International Journal of Sport Studies. Vol.

, 4 (5), 547-553, 2014

Available online at http: www.ijssjournal.com
ISSN 2251-7502 2014; Science Research Publications

The effect of selected Hatha Yoga and pranayama exercise on motor and
cognitive function in elderly women
Ali Ashraf Khazaei (PhD), Bahram Yousefi (PhD), Nasrin Kahrizi* (M.Sc.)
Department of Physical Education, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran
*Corresponding Author, Email: nasrin.kahrizi@yahoo.com

Abstract
Physical changes such as impairment flexibility, balance, muscle strength and
reaction time occur with aging. And lifetime physical activity appears to delay
these factors. The aim of present study was to examine the effect of selected
Hatha yoga and Pranayama exercise intervention on static balance, dynamic
balance and reaction time in elderly women. Subjects were 44 retired teachers
who were randomly assigned in experimental group (n=22), mean age
(54.504.48), and control group (n=22), mean age (54.954.45).
The experiment group participated in 8 weeks (thrice a week, each section 1
hour) of supervised progressive Hatha yoga and pranayama training. The
control group did not do any exercise. Criteria of entering research: +50 years
of age, not having Parkinson's disease, no history of brain attack, breakage or
surgical operation on lower body during last one year, severe spinal column
disk disease and/ or knee problems, no problem of severe osteoporosis, having
sufficient vision and hearing abilities. Static balance measured by STORK
STAND TEST, dynamic balance measured by STAR EXCURSION
BALANCE TEST (SEBT) and simple reaction time assessed by
ELECTRONIC CHOICE REACTION TIME DEVICE. In order to determine
the mean difference between two groups, independent T test was used and to
determine differences between pre-test and post-test in two groups dependent
T test was used (p0.05). Result showed the experimental group had
significant improving in static balance %170.67, dynamic balance (Anterior
%20.97, posterior-medial %24.9, posterior-lateral %34.04) and simple
reaction time %26.31 (p0.001). But there were no changes in static balance,
dynamic balance and reaction time in control group (p0.05).
Results of present research show that yoga exercise could result in
improvement and increase in static and dynamic balances as well as in
decrease in reaction time of old people, which can be the result of creating
physiological alterations like increased flexibility and muscular strength
caused by doing stretch exercises of Hata yoga as well as of rising the ability
of concentration and attention caused by increased level of awareness of
environment and self through doing pranayama exercises.
Key words: Hatha Yoga, Pranayama, Balance, Reaction time, Old women.

Introduction
Aging is a natural phenomenon including biological, environmental and psychological factors. It is
associated with a decline in a set of physiological processes, Gibney et al (2007). Due to reduce mass and
muscle strength, and changes in the neuromuscular system, Goncalves et al. (2011), aging is associated with
decrease functional abilities, Erickson & Kramer (2009). Also, elderly often characterized by deterioration of

