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Integrating PALSAR and ASTER data

for mineral deposits exploration in
tropical environments: a case study
from Central Belt, Peninsular Malaysia
a

Amin Beiranvand Pour & Mazlan Hashim

Institute of Geospatial Science & Technology (INSTeG), Universiti

Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM, Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
Published online: 18 Dec 2014.

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To cite this article: Amin Beiranvand Pour & Mazlan Hashim (2014): Integrating PALSAR and
ASTER data for mineral deposits exploration in tropical environments: a case study from
Central Belt, Peninsular Malaysia, International Journal of Image and Data Fusion, DOI:
10.1080/19479832.2014.985619
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International Journal of Image and Data Fusion, 2014

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19479832.2014.985619

RESEARCH ARTICLE
Integrating PALSAR and ASTER data for mineral deposits
exploration in tropical environments: a case study from Central Belt,
Peninsular Malaysia

Downloaded by [Universiti Teknologi Malaysia] at 17:41 22 December 2014

Amin Beiranvand Pour* and Mazlan Hashim

Institute of Geospatial Science & Technology (INSTeG), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310
UTM, Skudai, Johor Bahru, Malaysia
(Received 10 June 2014; accepted 29 October 2014)
Remote sensing investigation for mineral deposits exploration in tropical environments
is not completely implemented due to obstacles imposed by tropical climate. Recent
challenge is to use the most suitable recent generation of remote sensing data and
image processing approaches for the detection of lithological units and structural
features associated with epithermal and polymetallic vein-type mineralisation, which
are concealed by tropical rainforest. This research investigates the integration of the
Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) and the Advanced
Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) satellite data for
geological mapping applications in tropical environments. The eastern part of the
Central Belt of Peninsular Malaysia with high potential for gold prospecting has
been investigated as a case study to identify structural features and mineral assemblages using PALSAR and ASTER data. Adaptive local sigma and directional filters
were applied to PALSAR data for detecting geological structure elements in the study
area. Vegetation, mineralogic and lithologic indices for ASTER bands were tested in
tropical climate. Lineaments (fault and fractures) and curvilinear (anticline or syncline)
were detected using PALSAR image map of directional filters (NS, NESW and
NWSE).Vegetation index image map show vegetation cover using ASTER visible
and near-infrared radiation (VNIR) bands. High concentration of clay minerals zone
was detected using image map derived from ASTER shortwave infrared (SWIR)
bands. ASTER thermal infrared (TIR) bands produced image map of the lithological
units. Results indicate that data integration from PALSAR and ASTER sources
enhanced information extraction for geological mapping in tropical environments.
The study presented here encourages further applications of satellite remote sensing
data integration for mapping structural elements, hydrothermal alteration minerals and
lithological units associated with epithermal and polymetallic vein-type mineralisation
in tropical environments.
Keywords: satellite data integration; PALSAR; ASTER; geological mapping; tropical
environments

1. Introduction
The application of remote sensing data for geological mapping in tropical environments is
not completely implemented due to obstacles imposed by tropical climate such as the
persistent cloud coverage, dense to complete vegetation cover and limited bedrock
exposures. However, remote sensing investigations are always considered complementary
for any geological research for metallic deposits exploration in arid and semi-arid regions
*Corresponding author. Email: a.beiranvand@utm.my
2014 Taylor & Francis

