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INTRODUCTION TO LED
Table 1.1 A Short Glance Back Over the History of The LED
1907
1921
The Russian physicist Oleg Lossew again observes the "Round effect" of
light emission. In the succeeding years, from 1927 to 1942, he examined
and described this phenomenon in greater detail.
1935
1951
1962
1971
1993
Japanese Shuji Nakamura develops the first brilliant blue LED and a very
efficient LED in the green spectrum range (InGaN diode). Sometime later
he also designs a white LED.
1995
The first LED with white light from luminescence conversion is presented
and is launched on the market two years later.
2006
The first light-emitting diodes with 100 lumens per watt are produced. This
efficiency can be outmatched only by gas discharge lamps.
2010
High price:
LEDs are currently more expensive, price per lumen, on an initial capital cost basis, than most
conventional lighting technologies. The additional expense partially stems from the relatively low
lumen output and the drive circuitry and power supplies needed. However, when considering the
total cost of ownership (including energy and maintenance costs), LEDs far surpass incandescent
or halogen sources and begin to threaten compact fluorescent lamps. Lumina technology uses the
latest high brightness LEDs in an extremely efficient way meaning that less LED are needed and
hence making lights competitive with traditional sources.
Temperature dependence:
LED performance largely depends on the ambient temperature of the operating environment.
Over-driving the LED in high ambient temperatures may result in overheating of the LED package,
eventually leading to device failure. Adequate heat-sinking is required to maintain long life. This
is especially important when considering automotive, medical and military applications, where the
device must operate over a large range of temperatures, and is required to have a low failure rate.
The efficient use of high brightness LEDs means less heat buildup, coupled with efficient thermal
management ensuring optimum performance.
Voltage sensitivity:
LEDs must be supplied with the voltage above the threshold and a current below the rating. This
can involve series resistors or current-regulated power supplies. Lumina never run their products
at more than 350 mA to ensure optimum balance of power consumption, operating temperature
and life expectancy.
Light quality:
Most cool-white LEDs have spectra that differ significantly from a black body radiator like the
sun or an incandescent light. The spike at 460 nm and dip at 500 nm can cause the color of objects
to be perceived differently under cool-white LED illumination than sunlight or incandescent
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sources, due to metamerism; red surfaces being rendered particularly badly by typical phosphor
based cool-white LEDs. However, the color-rendering properties of common fluorescent lamps
are often inferior to what is now available in state-of-art white LEDs. Lumina uses the latest LEDs
and mixes light within the fitting before it comes out of the fitting, this enables us to produce all
variations of color temperature and color rendering.
Blue hazard:
There is increasing concern that blue LEDs and cool-white LEDs are now capable of exceeding
safe limits of the so-called blue-light hazard, as defined in eye safety specifications such as
ANSI/IESNA RP-27.1-05: Recommended Practice for Photo biological Safety for Lamp and
Lamp Systems. Luminas technology uses LED light indirectly; this avoids contact with the eye
and therefore provides a safe and efficient light output.
to run the LED's for maximum lifetime. In order to maintain a low junction temperature to keep
good performance of an LED, every method of removing heat from LEDs should be
considered. Conduction, convection, and radiation are the three means of heat transfer. Typically,
LEDs are encapsulated in a transparent resin, which is a poor thermal conductor. Nearly all heat
produced is conducted through the back side of the chip. Heat is generated from the PN junction by
electrical energy that was not converted to useful light, and conducted to outside ambience through
a long path, from junction to solder point, solder point to board, and board to the heat sink and
then to the atmosphere. A typical LED side view and its thermal model are shown in the figures.
The junction temperature will be lower if the thermal impedance is smaller and likewise, with a
lower ambient temperature. To maximize the useful ambient temperature range for a
given power dissipation, the total thermal resistance from junction to ambient must be minimized.
This is the basis for our project which is to maximize the thermal efficiency of LED and optimize
the output of light from the LED.
CHAPTER 2
LED THERMAL MODEL
Figure 2.1 X Lamp Xb-D Relative Flux Vs. Steady-State Junction Temperature
2.1.2 Voltage
Forward voltage decreases as the junction temperature of an LED increases. This is shown on
each of Crees Lamp data sheets as the temperature coefficient of voltage, and varies slightly
depending on the color and package type. This value varies from approximately -1 to -4 mV/C
per LED. It is important to understand the full operating conditions for an LED system so the
driver can accommodate the potential range of drive voltages over the operating temperature of
the system. An example of this is shown later in this document.
2.1.3 Reliability
The reliability of any LED is a direct function of junction temperature. The higher the junction
temperature, the shorter the lifetime of the LED. Data from an IES LM-80-08 report can be used
to predict the lumen maintenance of an LED under various temperature and drive current operating
environments. Cree has published an LM-80 summary for its Lamp LEDs and full LM-80 data can
be obtained by contacting a sales representative.
