1][page needed] A legally protected brand
name is called a proprietary name.

Brand is the image of the product in the market. Some people distinguish the
psychological aspect of a brand from the experiential aspect. The experiential aspect
consists of the sum of all points of contact with the brand and is known as the brand
experience. The psychological aspect, sometimes referred to as the brand image, is a
symbolic construct created within the minds of people and consists of all the information
and expectations associated with a product or service.

People engaged in branding seek to develop or align the expectations behind the brand
experience, creating the impression that a brand associated with a product or service has
certain qualities or characteristics that make it special or unique. A brand is therefore one
of the most valuable elements in an advertising theme, as it demonstrates what the brand
owner is able to offer in the marketplace. The art of creating and maintaining a brand is
called brand management. Orientation of the whole organization towards its brand is
called brand orientation.

Careful brand management seeks to make the product or services relevant to the target
audience. Therefore cleverly crafted advertising campaigns can be highly successful in
convincing consumers to pay remarkably high prices for products which are inherently
extremely cheap to make. This concept, known as creating value, essentially consists of
manipulating the projected image of the product so that the consumer sees the product as
being worth the amount that the advertiser wants him/her to see, rather than a more
logical valuation that comprises an aggregate of the cost of raw materials, plus the cost of
manufacture, plus the cost of distribution. Modern value-creation branding-and-
advertising campaigns are highly successful at inducing consumers to pay, for example,
50 dollars for a T-shirt that cost a mere 50 cents to make, or 5 dollars for a box of
breakfast cereal that contains a few cents' worth of wheat.

Brands should be seen as more than the difference between the actual cost of a product
and its selling price - they represent the sum of all valuable qualities of a product to the
consumer. There are many intangibles involved in business, intangibles left wholly from
the income statement and balance sheet which determine how a business is perceived.
The learned skill of a knowledge worker, the type of metal working, the type of stitch: all
may be without an 'accounting cost' but for those who truly know the product, for it is
these people the company should wish to find and keep, the difference is incomparable.
Failing to recognize these assets that a business, any business, can create and maintain
will set an enterprise at a serious disadvantage.

A brand which is widely known in the marketplace acquires brand recognition. When
brand recognition builds up to a point where a brand enjoys a critical mass of positive
sentiment in the marketplace, it is said to have achieved brand franchise. One goal in
brand recognition is the identification of a brand without the name of the company
present. For example, Disney has been successful at branding with their particular script
font (originally created for Walt Disney's "signature" logo), which it used in the logo for
go.com.

Consumers may look on branding as an important value added aspect of products or

services, as it often serves to denote a certain attractive quality or characteristic (see also
brand promise). From the perspective of brand owners, branded products or services also
command higher prices. Where two products resemble each other, but one of the products
has no associated branding (such as a generic, store-branded product), people may often
select the more expensive branded product on the basis of the quality of the brand or the
reputation of the brand owner.

Brand Awareness

Brand awareness refers to customers' ability to recall and recognize the brand under
different conditions and link to the brand name, logo, jingles and so on to certain
associations in memory. It helps the customers to understand to which product or service
category the particular brand belongs to and what products and services are sold under
the brand name. It also ensures that customers know which of their needs are satisfied by
the brand through its products.(Keller)

Brand Salience

Brand salience measures the awareness of the brand."To what extent is the brand top-of-
mind and easily recalled or recognized? What types of cues or reminders are necessary?"
(Keller)

How do customers remember?

The tendency of a brand to be thought of in a buying situation is known as “brand

salience”. Brand salience is “the propensity for a brand to be noticed and/or thought of in
buying situations” and the higher the brand salience the higher it’s market penetration
and therefore its market share. Salience refers not to what customers think about brands
but to which ones they think about.

Brands which come to mind on an unaided basis are likely to be the brands in a
customer’s consideration set and thus have a higher probability of being purchased.
Advertising weight and brand salience are cues to customers indicating which brands are
popular, and customers have a tendency to buy popular brands. Also, an increase in the
salience of one brand can actually inhibit recall of other brands, including brands that
otherwise would be candidates for purchase.

It is widely acknowledged that buyer’s do not see their brand as being any different from
other brands that are available. They buy a particular brand because they are more aware
of it, not because it is more distinctive, or has a point of difference. We now know that all
decisions made by humans involve memory processes to a greater or lesser extent.
Incoming information from the external environment travels by the sensory memory into
the short-term (or working) memory (STM) but if it is not acted upon in a very short time
the brain simply discards it.