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A.B. Pour and M. Hashim

(Sabins 1999, Di Tommaso and Rubinstein 2007, Gabr et al. 2010, Pour et al. 2011, Pour
and Hashim 2011a, 2011b, 2011c, 2011d, 2012a, 2012b, 2013).
Recent challenge is to introduce the most suitable recent generation of remote sensing
data and innovative image processing approaches for the detection of lithological and
structural features associated with epithermal and polymetallic vein-type mineralisation,
which are concealed by tropical rainforest and the obstacles imposed by tropical environments. The extensive and intensive survey of literature indicated that the application of
remote sensing data for geological mapping in tropical environments has been much more
limited. However, preliminary studies demonstrated the applicability of satellite remote
sensing imagery for mineral exploration in tropical environments (Carranza and Hale
2002; Galvo et al. 2005; Hashim et al. 2013, Pour et al. 2013, 2014, Pour and Hashim
2014a, 2014b, 2014c, 2015). Recent generation of high-resolution multiplatform satellite
sensors with various spectralspatial imagery in shortwave infrared (SWIR) and long
wavelength thermal and radar regions of the electromagnetic spectrum such as the
Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) and the
Phased Array type L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) data could be used to
extract lithological and structural information in tropical environments.
Integration of multisource remote sensing images is considered to be a prime solution
to optimise information extraction from remote sensing data (Zhang 2010, Fang et al.
2013, Pohl and Van Genderen 2014). The integration of image data is a valuable tool in
remote sensing image evaluation to obtain the best characteristics of each type of remote
sensor for the investigation (Abdikan et al., 2012, Pour and Hashim 2013). Previous
investigations demonstrated that the integration of microwave and optical remote sensing
data provides more accurate information compared with individual sensor results for
mineral prospecting in tropical environments (Abdikan et al., 2012, Pal et al. 2007,
Rahman et al. 2010, Pour et al. 2013, 2014). The response of radar is more of a function
of geometrical properties and the structure of the surface in comparison with surface
reflection as in optical images (Abdikan et al., 2012, Pal et al. 2007). Thus, the integration
of microwave remote sensing and optical images could play an important role in extracting lithological and structural information for metallic deposits exploration in tropical
environments.
Synthetic aperture radar (SAR) is an active microwave remote sensing system that can
acquire data with high resolution regardless of day or night time, cloud, haze or smoke
over a region. Clouds are reasonably transparent to microwave providing measurements
with almost any weather conditions. Radar transmits and detects radiation between 2 and
100 cm, typically at 2.53.8 cm (X-band), 4.07.5 cm (C-band) and 15.030.0 cm
(L-band) (Spatz 1997, Woodhouse 2006, Campbell 2007). Longer wavelengths optimise
the depth of investigation of the radar signal. The long wavelengths allow radar to have
complete atmospheric transmission. Generally, the approximate depth of penetration is
equal to radars nominal wavelength. L-band can observe the forests underlying surface
features as well as the canopy because of its penetration capability (Henderson and Lewis
1998, Abdelsalam et al. 2000, Shimada and Isoguchi 2002). Thus, in tropical environments, L-band SAR data provide the possibility of obtaining more useable geological
structure information from the ground.
PALSAR sensor is a L-band SAR, with multimode observation function (Fine mode,
Direct downlink, ScanSar mode and Polarimetric mode). It has multipolarisation configuration (HH, HV, VH and VV), variable off-nadir angle (9.950.8) and switching spatial
resolution (10, 30 and 100 m for Fine, Polarimetric and ScanSar modes, respectively) and
swath width observation (30, 70 and 250350 km for Polarimetric, Fine and ScanSar

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International Journal of Image and Data Fusion