10
2.2.1 Conduction
Conduction is the transfer of heat through a solid material by direct contact. This is the first mode
of heat transfer to get thermal power from the LED junction to the heat sink. Metals are typically
the best conductors of heat. The heat conduction potential of all materials can be expressed as
thermal conductivity, typically abbreviated as k. Equation 2.1 below shows how to calculate the
quantity of heat transferred via conduction.
Qcond = -k A (2.1)
Where:
Qcond is the amount of heat transferred through conduction (W)
k is the thermal conductivity of the material (W/m-K)
A is the cross sectional area of the material through which the heat flows (m2)
T is the temperature gradient across the material (C)
x is the distance for the heat must travel (m)
2.2.2 Convection
Convection is the transfer of heat through the movement of fluids and gases. In LED systems,
this is typically the transfer of heat from the heat sink to the ambient air. There are two subcategories of convection: natural and forced. Natural convection occurs with no artificial source
of field movement and is due to the buoyancy forces induced by thermal gradients between the
fluid and solid. Forced convection occurs when an external instrument such as a fan, pump, or
other device is used to artificially move the fluid or gas. In LED cooling systems, convection is
11
the main mode of heat transfer to remove the generated heat from the LED system and heat sink.
Equation 2.2 below shows how to calculate the quantity of heat transferred via convection.
Qconv = h A T.... (2.2)
Where:
Qconv is the amount of heat transferred through convection (W)
h is the heat transfer coefficient (W/m2K)
A is the surface area (m2)
T is the temperature gradient across the material (C), typically the difference between the
surface Temperature and ambient air temperature
The fundamental challenge in calculating the heat transfer via conduction is
determining and computing the heat transfer coefficient (h). Typical values for h can vary
significantly depending on boundary conditions, geometry and many other factors. However, for
natural convection h will usually be in the range of 5-20 W /m2K, while for forced convection h
can be as high as 100 W /m2K for air and up to 10,000 W/m2K for water. Typically, for natural
convection in air, a value of 10 W/m2K is a good assumption for an initial rough calculation.
2.2.3 Radiation
The transfer of thermal energy through an electromagnetic field is the third component of heat
transfer, radiation. The magnitude of radiation heat transfer is based on the emissivity of the
material, which is the ratio of how closely the surface approximates a blackbody. In an LED
system, radiation typically has a very small effect on the net system heat transfer since the surface
areas are typically fairly small and surface temperatures are relatively low, to keep the LED
junction temperatures below the maximum rated temperature of 150 C. Equation 2.3 below shows
how to calculate the quantity of heat transferred via radiation.
Qrad = A (Ts4- Tf4).. (2.3)
Where:
Qrad is the amount of heat transferred through radiation (W)
is the emissivity of the surface (dimensionless)
12
Where:
T is the temperature at each corresponding location (C)
a-b is the thermal resistance from point a to point b (C/W)
n is the number of LED components on a single PCB
To summarize the heat path illustrated in the Figure 2.2 above, heat is conducted
from the LED junctions through the LED components to the PCB, through the thermal interface
13
material (TIM) to the heat sink and then convected and radiated to the ambient air. The nodes in
the circuit represent the individual sections within the system and the locations where temperatures
may be measured. For example, the solder point temperature (solder point) represents the location
on the board, as specified in the corresponding data sheet for each Cree X Lamp LED, where the
temperature on the top of the PCB can be measured. This can be used to calculate the junction
temperature, which is detailed in a later section. The resistors represent the thermal resistances of
the individual contributors.
For example, J-SP represents the thermal resistance of the LED component from
junction to solder point. The system is divided into a network of parallel connections for the
multiple LEDs and series connections for the singular components. If the system includes only one
LED, or n =1 in Figure 2.2, the entire thermal path is simply in series. The individual thermal
resistances described above can be calculated from Equation 2.4 below.
a-b = (Ta-Tb)*Pt . (2.4)
Where:
a-b is the thermal resistance from point a to point b (C/W)
Ta is the temperature at point a (C)
Tb is the temperature at point b (C)
Pt is the thermal power.
The thermal resistance of the entire system can also be compared to an electrical
circuit in series, where the system thermal resistance can be calculated as shown below in Equation
2.5.
sys,a-z= a-b + b-c + + y-z ... (2.5)
Where:
sys,a-z is the system thermal resistance from point a to point z (C/W)
a-b is the thermal resistance from point a to point b (C/W)
b-c is the thermal resistance from point b to point c (C/W)
y-z is the thermal resistance from point y to point z (C/W)
In an LED system, the total system-level thermal resistance is typically defined as
junction to ambient, or J-A. This quantifies how well each component transfers thermal power.