But salient information that is important and received on a regular basis through different
channels is passed to the long-term memory (LTM) where it can be stored for many
years. Memories are stored or filed via connections between new and existing memories
in the different parts of the memory. They are laid down in a framework making some
memories easier to access than others. Recall is the process by which an individual
reconstructs the stimulus itself from memory, removed from the physicality’s of that
reality.

References

Brand Salience: How do Buyers Remember? Article by Terry Reeves, expert on salient
marketing and mentor at the Underdog Marketing Challenge
Global Brand

A global brand is one which is perceived to reflect the same set of values around the
world.Global brands transcend their origins and creates strong, enduring relationships
with consumers across countries and cultures.

Global brands are brands which sold to international markets. Examples of global brands
include Coca-Cola, McDonald's, Marlboro, Levi's etc.. These brands are used to sell the
same product across multiple markets, and could be considered successful to the extent
that the associated products are easily recognizable by the diverse set of consumers.

Benefits of Global Branding

In addition to taking advantage of the outstanding growth opportunities, the following
drives the increasing interest in taking brands global:

• economies of scale (production and distribution)

• lower marketing costs

• laying the groundwork for future extensions worldwide

• maintaining consistent brand imagery

• quicker identification and integration of innovations (discovered worldwide)

• preempting international competitors from entering domestic markets or locking

you out of other geographic markets

• increasing international media reach (especially with the explosion of the Internet)
is an enabler

• increases in international business and tourism are also enablers

[Global Brand Variables

The following elements may differ from country to country:

• corporate slogan

• products and services

• product names

• product features
 • positionings

• marketing mixes (including pricing, distribution, media and advertising

execution)

These differences will depend upon:

• language differences

• different styles of communication

• other cultural differences

• differences in category and brand development

• different consumption patterns

• different competitive sets and marketplace conditions

• different legal and regulatory environments

• different national approaches to marketing (media, pricing, distribution, etc.)

[2] [3]

Local Brand

A brand that is sold and marketed (distributed and promoted) in a relatively small and
restricted geographical area. A local brand is a brand that can be found in only one
country or region. It may be called a regional brand if the area encompasses more than
one metropolitan market. It may also be a brand that is developed for a specific national
market, however an interesting thing about local brand is that the local branding is mostly
done by consumers then by the producers. Examples of Local Brands in Sweden are
Stomatol, Mijerierna etc..[4] [5]

Brand name
Relationship between trade marks and brand

The brand name is quite often used interchangeably within "brand", although it is more
correctly used to specifically denote written or spoken linguistic elements of any product.
In this context a "brand name" constitutes a type of trademark, if the brand name
exclusively identifies the brand owner as the commercial source of products or services.
A brand owner may seek to protect proprietary rights in relation to a brand name through
trademark registration. Advertising spokespersons have also become part of some brands,
for example: Mr. Whipple of Charmin toilet tissue and Tony the Tiger of Kellogg's.
Local Branding is usually done by the consumers rather then the producers.

Types of brand names

Brand names come in many styles.[6] A few include:

Acronym: A name made of initials such as UPS or IBM
Descriptive: Names that describe a product benefit or function like Whole Foods or
Airbus
Alliteration and rhyme: Names that are fun to say and stick in the mind like Reese's
Pieces or Dunkin' Donuts
Evocative: Names that evoke a relevant vivid image like Amazon or Crest
Neologisms: Completely made-up words like Wii or Kodak
Foreign word: Adoption of a word from another language like Volvo or Samsung
Founders' names: Using the names of real people like Hewlett-Packard or Disney
Geography: Many brands are named for regions and landmarks like Cisco and Fuji Film
Personification: Many brands take their names from myth like Nike or from the minds of
ad execs like Betty Crocker

The act of associating a product or service with a brand has become part of pop culture.
Most products have some kind of brand identity, from common table salt to designer
jeans. A brandnomer is a brand name that has colloquially become a generic term for a
product or service, such as Band-Aid or Kleenex, which are often used to describe any
kind of adhesive bandage or any kind of facial tissue respectively.