modes, respectively) (Igarashi 2001, Rosenqvist et al. 2004, ERSDAC, 2006). Highresolution (Fine mode), full polarimetry (multipolarisation mode), off-nadir pointing
function of PALSAR improved the accuracy of analysing geological structure and distribution of rocks and is expected to be used for the first stage of ore deposits exploration
(Earth Remote Sensing Data Analysis Center (ERSDAC) 2006). Consequently, PALSAR
data contain great contribution for the geological structural analysis in tropical regions.
The ASTER is a multispectral imaging sensor that measures reflected and emitted
electromagnetic radiation from Earths surface and atmosphere in 14 bands. The spectral
bands include three visible and near-infrared radiation (VNIR) bands ranging between
0.52 and 0.86 m with a spatial resolution of 15 m; six SWIR radiation bands from 1.6 to
2.43 m with a spatial resolution of 30 m and five recording thermal infrared (TIR)
radiation bands in 8.12511.65 m wavelength region with spatial resolution of 90 m
(Yamaguchi et al. 1999, Abrams 2000).
Accordingly, the integration of the PALSAR and ASTER data would produce comprehensive geological information for metallic deposits exploration in tropical environments by using suitable image processing algorithms. This research presents a remote
sensing digital image processing approach for the PALSAR and ASTER data aim at
geological structure and mineral mapping in the Central Belt of the Peninsular Malaysia,
which has tropical climate. Many gold mines and prospects in the Peninsular Malaysia are
located in the Central Belt.
2. Geology of the study area
Peninsular Malaysia is divided into three geological belts based on stratigraphical and
structural differences, namely the Eastern Belt, Central Belt and Western Belt (Figure 1)
(Hutchison 1975). The Central Belt contains thick PermianTriassic marine carbonates,
shales, volcaniclastics and andesitic volcanics (Metcalfe and Hussin 1995, Abdullah
et al. 2009) that are folded into broad kilometre-scale open folds (Metcalfe and
Chakraborty 1996). The Central Belt is bounded by the BentongRaub Suture Zone
to the west and the Lebir Fault Zone to the east (Campi et al. 2002). This study focuses
on the eastern part of the Central Belt (Figure 1). The study area was chosen based on
remote sensing image availability of both PALSAR and ASTER data sets. The Central
Belt is a highly potential region for prospecting gold exploration targets along the major
lineament structures using remote sensing technology. Gold mineralisation in this belt is
structurally controlled. The ore fluids ascended and deposited in structurally favourable
traps, such as shear zones, saddle reefs and fold hinges during metamorphism and
deformation (Yeap 1993). Major gold mineralisation is observed along the steeply
dipping faults and hosted in sandstone, carbonaceous shale, tuffaceous siltstone and
tuffaceous conglomerate (Ariffin and Hewson 2007, Makoundi 2012). Volcanics and
volcaniclastic rocks are much more common and volumetrically significant in the
Central and Eastern Belts of the Peninsular Malaysia. Thick piles of volcaniclastic
reworked tuffs and agglomerates of Permian and Triassic age occur in the Central
Belt (Metcalfe et al. 1982, Metcalfe and Chakraborty 1996), together with intermediate
to felsic volcanics.
3. Materials
A PALSAR and four ASTER scenes were obtained from the Earth and Remote Sensing
Data Analysis Center (ERSDAC), Japan (http://gds.palsar.ersdac.jspacesystems.or.jp/e/),

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A.B. Pour and M. Hashim

Figure 1. Simplified geological map of the Peninsular Malaysia. Modified from Metcalfe (2013).
Study area is located in black cube.

for the eastern part of Central Belt of Peninsular Malaysia. A PALSAR Fine Mode Dual
polarisation (FBD) Level 4.1 scene (PASL1000711251554201312148029) (Path/Row
487/8) used in this study was acquired on 25 November 2007. FBD is an observation
mode by dual polarisation of HH + HV and VV + VH. Polarisations are abbreviated as
HH = horizontally transmitted and horizontally received, HV = horizontally transmitted
and vertically received, VV = vertically transmitted and vertically received, VH = vertically transmitted and horizontally received (Earth Remote Sensing Data Analysis Center
(ERSDAC) 2006). The Level 4.1 product scene used in this study has good quality with
12.5-m pixel spacing, off-nadir angle of 34.3 and incident angle of 38.8, which is georeference and geo-coded. In geo-coded data, slant range is converted to ground range
(Earth Remote Sensing Data Analysis Center (ERSDAC) 2006). It should be noted that
the PALSAR image was acquired during dry season for the study area, because weather
conditions (e.g., precipitation) and soil moisture variations could be obstacles for detailed

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International Journal of Image and Data Fusion

geological mapping. However, multitemporal SAR images could be more useful for
detailed geological mapping in tropical environments.
The ASTER data (ASTL1A0502190344360503140506) used in this study, comprising level 1B, 2B05S, 2B04 and 4A01Z products, were acquired on 19 February 2005.
Level 1B product is generated by applying the radiometric and geometric correction
coefficients contained in level 1A. Level 2B05S (reflectance of the Earths surface in
SWIR) product contains land surface reflectance generated from the quantities of radiance
in SWIR sensor. Level 2B04 (emissivity at the Earths surface in TIR) contains surface
emissivity generated from the quantities of radiance received in TIR bands by applying
temperatureemissivity separation (TES algorithm; Gillespie et al. 1998) to atmospherically corrected surface radiance in TIR (2B01T) data. Level 4A01 (Relativity Digital
Elevation Model (DEM) Z) offers relative elevation data extracted from stereoscopic data
acquired in VNIR 3N (nadir looking) and 3B (backward looking) bands. These height
data are defined against the reference ellipsoid (Abrams 2000). ASTER data contain only
5% cloud cover for the study area. In this study, the PALSAR and ASTER data were
processed using the ENVI (Environment for Visualising Images) version 4.8 software
package.