Each Cree X Lamp LED has a current de-rating curve in its data sheet that gives the maximum
14
drive current versus ambient temperature for a few system thermal resistances, or J-A. Shown
below in Figure 2.3 is the current de-rating curve for an X Lamp XB-D LED from the XB-D data
sheet 6.
To use the current de-rating curve in Figure 2.3, the system-level thermal resistance
must be calculated, as detailed above in Equation 2.5. The ambient temperature must also be
known, and from this, the maximum drive current for this thermal design can be determined from
the graph in Figure 2.3.
assembly, called a thermal stack, in which all components contribute in varying degrees to the total
system thermal performance. In a typical system, the LED is soldered to a PCB, either metal core
or FR4, which is then usually attached to a heat sink. It is critical to maximize heat transfer between
the heat sink and PCB, so a good TIM is needed to fill any air voids. The best method to enhance
the thermal path is to minimize the number of materials in the thermal stack and use the most
thermally conductive materials available. Below is a description of this typical LED system with
some suggestions and comments to consider for each element.
16
CHAPTER 3
LED COMPONENTS
Heat is generated at the junction of the LED chip within the X Lamp component. The amount of
heat can be calculated from Equation 3.1 below based on the measured TSP and the thermal
resistance of the LED, as stated on its data sheet.
TJ = TSP + th*Ptotal . (3.1)
Where:
TJ is the junction temperature (C)
TSP is the measured solder point temperature (C)
th is the thermal resistance of the component (C/W)
Ptotal is the total power (W) input to the LED.
All Cree X Lamp LEDs must not exceed their maximum junction temperature of
150 C, as specified on each data sheet.
on the design choices made. TIMs are critical to minimize the air gaps between the heat sink and
the PCB. TIMs not only provide a thermal interface between the PCB and the heat sink, but
depending on the application these can have other functions as well, such as electrical insulation
or making a mechanical connection. Many types of TIMs are used in LED systems including
greases, tapes, pads, and epoxies. Each has its advantages and disadvantages depending on the
application. Table 3.1 below shows some of the benefits and drawbacks of various materials.
Table 3.1 Properties of Various Thermal Interface Materials
Many characteristics must be considered when selecting a TIM, not just the thermal conductivity.
Often overlooked is the bond line thickness of the material, and as shown below in Equation 3.2,
the thermal resistance of the material is highly dependent on this thickness. The TIM manufacturer
will provide these basic characteristics on their own data sheet, and it is important to understand
how all the characteristics work together and to decide which is the most important for each
specific application.
Sometimes a thinner TIM with poor thermal conductivity has a lower thermal
resistance than a thicker TIM with better thermal conductivity. Both these attributes must be
considered when selecting a TIM and their relative effects can be quantified with Equation 3.2
below. However, though a TIM may have better thermal conductivity than air, its conductivity will
not be nearly as good as metals, so the approach is not to add material between metal components
but rather to fill the voids that are typically occupied by air.
TIM =L/KA .. (3.2)
Where:
TIM is the thermal resistance of the TIM
L is the thickness of the TIM (m)
18
3. Do not restrict the airflow between the fins. Understand the orientation of the heat sink in
the application in which it will be used and maximize the airflow through the heat sink and
around as much surface area as possible.
4. Choose a material that has good thermal conductivity to spread heat away from the LEDs.
5. Use high surface emissivity heat sinks to maximize thermal radiation heat transfer.
Anodizing dramatically increases the emissivity of an aluminum heat sink.
6. Passive (natural convection) heat sinks are always preferred for many reasons, but if
appropriate, actively cooled heat sinks can significantly improve performance.
7. Use of thermal modeling can alleviate repetitive prototyping and indicate design
deficiencies and potential areas of improvement early in the design process.
A key aspect of heat sink design to account for is the manufacturing method that
will be used. These methods vary significantly and can produce extremely different heat sinks,
which can serve different applications and their specific needs. Some aspects of the more common
processes are compared below in Table 3.2.
Table 3.2 Thermal Conductivity of Various Material
20
the measurement point and ambient temperature, as any change in ambient will be reflected in the
measured data. Various methods to measure temperature exist, and for LED systems the most
common methods are simple thermocouples, infrared (IR) microscopes, and pulsed
voltage/transient response monitoring. The latter two methods require expensive, accurate and
specific tools that are beyond the scope of this document. Simple thermocouples are the most
common and simplest method to obtain accurate data and are recommended for precise absolute
LED system measurements.