Brand identity

A product identity, or brand image are typically the attributes one associates with a brand,
how the brand owner wants the consumer to perceive the brand - and by extension
the branded company, organization, product or service. The brand owner will seek to
bridge the gap between the brand image and the brand identity. Effective brand names
build a connection between the brand personality as it is perceived by the target audience
and the actual product/service. The brand name should be conceptually on target with the
product/service (what the company stands for). Furthermore, the brand name should be
on target with the brand demographic.[7] Typically, sustainable brand names are easy to
remember, transcend trends and have positive connotations. Brand identity is
fundamental to consumer recognition and symbolizes the brand's differentiation from
competitors.

Brand identity is what the owner wants to communicate to its potential consumers.
However, over time, a product's brand identity may acquire (evolve), gaining new
attributes from consumer perspective but not necessarily from the marketing
communications an owner percolates to targeted consumers. Therefore, brand
associations become handy to check the consumer's perception of the brand.[8]

Brand identity needs to focus on authentic qualities - real characteristics of the value and
brand promise being provided and sustained by organisational and/or production
characteristics[9][10].

Visual Brand Identity

The visual brand identity manual for Mobil Oil (developed by Chermayeff & Geismar),
one of the first visual identities to integrate logotype, icon, alphabet, color palette, and
station architecture to create a comprehensive consumer brand experience.

The recognition and perception of a brand is highly influenced by its visual presentation.
A brand’s visual identity is the overall look of its communications. Effective visual brand
identity is achieved by the consistent use of particular visual elements to create
distinction, such as specific fonts, colors, and graphic elements. At the core of every
brand identity is a brand mark, or logo. In the United States, brand identity and logo
design naturally grew out of the Modernist movement in the 1950’s and greatly drew on
the principals of that movement – simplicity (Mies van der Rohe’s principle of "Less is
more") and geometric abstraction. These principles can be observed in the work of the
pioneers of the practice of visual brand identity design, such as Paul Rand, Chermayeff &
Geismar and Saul Bass.

Brand parity

Brand parity is the perception of the customers that all brands are equivalent.[11]

Branding approaches
Company name

Often, especially in the industrial sector, it is just the company's name which is promoted
(leading to one of the most powerful statements of "branding"; the saying, before the
company's downgrading, "No one ever got fired for buying IBM").
In this case a very strong brand name (or company name) is made the vehicle for a range
of products (for example, Mercedes-Benz or Black & Decker) or even a range of
subsidiary brands (such as Cadbury Dairy Milk, Cadbury Flake or Cadbury Fingers in the
United States).

Individual branding

Main article: Individual branding

Each brand has a separate name (such as Seven-Up, Kool-Aid or Nivea Sun
(Beiersdorf)), which may even compete against other brands from the same company (for
example, Persil, Omo, Surf and Lynx are all owned by Unilever).

Attitude branding and Iconic brands

Attitude branding is the choice to represent a larger feeling, which is not necessarily
connected with the product or consumption of the product at all. Marketing labeled as
attitude branding include that of Nike, Starbucks, The Body Shop, Safeway, and Apple
Inc.. In the 2000 book No Logo,[12] Naomi Klein describes attitude branding as a "fetish
strategy".

"A great brand raises the bar -- it adds a greater sense of purpose to the experience,
whether it's the challenge to do your best in sports and fitness, or the affirmation that the
cup of coffee you're drinking really matters." - Howard Schultz (president, CEO, and
chairman of Starbucks)

The color, letter font and style of the Coca-Cola and Diet Coca-Cola logos in English
were copied into matching Hebrew logos to maintain brand identity in Israel.

Iconic brands are defined as having aspects that contribute to consumer's self-expression
and personal identity. Brands whose value to consumers comes primarily from having
identity value comes are said to be "identity brands". Some of these brands have such a
strong identity that they become more or less "cultural icons" which makes them iconic
brands. Examples of iconic brands are: Apple Inc., Nike and Harley Davidson. Many
iconic brands include almost ritual-like behaviour when buying and consuming the
products.

There are four key elements to creating iconic brands (Holt 2004):

1. "Necessary conditions" - The performance of the product must at least be ok

preferably with a reputation of having good quality.
2. "Myth-making" - A meaningful story-telling fabricated by cultural "insiders".
These must be seen as legitimate and respected by consumers for stories to be
accepted.
3. "Cultural contradictions" - Some kind of mismatch between prevailing ideology
and emergent undercurrents in society. In other words a difference with the way
consumers are and how they some times wish they were.
4. "The cultural brand management process" - Actively engaging in the myth-
making process making sure the brand maintains its position as an icon.