4. Methods
4.1. Preprocessing of the data
Radar images are inherently corrupted by speckle. The presence of speckle in an image
reduces the detectability of ground targets, obscures the spatial patterns of surface
features and decreases the accuracy of automated image classification. It is necessary
to treat the speckle by filtering the data before it can be used in various applications
(Lee et al. 1994). Therefore, Level 4.1 PALSAR data are required to be filtered for
speckle reduction.
A speckle suppression filter is expected to filter the homogeneous areas with reasonable speckle reduction capability, retain edges, preserve features (linear features and point
features) and have reasonable theoretical assumptions. Adaptive filters remove radar
speckle from images without seriously affecting the spatial characteristics of the data
(Lee et al. 1994, Sveinsson and Benediktsson 1996, Sheng and Xia 1996).
Accordingly, adaptive filtering was applied to the Level 4.1 PALSAR data. Adaptive
filtering uses the standard deviation of those pixels within a local box surrounding each
pixel to calculate a new pixel value. Typically, the original pixel value is replaced with a
new value calculated based on the surrounding valid pixels (those that satisfy the standard
deviation criteria). Adaptive filters preserve image sharpness and detail while suppressing
noise (Lopes et al. 1990, Shi and Fung 1994, Research Systems 2008). The adaptive
Local Sigma filter was selected for this study and applied to the Level 4.1 PALSAR image
to accomplish speckle reduction and preserve both edges and features. The Local Sigma
filter uses the local standard deviation computed for the filter box to determine valid
pixels within the filter window. It replaces the pixel being filtered with the mean
calculated using only the valid pixels within the filter box (Eliason and McEwen 1990).
Local Sigma filter can be used to preserve fine detail (even in low contrast areas) and to
reduce speckle significantly (Research Systems 2008). Local Sigma filter showed favourable output in preserving edges and features as well as speckle suppression in this study;
hence, it seems to be more practical than other adaptive filters for geological structural
analysis.

A.B. Pour and M. Hashim

Geometric and radiometric corrections have already been applied on the ASTER data
products used in this study. The images were pre-georeferenced to UTM zone 40 North
projection by using WGS-84 datum. The crosstalk correction was performed to level 1B
ASTER data product, aimed at removing the effects of energy overspill from band 4 into
bands 5 and 9 (Iwasaki and Tonooka 2005). We have performed this correction by CrossTalk correction software that is available from www.gds.aster.ersdac.or.jp. Atmospheric
correction was applied by Fast Line-of-sight Atmospheric Analysis of Spectral
Hypercubes (FLAASH) algorithm (Thome et al. 1998).

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4.2. Image processing methods

In this study, directional filters were applied to the PALSAR Local Sigma resultant image
for edge enhancement and detailed identification of linear features. A linear filter is
calculated in the spatial domain as a weighted sum of pixels within the moving window.
This discrete convolution between the input image f and the window response function w,
both of size NX NY, is written mathematically for the output pixel gij,
gij

N
y 1
x 1 N
X
X

fmn wimjn

(1)

m0 n0

and expressed symbolically in the convenient form,

g f *w

(2)

Since the nonzero extent of the window is typically much smaller than the image, the sum
in Equation (1) does not have to be over every pixel. If the window is wx wy pixels, we
can write an alternate expression,
gij

iW
y =2
X

jW
x =2
X

fmn wimjn

(3)

miWy =2 njWx =2

where w is centred at (0,0) and is nonzero over  wx/2and  w2x=2 . In this form, we can
clearly see that the output pixel is a weighted sum of pixels within a neighbourhood of the
input pixel. The distinguishing characteristic of a linear filter is the principle of superposition, which states that the output of the filter for a sum of two or more inputs is equal
to the sum of the individual outputs that would be produced by each input separately. This
is achieved with a convolution because Equation (2) is a linear weighted sum of the input
pixels. Furthermore, the filter is shift-invariant if the weights do not change as the window
moves across the image (Schowengerdt 2007).
Directional filters are used to enhance specific linear trends in an image. A typical
directional filter consists of two kernels, each of which is an array of 3 3 pixels. The left
kernel is multiplied by cos A, where A is the angle, relative to the north, of the linear
direction to be enhanced. The right kernel is multiplied by sin A. Angles in northeast
quadrant are considered negative; angles in northwest quadrant are positive. The filter can
be demonstrated by applying it to a data set in which a brighter area is separated from a
darker area along a total lineament that trends northeast (A = 45) (Carr 1995, Sabins
1996, Vincent 1997, Research Systems 2008). Directional filter is very useful for