3.5.1 Thermocouples
The Soldering and Handling application note Cree publishes for each X Lamp LED details the
location and process for attaching a thermocouple. Below in Figure 8 is an image from the X Lamp
XB-D Soldering and Handling document showing the proper location for a thermocouple 10. The
general guideline for thermocouple attachment is to place the thermocouple as close to the LED
as possible, mounted directly on a metal pad connected to the neutral thermal trace, if possible.
Thermally conductive epoxy or solder is recommended to ensure good heat transfer from the board
to the thermocouple. All thermocouples must be out of the optical light path or photons will
interfere with the readings, giving extremely inaccurate results.
22
23
CHAPTER 4
OPTIMIZING PCB THERMAL PERFORMANCE
4.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the most critical design parameters for an LED illumination system is the systems ability
to draw heat away from the LED junction. High operating temperatures at the LED junction
adversely affect the performance of LEDs, resulting in decreased light output and lifetime. To
properly manage this heat, specific practices should be followed in the design, assembly and
operation of LEDs in lighting applications. This application note outlines a technique for designing
a low-cost printed circuit board (PCB) layout that optimizes the transfer of heat from the LED.
The technique involves the use of FR-4-based PCBs, which cost less than metal core printed circuit
boards (MCPCB), but have greater thermal resistance. The use of metal-lined holes or vias
underneath LED thermal pads is a method to dissipate heat through an FR-4 PCB and into an
appropriate heat sink.
24
Using the thermal conductivity values in Table 2 below, the total thermal resistance for an FR-4
board can be calculated by adding the thermal resistances of the layers.
25
26
through-holes (PTH) between conductive layers. Vias are created by drilling holes and copper
plating them, in the same way that a PTH is used for electrical inter connection between layers.
Fig 4.4 Cross-Sectional Geometry of Small And Large Thermal Vias In Fr-4 Substrate
Adding vias in an appropriate way will improve the thermal resistance of an FR-4
board. The thermal resistance of a single via can be calculated by the same formula, = l / (k x A).
27
Using the values in Table 4.2, a single solder-filled via with a diameter of 0.6 mm results in (1.588
x 10-3) / (58 x ( x (0.5 x 0.6 x 10-3)2)) = 96.8 C/W.
However, when N vias are used, the area increases by a factor of Nvias, resulting
in:
vias = l / (Nvias x k x A) .. (4.4)
Note that this is applicable only if the heat source is directly normal to the thermal via otherwise,
the resistance increases due to thermal spreading effects. To calculate the total thermal resistance
for the region underneath (or normal to) the LED thermal pad, the equivalent thermal resistance
for the dielectric layer and vias must be determined. For simplicity, the two resistances are treated
as parallel applying this formula.
Using the values in Table 4.2, for a 270 mm2 board with five 0.6-mm-diameter
solder-filled vias results in an approximate thermal resistance of 12 C/W, a 60% improvement
over the initial 30C/W derived from the data in Table 4.2
Table 4.2 Typical Thermal Conductivities of FR-4 Board Layers Including Thermal Vias
Figure 4.5.1 shows an example of unfilled vias after reflow. Figure 4.5.2 shows an example of
solder voids underneath the device (shown in red). The voids increase the thermal resistance of the
thermal interface. Also, the solder may overfill the hole leading to bumps on the bottom of the
board that can reduce the contact area between the board and the heat sink. Steps can be taken to
limit the amount of solder wicking. One way is to maintain a vias diameter smaller than 0.3 mm.
With smaller vias, the surface tension of the liquid solder inside the vias is better
able to counter the force of gravity on the solder. If the via structure is constructed following the
guideline above, holding the inside via diameter to around 0.25 mm 0.3 mm, minimal solder
wicking is achieved. The drawback to this approach is that smaller open vias result in a higher
overall thermal resistance
29
Another technique for limiting solder wicking involves using solder mask to restrict
the flow of solder from the top side of the PCB to the bottom side. One process, called tenting,
uses solder mask to prevent solder from either entering or exiting the thermal vias, depending on
the side of the board on which the solder mask is placed. Tenting the bottom side with solder mask
to cover and plug the thermal vias can prevent solder from flowing down into the vias and onto
30
the bottom of the board. In top side via tenting, small areas of solder masks are placed over the
thermal vias on the top side of the PCB to prevent solder from flowing into the vias from the top
side
3.3 mm Wide
31
20 mm Wide
The analysis results in Chart 4.1 show that, for the 1.6-mm thick board, increasing the thermal pad
width beyond 12 mm provides little improvement and, for the 0.8-mm thick board, improvement
diminishes beyond a 16-mm width.
