NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

Wrap-up of Peoples and cultures of the Plains

What was the number 1 subsistence resource in the Plains region? How many different uses
were there for this particular animal resource?
Buffalo
At least 100 different uses
Mobility modes; which three Plains tribes were NOT nomadic?
Semi-sedentary and semi-nomadic in North Dakota and the Great Lakes
1. Mandan
2. Hidatsa
3. Arikara
Which tribes on the Plains practiced horticulture?
Mandan, Hidatsa and Arikara in North Dakota
Most tribes of the southern Plains and south of the Great Lakes
Karl Bodmers paintings recorded Plains culture and people about 30 years before they were ever
photographed
True or False: all native men of the Plains always wore their hair in two braids
FALSE???
Four of the most important spiritual and ceremonial traditions on the Plains were and are:
1. Vision quest
2. Sun dance
3. Sweat lodge
4. Pipe bundle ceremonies
Each sweat lodge has a guardian spirit and a human caretaker, or else you might as well just be
having a sauna
Intro to History Unit-European cultures, cosmology and class division at time of early
colonialism in America; Native American/European culture differences at time of first
contact; Motivations of Colonial-Era Europeans for going to America, and how they varied
by social class
What are the two primary types or categories of difference between traditional Native American
cultures and European cultures?
Spiritual and economic

????Understand the key concepts of Dominion Theology and the Great Chain of Being.

NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

God ordained social and natural hierarchies (higher and lower beings with greater and
lesser rights and privileges)
Humans created in the image of God and the higher-ranked humans direct Gods will
on Earth and bring everything into proper subjection
These beliefs justify the policies and deeds of European colonialism and the establishing
of their dominion in America

What sort of rights regarding the use of natural resources did the people who believed in that
cosmology assume? How did the cosmology affect their attitudes toward and relationships with
people who were not Christians or differed from them in beliefs and culture?
They thought they were superior to the earth itself. All life on earth were under the
rightful subjection of king and head of the church under this dominion theology and great
chain of being. They could do what they want as far as taking the resources of the earth.
Basic assumption that people who are not of your type or country or religion were
considered lesser than (inferior), they only had value when they were more like the
Europeans
Identify the 3 basic social classes in Europe at the time of first contact
1. The peasants or serfs
2. The royals (aka, nobles, including the sub-royals)
3. The merchants and skilled tradesmen
Which class of Europeans in that era believed most strongly in the Dominion Theology/Great
Chain of Being cosmology? Which class of Europeans was also oppressed by that cosmology?
Believers = Ruling Class, Alliance of church and state and their peers
Oppressed = serfs, peasants
Be sure to read Coursepack articles #20, 21, 22
Which class was the largest and from which class did most of the immigrants to America come?
Peasant Class
Motivations of the peasant class for going to America
to be freed from the oppressive dominion of the royals
to own land and have access to natural resources
to become somewhat like the royals
What is an indentured servant?
Someone who works for someone else to pay off debt and later gain their freedom
Main motivations of the royals of Europe for sending people to America
dominion
natural resources
wealth for state and church

NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

Differences in Cultural Values and Beliefs (Coursepack #20); understand the key differences
that we underlined; differences in religion, economics and resource use

The three stages of early European/Native American Interaction during the Colonial Era
Be able to identify the three stages of European/Native American interaction in the order which
they normally occurred (chronological sequence)
Friendly and Reciprocal
Demographic Shift and Conflicts
Establishment of Dominion
What was Spains Requerimiento? (Coursepack #22) How did the Spanish approach to
acquiring dominion differ from the English?
The document that required Indians to acknowledge the Church as the Ruler and
Superior of the whole world, the Pope as high priest, and the king and queen of
Spain as lords of their lands.
The Spanish usually skipped the friendly/reciprocal and demographic shift conflict
changes and went right away to the establishment of Dominion.
What did the Europeans get of value from the early stages of intercultural trade compared to the
Indians?
Interpreters
Guides
Knowledge about the natural resources of America (foods, medicines, wildlife, etc.)
Knowledge about land and people
Identify a few of the epidemic diseases that were the most devastating to Native American tribes
during the colonial era
Smallpox
Bubonic plague
Cholera
Measles
Tuberculosis
Differences in dependency on each others trade goods at the different stages
Beginning Stage: Europeans had much to gain and were quite dependent on the
American Indian People
Middle Stage: Depended on each other equally???

NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

Final Stage: Native people now dependent on Europeans and their economic
institutions, systems; Euros much less dependent on Natives, since they have the
land

European land acquisition: buying, stealing, or something else? (Discussion of Coursepack

articles 23a and 23b)
What were the cultural misunderstandings between Europeans and Indians about land ownership
and Native American leadership?
Coursepack #23, Economic and Cultural Impact of Early Contact with Europeans; identify the 6
items in bold printwhich item of impact was the most significant?
1. Epidemic Diseases
2. New Technology (European trade goods)
3. Loss of Homelands
4. Loss of Time
5. Warfare to New Extremes
6. Devaluation of Culture
Native Americans and the New Republic; Thomas Jeffersons Indian Policies; The
Doctrine of Discovery (Utter, pp. 10-20); the Indian Removal Act of 1830; Treaties and
Reservations
Overview of Coursepack article #28, common elements of wars involving intertribal armies
defending their world against the colonialists and the U.S.
Intertribal armies form when its too late; give people the benefit of the doubt and
when they find out these people are incorrigible, its too late, too main invaders
Ultimately fail; some temporary victories where they drive people out, but they
come back
What were Jeffersons three different attitudes and policies toward Indians (Plan A, B, and C)?
Come and Join Us
Get Out of Our Way
Resistance is Punishable by Death
Which plan did Jefferson express when talking directly to Indians?
Plan A
Which plan resembles our modern credit system to some degree?
Plan B
Was Jefferson opposed to using violence to remove Indian nations from their lands?
NOPE
What was the purpose of the Indian Removal Act of 1830?

NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

to acquire the Indian lands east of the Mississippi for the expanding industrial
economy
to expand the production of cotton, which by 1820 had become the most profitable
agricultural crop in U.S. history (32% of export revenue) (The main focus of the
Removal became the tribes of the deep south)
What was Indian Territory and where was it located? How many tribes were sent there
between 1830 and 1889?
The place which all or any American Indian nations were placed after being
removed by force from their homelands in the U.S.
Located in Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska
67 tribes sent there
Was there only one Trail of Tears?
No, there were many trails of tears
Why did the Removal process focus mostly on the tribal nations of the Deep South? What did
the rapid expansion of the cotton industry have to do with it?
To expand the production of cotton, which by 1820 had become the most profitable
agricultural crop in U.S. history (32% of export revenue)
Identify a few impacts of the Removal on the tribes involved. What issues did they have to deal
with and what sorts of adjustments did they have to make after they arrived there?
Between to 1/3 of the deported Native Americans died on the way to Indian
Territory
Major adjustment to new ecosystems, new world in Indian Territory: poverty,
economic dependency, sickness, more loss of lives
Conflicts with the tribal nations who were already there
Internal conflicts and divisions within the tribes
Definition for Treaty
A binding legal agreement between two or more sovereign nations
Definition of a reservation
A small remnant of a tribal nations original homeland, reserved by the U.S.
government by treaty for the exclusive use of the tribe, or tribes, named in the
treaty, after the U.S. took the rest of their homeland.
What are the two main legal precedents which establish tribal sovereignty?
The sovereignty of Native American tribal nations is affirmed by the U.S.
Constitution, Article 1, sections 8 and 10
several Supreme Court rulings, as well as by the treaties themselves.
Identify the main provisions of Articles 1, 2, 3, and 5 of the treaties
1. Describes the geographic boundaries of the Indian land to be taken by the U.S.

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2. Reserves a little of the Indian land for the original owners (although the native
people thought of themselves more as caretakers of the land)defines the
boundaries of the reservations
3. Preserves some Indian subsistence rights (hunting, fishing, and plant food
gathering)
5. establishes Native economic dependency on the U.S. and U.S. economic
responsibility for the welfare of Indian people, based on economic promises that the
U.S. devised and made in this article (not asked for by the Indians)
Which 2 treaty articles had the most to do with creating economic dependency for Indians on
reservations?
Article 1
Article 5
What percentage of their original homelands were the Salish and Kootenai tribes left with after
the creation of the Flathead Indian Reservation?
5.7% of the original land base
3 purposes of U.S./Indian treaties
1. to take Indian lands for the expansion of the United States
2. to keep Indians out of the way of U.S. expansion by confining them to reservations
3. to preserve peace and prevent Indian retaliation
4. to avoid the costs of war
Why did the U.S. senate reject all of the treaties with the Indian tribes of California in 1852?
The mining interests did not want to have any potential gold or silver mines
inaccessible due to being on reservations
U.S. Grants Peace Policy of 1871 recognize 2 things that it did
No treaties, no new reservations
Turn over the education promise (build schools)
How many treaties were made and broken?
370 treaties were made
370 were broken
What did the Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 do to Indian Territory?
Took away the northern 2/3 of Indian Territory
Main impacts of treaties and reservations (Coursepack #33, especially bold print headings and
key comments from lecture)
Loss of homeland and resource base
Tribes restricted to reservation lands
Subjected to the authority of agents of the U.S. government
Economic dependency on the U.S. government

NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

Missionaries had a captive audience and were given the authority to start
boarding schools
The chiefs gradually lost authority and respect among their people
The effect of all of the above was frequent periods of starvation, various other
hardships and health problems related to poverty, cultural devaluation and loss of
culture.

Boarding Schools and their Impacts on Native American People

Motivations for the boarding school and allotment ideas
In what ways were the people behind these ideas both benevolent and paternalistic?
benevolent (well-meaning), but also ethnocentric (belief that ones own culture is
the standard by which all others should be measured) and paternalistic (treating
others like children)
Names of the first Indian boarding school and its founder
School: Carlisle Indian Industrial School
Founder: Colonel Richard Pratt
Purpose of the boarding schools
To train Native American children in the industrial arts, so they could be accepted
in U.S. society
How many off-reservation boarding schools were there in the U.S. by 1899?
25 off-reservation boarding schools (in 13 different states)
8 impacts of boarding schools on Native American people and tribes described in lecture
1. alienated children from their families and tribes
2. caused loss of language and culture
3. created low self-esteem and negative self-images in the students (internalized
racism)
4. gave the Indian students a distorted view of Euro-Americans (both negative and
positive distortions)
5. provided the Native American students with some basic literacy and some
marketable industrial skills
6. created some people who could not fit well into either the Euro-American world or
the world they came from
7. gave some Indians a distrust of and aversion towards Euro-American formal
education
8. disrupted and degraded Native American child-raising traditions and nurturing
processes
How did the boarding schools effect Indian cultural continuity, including parenting and nurturing
practices?

NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

Deliberate attack on the Indian culture, only way to save them from Genesi or being
wiped out is to convert and transform them to live like European Americans
The methods they used to achieve the deculturalization of many people did the most
harm to parenting and nurturing.
o Removing kids from the nurturing environment from their home community
o Physical abuse (not only beating as punishment, but rape)

What was often the first thing that the schools forbade and punished students for when they first
arrived at the schools?
The speaking of their language
The Allotment Act and its Impact on Native American Tribes and People
Carl Schurz and Henry Dawes began designing the Allotment Act one year after what major
event which created an increased anti-Indian sentiment in America? Why did it take ten years of
very difficult compromise to get the law passed?
Custers defeat (much hostility against Indians, nationwide)
Took ten years because there was so much resistance to it from the anti-Indian
industrialists and politicians
Refer to Coursepack #38, 2 parts: part 1, main points of the Allotment Act, and part 2, impacts
of the Allotment Act
Part 1
1. Indians must end common (or group) ownership of tribal land.
- divided reservation lands into 160 acre lots, to be claimed by each
individual head of household (males only, unless a woman was a widow)
- single heads of households could get 80 acres.
2. There would be a 25 year patent on each lot, held "in trust" by the U.S.
government, so that Indians couldn't sell, lease, or otherwise dispose of their
allotments without govt. permission. (The Act was amended in1891 to allow
leasing of allotments) (Roots of the federal trust responsibility and the Cobell case.)
3. Each Indian head of household was given four years to select an allotment,
or the government would select one for them.
4. All unclaimed lots could be declared surplus lands and "assigned" (or given
by the government) to non-Indians. This was the primary reason that
Congress passed the Act.
5. Any Indians who would choose to abandon tribal ties and allegiances could
become citizens of the United States.
Part 2
1. More loss of land: through non-Indian seizures of unclaimed lots and
reductions in size of the reservations, 2/3 (two thirds) of the reservation
lands were lost by 1934. (Burke Act of 1906 ended 25-year trust)
- 138 million acres reduced to 48million acres (20 million of which was
desert or poor" land)

NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

2. Further breakdown of tribal unity. (Conflicts between those who resisted

Allotment and those who submitted to it.)
3. Environmental destruction by mining, logging and ranching outfits (and
others) who took the unclaimed lots.
4. Increased close contact with white society, domination by whites and
influences of white culture. (including blood quantum, race concept)
5. Increased assimilation to white culture, by Indians, and loss of Indian
culture (beginnings of Indian cowboy culture)
6. Increased economic dependency on white Americans, including the
conversion from subsistence to the cash economy
number of acres allotted to individuals; why were lots held in trust by the government;
meanings of surplus land, blood quantum
160 acres
held in trust so that Indians couldnt sell, lease, or otherwise dispose of their
allotments without govt. permission
surplus lands=all unclaimed lots that can and would be assigned by the
government to non-Indians
blood quantum= the fraction of a persons genes that are allegedly inherited from
Native American ancestors
How much reservation land was lost due to the Allotment Act?
2/3
Two reasons for cowboy culture among some Native Americans
increased assimilation to white culture, by Indians
loss of Indian culture
Early 20th Century Developments in American Indian History; Indian reorganization Act of
1934: WWII and changes in Indian Policy
After oil was discovered in Oklahoma, what % of Indian allotments were lost?
90%
What was the purpose of the Curtis Act of 1898?
To deny the validity of the governments of tribal nations
In what year were all Native Americans granted U.S. citizenship?
1924

NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

What four areas of Indian life did the Merriam Commission study?
1. Health
2. Housing
3. Employment, cash income
4. Education
How was John Collier different in attitude towards Indian culture than most of the previous B.I.A
personnel?
Collier actually liked Native American cultures and thought that they should be
protected and restored
What was the new agenda that Collier brought to the B.I.A, and how did that reflect the Merriam
Report and treaty obligations?
Wanted to preserve Indian cultures as much as possible.
Succeeded to a small degree
Coursepack #43-the Indian Reorganization Act of 1934; know the four main points; What form
of government was imposed on the tribes (if they agreed to accept it)?
1. Ended the Allotment Act policies
2. Created Federal Programs for Indian Economic Assistance
3. Restored the Right of Indian Tribes to Have Tribal Governments
4. Tribal Acceptance of the I.R.A. was optional
Govt imposed= traditional tribal governments (created layers of bureaucracy?)
Number of Native Americans who served in WWII
45,000 (25,000 from Reservations, 20,000 off reservations)
Four U.S. government goals (policies) concerning Indians and their lands after WWII
1. more natural resources needed for the cold war against the Soviet Union and
international communism
2. reservation lands have natural resources so the U.S. seeks to acquire more of those
lands
3. many in Congress hope to escape from economic obligations to treaty tribes
4. assimilating Indians more into the urban mainstream as another racial minority
group rather than as members of sovereign nations seen as the best way to
accomplish the above goals
What motivations did those policies have in common?
3 new Indian Programs (1946, 1952, 1953)identify the programs, purposes
1946, the Indian Claims Commission
o official purpose: to settle monetary debts the U.S. owed to Native American
nations for lands taken during the treaty period
o unofficial purpose: to convince Native Americans with reservations to accept
more money for the rest of their lands

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1952, the Voluntary Relocation Program

o to encourage Indians to leave their reservations and relocate to the American
cities for their own economic benefit
o to further assimilate Native Americans into U.S. society and culture
1953, the Termination Resolutions (an Act of Congress)
o to terminate the status of Indian tribal sovereign nations, and thus end U.S.
treaty obligations, trust responsibilities, and the existence of Indian
reservations

Programs of the 50s and 60s, cont.: Native American Activism in the 20th century; The
Indian Claims Commission and its effect on the Western Shoshones (excerpt from the film,
Broken Treaty at Battle Mountain)
What did it mean for a tribe to be terminated by the federal government?
How many tribes were officially terminated by 1962?
61
Identify the National Congress of Americans Indianswho are they and what do they do?
Tribal nations uniting to work together for their common interests (lobbying
Congress, etc.)
Main Goals: to keep their remaining lands and their sovereignty; improve economic
conditions and opportunities, including education and job training; promote healing
The American Indian Movement (AIM), know their goals and their significance
Indian youth-led organization working for similar goals as the NCAI, but in their
own special way; started by mostly college-educated, urban Indians, then some
reservations
GOALS:
o Get Americas immediate attention and spread awareness of Native
American issues and concerns
o Fight for Native American treaty rights, civil rights, and against racism and
discrimination in cities as well as on the reservations
o Protect tribal sovereignty and traditional cultures
o Learn and teach their tribal cultures and history
o Teach the true history of America
What did AIM accomplish through their radical media presence?
They would occupy areas and made a statement for all Indians.
What did they call the march and gathering at Washington D.C. in 1972?
Trail of Broken Treaties

NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

Did the Indian Claims Commission offer to pay tribes the present-day market value for lands that
were taken in the 19th century?
NO!!
Why did some Western Shoshones not accept the claims payment money, and why did some
other Western Shoshones accept the money?
Not Accept Didnt believe what the BIA officer was saying
Accept So poor, they had to support their family some how and took it
What were some positive results from Indian activism in the 1960s and 70s?
Ended the termination and relocation policies
Some terminated tribes restored to federal recognition
Some stolen indian lands returned
Major change in B.I.A. policy
Which U.S. president was the first to return some of the stolen lands to a Native American tribal
nation? Nixon
Name two of the tribes whom the United States returned formerly-confiscated lands to between
1971 and 1980
1. Taos Pueblo
2. Yakama
3. Passamaquoddy
4. Penobscot
Native American Activism in the 20th century, cont:; The Indian Self Determination Act of
1975; Cultural revival; Employment and Economic Development on Reservations Today;
21st Century Indigenous Activism
How did the Indian Self-Determination Act of 1975 change the role of the BIA?
A shift from Bossing Indians Around to a new role for the B.I.A as accountants
and auditors (but still bureaucrats) just making sure that tribes do what they said
they would do with the money
How did that Act help with tribal cultural revival efforts, and with dealing with tribal health
issues?
A shift to tribal autonomy was not automatic and depended on tribes readiness and
willingness to take over programs
Allowed for many innovative, culturally-friendly alternative schools and programs
to begin
o Increased cultural pride and renewal, increased participation in traditional
cultural activities
o Steps toward healing the deep wounds of colonialism, health issues, etc.
How did it improve educational opportunities for Native Americans?

NASX 105 FINAL EXAM REVIEW

Culturally friendly alternative schools and programs began

Number of tribal community colleges increased rapidly (34 at present)

Unemployment on American Indian reservations averages around 50-60% (ranging from 2% to

90%) What do these statistics fail to take into account?
Traditional subsistence---hunting, gathering, horticulture, the hidden, or
underground economy
What conditions must exist for a tribal casino to be successful? About what percent of the Indian
casinos actually are very successful?
1. Location: must be near or accessible to major population centers
2. Large amount of start-up capital: $2 million It takes money to make moneymay
require outside investors, partners
3. Expertise: capable, experienced managers, with the tribes best interests at heart
4. Political savvy: must be willing and able to successfully negotiate with the state
Indian Gaming Regulatory Act of 1988: What were the stated purposes of this Act, and what
does the Act actually do to the tribes (esp., the threat to tribal sovereignty)?
Requires any tribal nation that wants to operate a high states casino to negotiate an
agreement with the state in which they reside regarding the types of gaming that
they can operatewhich leads to states taking a cut of the profits
Violation of Article 1, secs. 8 & 10 of the constitution, and a limitation on tribal
sovereignty
Identify a few other economic development tools on present day reservations besides casinos
Tourism-related businesses (museums, culture centers, hotels, restaurants, etc)
Arts, traditional crafts, other small businesses, stores
Large-scale manufacturing, industry
Natural resource-extracting industries (logging, mining) tribal operations or leased
out
Education: tribal colleges, cultural workshops and camps, etc.
Government jobs both tribal and B.I.A
Ranching and farming
What are the federal criteria for recognition of Native American tribes?
1. The tribe must have been identified as American Indian from historic times to the
present
2. A substantial portion of the tribe must live in a specific (geographic) area or in
a distinctly American Indian tribal community. The members must also be
descended from a tribe that historically inhabited a certain geographic area.
3. The tribe must have maintained some sort of tribal government or council with
authority or influence over its members, from historic times to present
4. The tribe must have their own membership criteria and governmental procedures
5. The tribal government must keep a list or roll of all current tribal members
6. The tribes members can not be members of more than one tribe

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7. The tribe must not have been previously terminated by Congress or disqualified for
recognition by the Bureau of Indian Affairs (B.I.A)
Who has the right to determine requirements for individual membership in Indian tribes?
Each tribe has the right to set their own criteria for who can be an enrolled member
of that tribe
How does modern criteria for tribal membership differ from the pre-European contact traditions
for accepting new members into tribes?

ESSAY QUESTIONS
#1 & #3