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International Journal of Image and Data Fusion

producing artificial effects suggesting tectonically controlled linear features (Drury 1986,
Suzen and Toprak 1998, Kavak and Cetin 2007, Amri et al. 2011, Pour and Hashim
2014b, 2015). Chavez and Bauer (1982) suggested that the optimum kernel size (3 3,
5 5, 7 7, etc.) typically used in edge enhancement is a function of the surface
roughness. Blurring becomes more severe as the size of the kernel increases, especially
at the edges of objects (Jensen 2005).
Four principal Directional filters NS, EW, NESW, and NWSE with a 7 7 kernel
size were applied (Table 1) to the resultant image. 7 7 kernel matrix was selected to
enhance semi-smooth and smooth/rough features. Directional filter angles were adjusted
as NS: 0, EW: 90, NESW: 45 and NWSE: 135. North (up) is 0 and the other
angles are measured in the counterclockwise direction. Image Add Back value was
entered 60%. The Image Add Back value is the percentage of the original image that is
included in the final output image. Adding back part of the original image to the
convolution filter results helps preserve the spatial context and is typically done to
sharpen an image.
Because ASTER has 14 spectral bands, many permutations of ratio images and thus
more lithologic and mineralogic indices can be derived from ASTER data (Pour and
Hashim 2012b). Ninomiya (2003a, 2003b) defined a vegetation index and mineralogic

Table 1.
NS
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
EW
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
0.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
NESW
1.4142
1.4142
1.4142
0.7071
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
NWSE
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.7071
1.4142
1.4142
1.4142

Directional filters with 7 7 kernel matrix.

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
0.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
0.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
0.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
0.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
0.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

1.0000
1.0000
1.0000
0.0000
1.0000
1.0000
1.0000

1.4142
1.4142
1.4142
0.7071
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000

1.4142
1.4142
1.4142
0.7071
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000

0.7071
0.7071
0.7071
0.0000
0.7071
0.7071
0.7071

0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.7071
1.4142
1.4142
1.4142

0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.7071
1.4142
1.4142
1.4142

0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.7071
1.4142
1.4142
1.4142

0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.7071
1.4142
1.4142
1.4142

0.0000
0.0000
0.0000
0.7071
1.4142
1.4142
1.4142

0.7071
0.7071
0.7071
0.0000
0.7071
0.7071
0.7071

1.4142
1.4142
1.4142
0.7071
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000

1.4142
1.4142
1.4142
0.7071
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000

1.4142
1.4142
1.4142
0.7071
0.0000
0.0000
0.0000

A.B. Pour and M. Hashim

indices for ASTER VNIR and SWIR bands, as well as lithologic indices for ASTER TIR
bands by considering the spectral absorption features of vegetation and different minerals
and rocks in ASTER spectral channels. The resulting indices are listed as follows:
Stabilized vegetation index (StVI)




band 3 band 1
band 2 band 2


OH bearing-altered minerals index (OHI)

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Kaolinite index (KLI)

band 4
band 5

band 7
band 6



band 4
band 6



band 8
band 6

(4)

(5)

(6)




band 7 band 7
band 5 band 8

(7)




band 6 band 9
Calcite index (CLI)
band 8 band 8

(8)

Alunite index (ALI)

Quartz index (QI)

band 11*band 11
band 10*band 12

Carbonate index (CI)

Mafic index (MI)

band 13
band 14

band 12
band 13

(9)

(10)

(11)

These spectral indices have been applied to ASTER data covering eastern part of the
Central Belt. These indices are calculated to detect vegetation, minerals and lithological
mapping in tropical environments. Redgreenblue (RGB) colour composite technique
was used to produce image map of structural elements, clay minerals and lithological units
for the study area. The RGB colour composites additive primary colours allow the
assignment of three different types of information (e.g. image channels) to the three
primary RGB colours. The colour composite facilitates the interpretation of multichannel
image data due to the variations in colours based on the values in the single channels
(Pohl and Van Genderen 1998).