Chart 4.1 Thermal Resistance for Fr-4 PCB With No Vias With Varying Thermal Pad Size
32
Fig 4.8.1 FR-4 Board with Five 0.7-mm Diameter Vias and 1-mm Pitch
Fig 4.8.2 FR-4 Board with Fifteen 0.7-mm Diameter Vias and 1-mm Pitch
Chart 4.2 Thermal Resistance for Fr-4 Vias Filled With Materials Of Different Conductivity
33
Chart 4.3 shows the effect of changing the diameter and number of vias. This chart assumes the
vias are filled with SnAgCu solder. As expected, the larger the diameter of the via, the lower the
thermal resistance becomes. Increasing the number of vias shows considerable improvement for
smaller via diameters.
Chart 4.3 Fr-4 PCB With Various Via Diameters And Numbers Of Vias
34
CHAPTER 5
ELECTRICAL OPTIMISATION
A LED driver is an electrical device that regulates the power to an LED or string(s) of LEDs.
What makes a driver different from conventional power supplies is that an LED driver responds
to the ever-changing needs of the LED, or circuit of LEDs, by supplying a constant amount of
power to the LED, as its electrical properties change with temperature.
Think of an LED driver as Cruise Control (like in a car) for the LED, and the
temperature changes of the LED are the hills and valleys it is driving over. The power level (or
Speed) of the LED is maintained constant by the driver as the electrical properties change
(amount of gas or power needed) throughout the temperature increases and decreases (or hills
and valleys) seen by the LED(s). Without the proper driver, the LED may become too hot (driving
too fast) and become unstable (out of control), causing poor performance (engine problems) or
complete failure (crash!)
35
LED drivers may be constant voltage types (usually 10V, 12V and 24V) or constant current types
(350mA, 700mA and 1A). Some drivers are manufactured to operate specific LED devices or
arrays, while others can operate most commonly available LEDs. LED drivers are usually compact
enough to fit inside a junction box, include isolated Class 2 output for safe handling of the load,
operate at high system efficiency, and offer remote operation of the power supply.
cases close to zero. PWM also works well with digital controls, which, because of their on/off
nature, can easily set the needed duty cycle. PWM has also been used in certain communication
systems where its duty cycle has been used to convey information over a communications channel.
A key requirement for a smart LED driver is adjusting the LED brightness with dimming
controls, using one of two approaches: PWM and analog. PWM dimming controls the LED current
by adjusting the pulse duty cycle. If the frequency is above about 120 Hz, the human eye averages
these pulses to produce a perceived average luminosity. Analog dimming scales the LED current
at a constant (dc) value. PWM dimming could be implemented by opening and closing an NMOS
switch inserted in series with RSENSE. These current levels would require a power device, but
adding one of these would defeat the size and cost benefits obtained by using a buck regulator
containing its own power switches. Alternatively, PWM dimming can be performed by quickly
turning the regulator on and off. At low PWM frequencies (<1 kHz), this can still give great
accuracy. PWM dimming is very popular, but sometimes noiseless analog dimming is required.
Analog dimming simply scales the constant LED current, whereas PWM dimming chops it.
Analog dimming is required if two dimming inputs are used, since multiple PWM dimming signals
can create beat frequencies that cause flicker or audible noise. However, PWM might be used for
one dimming control and analog for another.
With the phenomenal growth of the LED lighting market, there has been a natural growth in
demand for highly efficient and controlled LED drivers. Applications from smart street lights,
flashlights, digital signage and many others require not only highly regulated currents, but in many
cases dimming capability in order to sustain the energy efficient scheme and end use flexibility
behind LED design. As there are several ways to achieve dimming of an LED, we describe here
the main methods that are used to provide dimming for LEDs from a switch mode LED driver.
37
PWM or Pulse Width Modulation dimming is actually turning on and off the LED current for
short periods of time. The on/off frequency has to be faster than what the eye can perceive so as
not to cause a flickering effect (typically over 100Hz). PWM dimming can be achieved a number
of ways:
1.
2.
3.
The average current to the LED is the product of the total nominal current and the duty cycle of
the dimming function. A designer must also take into consideration the delays in shutdown and
start-up of the converters output which leads to limitations on the PWM dimming frequency and
range of duty cycles.
Analog dimming of the LEDs is the adjustment of the LED current level. This can be by resistive
dimming or external DC control voltage. Since there is current level adjustment in analog
dimming, inherently there is a disadvantage where color temperature variation can occur. The use
of analog dimming is not recommended in applications where color of the LED is critical.
PWM DIMMING
ANALOG DIMMING
No color shift
No frequency concerns
concerns
38
39
CHAPTER 6
WORKING OF THE PROJECT
START
If auto
mode
NO
YES
NO
If Manual
Mode
LDR Works
YES
LEDs will glow
PRESET works
If LED
Temp>35
2.
3.
4.
LDR acts for the automatic adjusting of the light intensity by sensing the light of the
environment.
5.
A preset or variable resistor is used to control the light intensity of the lamp.