"No-brand" branding

Recently a number of companies have successfully pursued "No-Brand" strategies by

creating packaging that imitates generic brand simplicity. Examples include the Japanese
company Muji, which means "No label" in English (from 無印良品 – "Mujirushi
Ryohin" – literally, "No brand quality goods"), and the Florida company No-Ad
Sunscreen. Although there is a distinct Muji brand, Muji products are not branded. This
no-brand strategy means that little is spent on advertisement or classical marketing and
Muji's success is attributed to the word-of-mouth, a simple shopping experience and the
anti-brand movement.[13][14][15] "No brand" branding may be construed as a type of
branding as the product is made conspicuous through the absence of a brand name.

Derived brands

In this case the supplier of a key component, used by a number of suppliers of the end-
product, may wish to guarantee its own position by promoting that component as a brand
in its own right. The most frequently quoted example is Intel, which secures its position
in the PC market with the slogan "Intel Inside".

Brand extension

The existing strong brand name can be used as a vehicle for new or modified products;
for example, many fashion and designer companies extended brands into fragrances,
shoes and accessories, home textile, home decor, luggage, (sun-) glasses, furniture,
hotels, etc.

Mars extended its brand to ice cream, Caterpillar to shoes and watches, Michelin to a
restaurant guide, Adidas and Puma to personal hygiene. Dunlop extended its brand from
tires to other rubber products such as shoes, golf balls, tennis racquets and adhesives.
There is a difference between brand extension and line extension. A line extension is
when a current brand name is used to enter a new market segment in the existing product
class, with new varieties or flavors or sizes. When Coca-Cola launched "Diet Coke" and
"Cherry Coke" they stayed within the originating product category: non-alcoholic
carbonated beverages. Procter & Gamble (P&G) did likewise extending its strong lines
(such as Fairy Soap) into neighboring products (Fairy Liquid and Fairy Automatic)
within the same category, dish washing detergents.

Multi-brands

Alternatively, in a market that is fragmented amongst a number of brands a supplier can

choose deliberately to launch totally new brands in apparent competition with its own
existing strong brand (and often with identical product characteristics); simply to soak up
some of the share of the market which will in any case go to minor brands. The rationale
is that having 3 out of 12 brands in such a market will give a greater overall share than
having 1 out of 10 (even if much of the share of these new brands is taken from the
existing one). In its most extreme manifestation, a supplier pioneering a new market
which it believes will be particularly attractive may choose immediately to launch a
second brand in competition with its first, in order to pre-empt others entering the market.

Individual brand names naturally allow greater flexibility by permitting a variety of

different products, of differing quality, to be sold without confusing the consumer's
perception of what business the company is in or diluting higher quality products.

Once again, Procter & Gamble is a leading exponent of this philosophy, running as many
as ten detergent brands in the US market. This also increases the total number of
"facings" it receives on supermarket shelves. Sara Lee, on the other hand, uses it to keep
the very different parts of the business separate — from Sara Lee cakes through Kiwi
polishes to L'Eggs pantyhose. In the hotel business, Marriott uses the name Fairfield Inns
for its budget chain (and Ramada uses Rodeway for its own cheaper hotels).

Cannibalization is a particular problem of a "multibrand" approach, in which the new

brand takes business away from an established one which the organization also owns.
This may be acceptable (indeed to be expected) if there is a net gain overall.
Alternatively, it may be the price the organization is willing to pay for shifting its
position in the market; the new product being one stage in this process.

Private labels

With the emergence of strong retailers, private label brands, also called own brands, or
store brands, also emerged as a major factor in the marketplace. Where the retailer has a
particularly strong identity (such as Marks & Spencer in the UK clothing sector) this
"own brand" may be able to compete against even the strongest brand leaders, and may
outperform those products that are not otherwise strongly branded.

Individual and Organizational Brands

There are kinds of branding that treat individuals and organizations as the "products" to
be branded. Personal branding treats persons and their careers as brands. The term is
thought to have been first used in a 1997 article by Tom Peters.[16] Faith branding treats
religious figures and organizations as brands. Religious media expert Phil Cooke has
written that faith branding handles the question of how to express faith in a media-
dominated culture.[17] Nation branding works with the perception and reputation of
countries as brands.