5. Results and discussion

Directional filters were applied to the PALSAR HH and HV polarisation images. It seems
that the HV polarisation image is more suitable for lineament extraction and edge
enhancement because cross polarisation is sensitive to lineaments. Geological structures
are more recognisable after directional filtering in the HV polarisation image. The filter is
demonstrated by applying it to the array of seven pixels (Table 1). The sequence of
operations is as follows: (i) place the right filter kernel over the array of original pixels
and multiply each pixel by the corresponding filter value; (ii) determine the sinuous of
angle and multiply this by the filter results; (iii) place the left kernel over the pixel array

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International Journal of Image and Data Fusion

and repeat the process; and (iv) combine the filtered values for each pixel with original
value of the pixels to produce the array and profile of Table 1. Consequently, the contrast
ratio of the lineament in the original data set is increased in the final data set. An alternate
way to express this operation is to say that the filter has passed through the data in a
direction normal to the specified lineament direction. As a result, many additional edges
of diverse orientation are enhanced. The directionality of the filter may also be demonstrated by passing the filter in a direction parallel to a linear trend. As a result these
fractures appear subdued, whereas north and northeast-tending features are strongly
enhanced.
Figure 2 shows image map of NS (0), NESW (45) and NWSE (135) directional
filters applied on the HV polarisation image. Lineaments and form-lines are detected.
The western and northern parts of the image exhibit longer and more lineaments than
the eastern part. Two dominant directions can easily be identified, namely NWSE and

Figure 2. Image map of NS (0), NESW (45) and NWSE (135) directional filters applied on
the HV polarisation image for the study area.

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10

A.B. Pour and M. Hashim

NESW sets of lineaments. The structural lines with NWSE and NESW directions are
in accordance with the tectonic framework of the study area. NWSE striking is composed of continuous lineament in the central to western part of the image. However, in the
eastern part of the image few lineaments are elongated towards the NESW direction
(Figure 2). In the radar image, strike-slip faults mark sharp boundaries; the planar fabric
on either side is either sharply truncated or sheared off (Abdelsalam et al. 2000). Some
NW trending lineaments are associated with normal faults.
A particular attention is carried in the NWSE and NESW strike-slip faults that can
be often conjugated. Indeed, in this region they are respectively sinistral and dextral
showing a maximal directed constraint NS. Lineaments mapped in the image express
several fold systems as curvilinear structures. An anticline with NWSE trending in the
central part and some curvilinear features in the southern and eastern part of the image are
detected. NS trending and NNW direction of faults and fold systems are obviously
manifested in Figure 2.
Intersections of structural elements are favourable sites for intrusions and mineralisation in the Central Belt of the Peninsular Malaysia. Structural investigation in the Central
Belt has shown sets of NS, NESW, NNWSSE and ESEWNW mineralised trends
associated with fault-related rocks and hydrothermal alteration zones (Pour and Hashim
2015).These main fault trends are intersected by many shear or lateral fault zones. Of
particular importance to gold exploration are shear zone, mylonite, cataclasite and felsic
intrusive with coincident hydrothermal alteration. Therefore, the detection of hydrothermal alteration minerals and lithological units associated with structural elements for gold
prospecting is required.
In this study, ASTER vegetation, mineralogic and lithologic indices were used to
detect vegetation, ground mineral and rocks. Stabilised vegetation index (StVI) has
defined to identify vegetation distribution on the ground using the VNIR bands of
ASTER. It is produced by using bands 1, 2 and 3 of ASTER. According to this index,
the most widely acknowledged vegetation index is normalised difference vegetation index
(NDVI) defined as (NIR red)/(NIR + red), where NIR and red correspond to ASTER
bands 3 and 2, respectively (Ninomiya 2003a). In this study, StVI was implemented at the
VNIR bands of ASTER level 1B product. Figure 3 shows the resultant image map of
vegetation for the study area. Vegetation cover is identified as bright pixel (high DN
value), which predominantly covers full scene (Figure 3). Clouds are appeared as black
pixels in the centre, north and south-western parts of the scene. However, water body,
river and non-vegetated ground (anthropogenic activities region) are also manifested as
dark pixels in the north-eastern, south-eastern and north-western parts of the scene,
respectively (Figure 3).
Vegetation has spectral characteristics similar to iron oxide minerals in the visible and
near infrared (VNIR) from 0.7 to 1.2 m (Ruiz-Armenta and Prol-Ledesma 1998).
Vegetation shows absorption features from 0.45 to 0.68 m and high reflectance in near
infrared. It is observed that iron oxide/hydroxide minerals have high reflectance in the
range of 0.630.69 m, while the range of 0.760.90 m covers higher range of the
vegetation red-edge reflectance feature in near infrared; this characteristic can be used to
differentiate iron oxide/hydroxide minerals from vegetation (Crsta and Moore 1989,
Ruiz-Armenta and Prol-Ledesma 1998). Some organic materials such as lignincellulose
have spectral absorption features centred near 2.10 and 2.30 m, which are near the
distinctive absorption features of hydrothermal alteration minerals (Van Ruitenbeek et al.
2006, Mars and Rowan 2006). It seems that the identification of vegetation is probably
due to this typical attribute in the SWIR of the electromagnetic spectrum. Accordingly, the