6.
7.
DS18B20 is a temperature sensor is used to monitor the ambient temperature of the LED, if
the temperature is greater than 35oC the cooling mechanism associated is turned ON.
42
CHAPTER 7
RESULT AND CONCLUSION
7.1 RESULT
Undergoing the process of making this project, we observe the following things and problems
which are discussed as follows:
As our project name is Optimization of LED Lighting System, thus we wanted to fabricate it
properly. But the research for this, we found that, it would be very costly to implement this and
also because of the resources available to us, we were only led to present our study in this report.
We have used 5W LED for greater illumination. Due to the complexity of driver circuit, instead
of deigning we have chosen to use the driver IC.
The following result has been observed:
This system may work in two modes: either automatic or manual mode depending on the
application.
In Manual mode:
The LEDs can illuminate the light intensity from minimum 229 lux to maximum 2023 lux.
In automatic mode:
LDR will work and decrease the light intensity from minimum 86 lux to maximum 2486 lux.
In both the modes, if LED temperature goes beyond 35oC; then FAN will be on and it
will decrease the temperature of LED die and hence improves the lifetime of LED system.
7.2 CONCLUSION
The design of LED lighting system has various advantages over existing incandescent lamp. It
does not produce toxic substance, has higher life span, consume less power, can operate manually
as well as automatically, and conserve energy.
43
A 5W LED produce approximate 695 lux. Whereas a 60W incandescent lamp produce 17
lumens/watt. It can be further improved by interfacing more driver ICs for more wattage, and high
power LEDs to increase the illumination.
7.3 APPLICATIONS
There are various applications of LED lighting system and are listed below:
1.
2.
As ceiling lamp
3.
TV backlight
4.
Mobile backlight
5.
6.
As a fog lamp
7.
Traffic lights
8.
44
APPENDIX A
ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS USED
ADAPTERS
The adapters are the device that has inbuilt circuitry for converting the 230V AC in to desired
DC like +5V adapter, +12V adapter, +9V adapter and many more. This consists of inbuilt circuit
for HIGH AC to low voltage DC conversion.
DC Adapter
DIP BASES
The case outlines of the plastic and ceramic Dual In-line Packages (DIPs) are nearly identical.
The lead configuration consists of two rows of leads, both with 100 mil pitch. The plastic DIP is
shown in Figure. If the DIP base is of 18 pin then 9 lines will be in one side and 9 on other side.
The IC bases of have round cut from the left of which the pin 1 of base is considered similar is the
case with integrated chips. Basically IC is sensitive to short circuit or voltage so in place of that
we first install the bases of the IC with same number of pins and before placing the ICs we check
45
all voltage points of the IC then mount the IC once proper configuration is assured. The DIP base
depends on number of pins of the IC and ranges from 4pin configuration to 40 pin configuration.
They are available in different pin configuration and size depending on IC need.
Dip Bases
SWITCHES
In electrical engineering, a switch is an electrical component that can break an electrical circuit,
interrupting the current or diverting it from one conductor to another. The most familiar form of
switch is a manually operated electromechanical device with one or more sets of electrical
contacts, which are connected to external circuits. Each set of contacts can be in one of two states:
either "closed" meaning the contacts are touching and electricity can flow between them, or
"open", meaning the contacts are separated and the switch is non-conducting. The mechanism
actuating the transition between these two states (open or closed) can be either a "toggle" (flip
switch for continuous "on" or "off") or "momentary" (push-for "on" or push-for "off") type.
A switch may be directly manipulated by a human as a control signal to a system, such as
a computer keyboard button, or to control power flow in a circuit, such as a light switch.
Automatically operated switches can be used to control the motions of machines, for example, to
indicate that a garage door has reached its full open position or that a machine tool is in a position
to accept another work piece. Switches may be operated by process variables such as pressure,
temperature, flow, current, voltage, and force, acting as sensors in a process and used to
automatically control a system. For example, a thermostat is a temperature-operated switch used
46
to control a heating process. A switch that is operated by another electrical circuit is called a relay.
Large switches may be remotely operated by a motor drive mechanism. Some switches are used
to isolate electric power from a system, providing a visible point of isolation that can be padlocked
if necessary to prevent accidental operation of a machine during maintenance, or to prevent electric
shock. An ideal switch would have no voltage drop when closed, and would have no limits on
voltage or current rating. It would have zero rise time and fall time during state changes, and would
change state without "bouncing" between on and off positions. Practical switches fall short of this
ideal; they have resistance, limits on the current and voltage they can handle, finite switching time,
etc. The ideal switch is often used in circuit analysis as it greatly simplifies the system of equations
to be solved, however this can lead to a less accurate solution. Theoretical treatment of the effects
of non-ideal properties is required in the design of large networks of switches, as for example used
in telephone exchanges.
main advantages are that they are quicker to change and there are no parts to lose. These are
available in different configuration for example 8 pin configurations, 16 pin configuration and
many more.
DC CONNECTORS
A DC connector (or DC plug, for one common type of connector) is an electrical connector for
supplying direct current (DC) power. Compared to domestic AC power plugs and sockets, DC
connectors have many more standard types that are not interchangeable. The dimensions and
arrangement of DC connectors can be chosen to prevent accidental interconnection of
incompatible sources and loads. Types vary from small coaxial connectors used to power portable
electronic devices from AC adapters, to connectors used for automotive accessories and for battery
packs in portable equipment.
The DS18B20 digital thermometer provides 9-bit to 12-bit Celsius temperature measurements
and has an alarm function with nonvolatile user-programmable upper and lower trigger points. The
DS18B20 communicates over a 1-Wire bus that by definition requires only one data line (and
ground) for communication with a central microprocessor. It has an operating temperature range
of -55C to +125C and is accurate to 0.5C over the range of -10C to +85C. In addition, the
DS18B20 can derive power directly from the data line ("parasite power"), eliminating the need for
an external power supply. Each DS18B20 has a unique 64-bit serial code, which allows multiple
DS18B20s to function on the same 1-Wire bus. Thus, it is simple to use one microprocessor to
control many DS18B20s distributed over a large area. Applications that can benefit from this
feature include HVAC environmental controls, temperature monitoring systems inside buildings,
equipment, or machinery, and process monitoring and control systems.
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CRYSTAL OSCILLATORS
A crystal oscillator is an electronic circuit that uses the mechanical resonance of a vibrating
crystal of piezoelectric material to create an electrical signal with a very precise frequency. This
frequency is commonly used to keep track of time (as in quartz wristwatches), to provide a stable
clock signal for. digital integrated circuits, and to stabilize frequencies for radio transmitters and
receivers. The most common type of piezoelectric resonator used is the quartz crystal, so oscillator
circuits designed around them were called "crystal oscillators". A crystal oscillator is an electronic
circuit that produces electrical oscillations at a particular designed frequency determined by the
physical characteristics of one or more crystals, generally of quartz, positioned in the circuit
feedback loop. A piezoelectric effect causes a crystal such as quartz to vibrate and resonate at a
particular frequency. The quartz crystal naturally oscillates at a particular frequency, its
fundamental frequency that can be hundreds of megahertz. The crystal oscillator is generally used
in various forms such as a frequency generator, a frequency modulator and a frequency converter.
The crystal oscillator utilizes crystal having excellent piezoelectric characteristics, in which crystal
functions as a stable mechanical vibrator. There are many types of crystal oscillators. One of them
is a crystal oscillator employing an inverting amplifier including a CMOS (complementary metal
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oxide semiconductor) circuit, and used, for example, as a reference signal source of a PLL (phasepocked poop) circuit of a mobile phone. Crystal oscillator circuits using crystal have a number of
advantages in actual application since crystals show high frequency stability and stable
temperature characteristic as well as excellent processing ability. Temperature-compensated
crystal oscillators, in which variation in oscillation frequency that arises from the frequencytemperature characteristic of the quartz-crystal unit is compensated, find particularly wide use in
devices such as wireless phones used in a mobile environment. A surface mounting crystal
oscillator is used mainly as a frequency reference source particularly for a variety of portable
electronic devices such as portable telephones because of its compact size and light weight.
1,2 EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled b3, 4 EN. When enable input is high, the associated drivers
are enabled, and their outputs are active and in phase with their inputs. External high-speed output
clamp diodes should be used for inductive transient suppression. When the enable input is low,
those drivers are disabled, and their outputs are off and in a high-impedance state. With the proper
data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or bridge) reversible drive suitable for solenoid or
motor applications.
L293D is a bipolar motor driver IC. This is a high voltage, high current push pull
four channel driver compatible to TTL logic levels and drive inductive loads. It has 600 mA output
current capabilities per channel and internal clamp diodes. The L293 is designed to provide
bidirectional drive currents of up to 1A at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. The L293D is designed to
provide bidirectional drive currents of up to 600-mA at voltages from 4.5 V to 36 V. Both devices
are designed to drive inductive loads such as relays, solenoids, dc and bipolar stepping motors, as
well as other high-current/high-voltage loads in positive supply applications. All inputs are TTL
compatible. Each output is a complete totem-pole drive circuit, with a Darlington transistor sink
and a pseudo-Darlington source. Drivers are enabled in pairs, with drivers 1 and 2 enabled by
1,2EN and drivers 3 and 4 enabled by 3,4EN. When enable input high is given then the associated
drivers are enabled, and their outputs are active and in phase with their inputs. When the enable
input is low, those drivers are disabled, and their outputs are off and in the high-impedance state.