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Figure 3.

11

StVI resultant image map of vegetation for the study area.

spectral effects of vegetation in lithologic and hydrothermal alteration mapping should be

considered for tropical environments.
Hydroxyl-bearing minerals, including clay and sulphate groups, as well as carbonate
minerals present diagnostic spectral absorption features due to vibrational processes of
fundamental absorptions of AlOH, MgOH, SiOH and CO3 groups in the SWIR
region of the electromagnetic spectrum (Hunt 1977, Hunt and Ashley 1979, Crowley and
Vergo 1988, Clark et al. 1990). Hence, SWIR data can be used for the identification of
hydrothermal alteration mineral assemblages including (i) mineralogy generated by the
passage of low-pH fluids (alunite and pyrophylite); (ii) AlSi-(OH) and MgSi-(OH)bearing minerals, including kaolinite and mica and chlorite groups and (iii) CaAl
Si-(OH)-bearing minerals such as epidote group, as well as carbonate group (calcite and
dolomite) (Huntington 1996, Pour and Hashim 2012b). Al(OH)-bearing minerals such as
kaolinite, alunite, muscovite and illite show major absorption in bands 57 (2.14
2.28 m) of ASTER data (Hunt and Ashley 1979, Mars and Rowan 2006, Pour and
Hashim 2011a).
Accordingly, the OHI, KLI and ALI indices have been applied to the ASTER level 1B
and 2B05S products to identify the location of high concentration of clay minerals in the
study area. Integration of OHI, KLI and ALI indices as RGB colour combination was

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A.B. Pour and M. Hashim

Figure 4. Image map of OHI, KLI and ALI indices as RGB colour combination derived from
ASTER level 2B05S product for the study area.

used to produce image map of clay minerals in the study area. Almost similar image map
was derived from ASTER level 1B and 2B05S products. Figure 4 shows the resultant
image map derived from ASTER level 2B05S product. High concentration of clay
minerals (high DN value pixels) is manifested as white and light yellow colours in the
image especially in the north-western part of the scene. NESW trending normal faults are
detected using PALSAR data in this location (Figure 2). Field reconnaissance, GPS survey
and X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis verified high concentration of clay minerals in the
detected segment. Figure 5 shows outcrop photograph of the clay minerals zone in the
identified area. Kaolinite, alunite, sericite, chlorite, dickite, limonite and illite were
detected by XRD analysis in the collected rock samples. Therefore, this location could
be a prospect area for conducting geophysical and geochemical exploration plan for
epithermal and polymetallic vein-type mineralisation.
The ASTER TIR bands (1014) are useful for detecting silicate and carbonate rocks
(Yamaguchi et al. 2001, Ninomiya 2003b). These bands are located in the 8.125
11.65 m wavelength region and measure emitted radiation from surface materials

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International Journal of Image and Data Fusion

Figure 5.