With the proper data inputs, each pair of drivers forms a full-H (or bridge) reversible drive suitable
for solenoid or motor applications.
LDR
The light dependent resistor is an electronic component whose resistance decreases with
increasing light intensity. It is also called as Photo Resistor or Photo conductor The light
dependent resistor uses high resistance semiconductor material. (Cadmium Sulphide). When light
falls on such a semiconductor the bound electrons [i.e. Valence electrons] get the light energy from
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the incident photos. Due to this additional energy, these electrons become free and jump in to the
conduction band. The electron hole pairs are generated. Due to these charge carriers, the
conductivity of the device increases, decreasing its resistivity.
As we define R= p*l/A
Where p= resistivity of the material,
l= length of the medium
And A= area of cross section of the medium.
Now resistivity depends upon the nature of the material. Now, Cadmium sulphide
is such a material which changes it resistivity on different illumination of the light. As the
resistivity changes the resistance of the LDR also changes. Now, according to OHMs law for a
fixed value of current if the resistance changes the voltage drop across that also changes. So for
varying luminance of light on the LDR surface the voltage drop across it will also vary that we
will have an analog variation of voltage.
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Parameter
Min.
Max.
Unit
Luminous Intensity
200
250
lm
Viewing Angle
115
125
deg
Color Temperature
2700
3500
Wave Length
nm
Forward Voltage
6.5
7.5
Forward Current
700
800
MA*
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5 Watt LED
5 watt LED bulbs are a type of high intensity LED. LED bulbs produce much more light for each
watt of power they consume than a regular incandescent bulb would. 5 watt LED bulbs also
produce light with a narrower color spectrum than incandescents. Whereas a regular bulb produces
every color in the rainbow, a white LED only produces the most common colors. This means
that an LED will not produce ultraviolet or UV radiation that might attract bugs. Compared to
fluorescent bulbs, LEDs also do not require a ballast that could produce electromagnetic radiation
and interfere with other electronics. LEDs are extremely simple devices. Like an incandescent
bulb, they consist of a special material through which electricity is fed. Whereas an incandescent
bulb uses material that heats up, LEDs use a block of two separate materials layered on top of each
other. These materials have highly specialized electrical properties. The color of the light created
is determined by the materials: if the materials favor creating fewer higher energy particles of light,
the color is different than if the materials favor creating more lower energy particles.
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APPENDIX B
ATMEGA 168 MICROCONTROLLER
PIN DESCRIPTION:
GND: Ground.
Port B is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull- up resistors (selected for each bit).
The Port B output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
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Capability. As inputs, Port B pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port B pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even
if the clock is not running. Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB6 can be used as
input to the inverting Oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.
Depending on the clock selection fuse settings, PB7 can be used as output from the inverting
Oscillator amplifier. If the Internal Calibrated RC Oscillator is used as chip clock source, PB7.6 is
used as TOSC2.1 input for the Asynchronous Timer/Counter2 if the AS2 bit in ASSR is set.
Port C (PC5:0)
Port C is a 7-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The
PC5.0 output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port C pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
resistors are activated. The Port C pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even
if the clock is not running.
PC6/RESET:
If the RSTDISBL Fuse is programmed, PC6 is used as an I/O pin. Note that the electrical
characteristics of PC6 differ from those of the other pins of Port C. If the RSTDISBL Fuse is unprogrammed, PC6 is used as a Reset input. A low level on this pin for longer than the minimum
pulse length will generate a Reset, even if the clock is not running. Shorter
Port D (PD7:0):
Port D is an 8-bit bi-directional I/O port with internal pull-up resistors (selected for each bit). The
Port D output buffers have symmetrical drive characteristics with both high sink and source
capability. As inputs, Port D pins that are externally pulled low will source current if the pull-up
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resistors are activated. The Port D pins are tri-stated when a reset condition becomes active, even
if the clock is not running.
AVCC:
AVCC is the supply voltage pin for the A/D Converter PC3:0, and ADC7:6. It should be
externally connected to VCC, even if the ADC is not used. If the ADC is used, it should be
connected to VCC through a low-pass filter. Note that PC6.4 use digital supply voltage, VCC.
AREF: AREF is the analog reference pin for the A/D Converter.
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REFERENCES
1. www.cree.com/Xlamp
2. www.stmicroelecronics.com
3. www.nationalsemiconductor.com
4. www.choicegroupofcompanies.com
5. www.datasheetcatalog.com
6. www.wikipedia.com
7. Grid logics Technology Insight Report-LEDs in Lighting
8. CooLam Lighting Technology Article
9. IEE_Ecova_LED
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