13

Outcrop photograph of the clay minerals zone in the study area.

(Yamaguchi et al. 1999). Quartz is one of the important rock-forming minerals that does
not have diagnostic spectral absorption feature in the VNIR and SWIR regions but
displays strong fundamental molecular absorption features in the TIR region (812 m)
(Hunt and Salisbury 1976, Ninomiya et al. 2004). Quartz shows absorption features in
bands 10 and 12 of ASTER and has high emissivity in band 14. The common carbonate
minerals such as calcite and dolomite have an absorption feature at band 14 and high
emissivity at band 13 of ASTER (Ninomiya 2003b, Rockwell and Hofstra 2008).
Consequently, the QI, CI and MI indices have been employed to the ASTER level 1B
and 2B04 aim at the detection of quartz-rich and carbonate-rich rocks. Integration of QI,
CI and MI indices as RGB colour combination was used to generate image map of the
lithological units for the study area. Results extracted from level 2B04 product were not
satisfactory in terms of lithological mapping. Figure 6 shows resultant image map derived
from ASTER level 1B product. Quartz-rich rocks are depicted as brown and dark brown
colours, whereas low-quartz rocks are depicted as light blue tone. Carbonate-rich rocks
appear as grey hue (Figure 6).
Gold discovery in the Central Belt is always associated with tertiary volcanic and
hydrothermal activities and appears to be very broadly related to tectonic boundaries.
Favourable settings for high-grade gold veins are the contact between tonalite and
carbonaceous sedimentary rocks, especially where the latter are carbonaceous and/or the
strata are tightly folded or intensely faulted (Ariffin and Hewson 2007). Consequently, the
detection of lithological units consisting of quartz-rich and carbonate-rich rocks in the
Central Belt is also important for exploration purposes.
Figure 7 shows DEM generated from ASTER level 4A01 product. Results show that
most of the study area has elevation less than 1000 m. South-western part of the image
shows highest elevation (up to 2500 m) region in the study area. It is evident that quartzrich rock regions are highest geological structures (uplands) in the study area because they
have low erosivity. Carbonate-rich rocks are much more affected by eroding agents, which

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A.B. Pour and M. Hashim

Figure 6. Image map of QI, CI and MI indices as RGB colour combination derived from ASTER
level 1B product for the study area.

are the lands with low elevation. The tectonic style and the principal topographic properties of the study area can be simply recognised at a regional scale using ASTER level
4A01 data (Figure 7).

6. Conclusions
In the present study, it is observed that the integrated images of PALSAR and ASTER
data products provide comprehensive geological information for metallic deposits
exploration in tropical environments. Numerous tectonic lineaments with consistent
variations in trend, length and density associated with different lithological units outcropping in the study area were detected. Geological tectonic structures such as faults,
fractures and anticline were detected using PALSAR image derived from directional filters
(NS, NESW, and NWSE). The fracture analysis shows three principal structural
trends, including NS, NESW and ESEWNW. StVI index image map showed predominant vegetation cover in the study area using ASTER VNIR bands. Despite the spectral

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International Journal of Image and Data Fusion

15

Figure 7. Digital Elevation Model (DEM) image map generated from ASTER level 4A01 product
for the study area.

effects of vegetation on lithologic and mineral indices, they were capable in lithological
and alteration mapping in tropical environments. High concentration of clay minerals zone
was detected using image map of OHI, KLI and ALI indices of the ASTER SWIR bands.
Association of structural elements and hydrothermal alteration zones in the Central Belt is
a high potential region for metallic deposits exploration. Integration of QI, CI and MI
indices of ASTER TIR bands produced image map of the lithological units, including
rich-quartz, low-quartz and high-carbonate rocks. This approach could be utilised as an
efficient tool for geological mapping and mineral exploration in tropical environments.
Acknowledgements
This study was conducted as a part of Fundamental Research Grant scheme (FRGS) (Vote no: R.
J130000.7809.4F455), Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) Malaysia. We are thankful to the
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for providing the facilities for this investigation. We would also like
to express our great appreciation to Prof. Dr Zhang and the anonymous reviewers for their very
useful and constructive comments and suggestions for improvement of this manuscript.

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