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white and gray of brain cells, Erickson & Kramer (2009). This may result in chronic diseases, decline in
capacity of daily activity and loss of independence in old people, Goncalves et al. (2011). It is well known that,
falls are one of the main problems for aged people, Gonul et al. (2009). It causes many problems like serious
injuries and bone fractures, Gonul et al. (2009).
Loss of balance, poor walk, lower limb muscle weakness and poor reaction time are risk factors in elderly
(Suzuki et al., 2004). The relations between physical activity and health among young as well as elderly people
have been well documented, Gonul et al. (2009). However, regarding the effect of exercise intervention on
balance and reaction time among elderly people has controversial results. For example, Takeshima et al. study
(2007) showed that regular exercise program can significantly increase strength and improve balance and
mobility. Bulate et al. (2007), investigated the effect of 8 weeks of functional balance training among 51 elderly
people (mean age 78yr), who were at risk of falling, Result Showed a significant improve in both reaction time
and Berg Scale. In contrast, Engels (1998) and Buchner (1997) reported no significant improved in static
balance after exercise intervention among elderly people. Therefore, the aim of this study is to investigate the
effect of 8 weeks yoga and pranayama exercise intervention on static and dynamic balance and reaction time
among elderly people. Yoga as an exercise may create positive alterations such as increase muscular strength,
flexibility and even neuromuscular coordination which result in increased balance, Morris (2008). In additional,
yoga may increase ability of attention due to rising level of environmental and self-awareness. According sociocognitive perspective, practicing yoga can increase physical ability through individuals' self-awareness, Morris
(2008).
Hata yoga is the most popular yoga exercise in west and many people associated yoga with Hata yoga. Ha
and Ta mean moon and sun, expectedly, pointing to common circulation of vital energy throughout our bodies.
Hata yoga is a yoga system specifically designed to purify mind and body and it includes Pranayama, Asana,
Mudra, Benda, and Kriya, Anand (1999).
A series of poses that are called Asana in Sanskrit are performed slowly and sequentially, concentrating each
movement on the deep abdominal breathing that accompanies each position. Movements between poses are
considered as important as maintaining a pose, and typically the poses are held for 4 or 5 breaths depending on
the different teaching styles of yoga. Many of the poses are named after animals, and the real yogis suggest that
you mimic the animals when in the particular pose such as feeling like a cat or a cobra while performing those
poses, Field (2011).
Focused on particular breath control pattern, pranayama exercises can increase blood and oxygen circulation
into Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), improve functions of organs (such
as Neuromuscular and cardiac-neural systems), and rise concentration (hearing, touch, vision, smell), Raub
(2002) & Streeter et al. (2012).
Different techniques have been studied for increasing control on each of them had different results;
paradoxical results were obtained in the field of efficacy of yoga exercises. During 6weeks of Hata yoga
exercises by 30 college student (twice a week, 50 min), Silver and Butcher (2005) observed no significant
difference between static balance and dynamic balance. During 8 weeks of yoga exercise, Moris (2008)
observed no significant difference in controlling in 18 old women's balance. Schmid A.A (2010) investigated
the effects of 12 weeks of intervening yoga exercise on balance and fear of falling of 14 old people over 65
years of age, result showed %6 reduction on the scale of fear of falling, %4 increase in static balance and %34
increase in flexibility of lower body.
Madanmohan et al. (2005) studied the effect of slow and fast pranayama on reaction time of 30 students and
observed no statistically significant difference for both groups. Narayana (2009) performed a study titled
"Effects of yoga on visual reaction time" on 50 males and 18 females with age range of 20-30 yr. and found out
those individuals doing yoga exercises had less reaction time than those with no exercise. Hewett et al (2011)
examined changes in levels of concentration, stress and physical preparedness (of 51 participants with age range
of 20-54 yr.) after 8 weeks of Bikram yoga exercise (at least 20 session); And result showed improvement of
concentration, stress, cardio-vascular endurance, flexibility and balance.
Since population of Iran presently is considered young, this fact must be taken into account that this
population will move toward old age within some next years in the future. Therefore, it is necessary to pay
attention to the elderly's needs and to plan in direction of encouraging them to do physical activities in order to
raise qualitative level of the elderly's lives, because prevention is always better than cure.
Materials and Methods
Retirement and aging are two interrelated phenomenon occurring at the same time, this study is a semiexperimental research. In order to do this research 44 education retired females volunteer within the age range
of 50-68 years which they were selected by using being in touch method and been randomly divided into two,
experimental and control groups. In experimental group 22 individuals were practicing yoga for two months and

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remaining 22 (control group) were not practicing any yogic exercise. The experimental group was practicing
Asana, Pranayama and relaxation in the morning time regularly and the non- experimental group was doing their
routine lives.
At the beginning of the research, static balance, dynamic balance, and reaction time test were performed on
both groups after measuring subject's weights and heights. Next, experimental group practice selected Hata yoga
and pranayama for 8 weeks (thrice a week, each section 1 hour) under an expert's supervision. Post-test were
performed at the end of 8th weeks. All measurements as well as exercises were done in the morning. Criteria of
entering research were included being about 50 years of age, not having Parkinson's disease, no history of brain
attack and/or neuropathy, breakage or surgical operation on lower body during last one year, severe spinal
column disk disease and/ or knee problems, no problem of severe osteoporosis, having sufficient vision and
hearing abilities, and being' capable of walking without sticks.
Pre-designed exercise program was performed at least 1 to 2 hours after having light breakfast. During early
sessions, the coach allocated 15 min to general warm-up, 30 min to doing asana (body position), pranayama
(breathing), and relaxation (shavasana) and during next sessions, duration of primary exercise was increased
gradually. Selected exercise program of Hata yoga included exercises indicated in following table:

Table 1: List of selected physical exercises

Surya
Namaskar

Ardha chandr asana

Ustr asana

Bal asana

Paschimottanasana

Marichy
asana

Tad asana

Adho Mukha Svan

asana

Paripurna
Navasana

Supta
Pawanmuktasana

Supta
Padangusthasana

Relaxation

Vrks
asana

Uttan asana

Adho Mukha Vir

asana

Setu Bandh asana

Makar asana

Utthita
Trikon asana

Dand asana

Pawanmukt asana

Matsy asana

Purvottan asana

Vir asana

Gomukh asana

Marjary asana

Bhujang Asana

Sav asana

Garud asana

Baddha Konasana

Bitil asana

Janu Sirsasana

Salabh asana

During this period, control group did routine tasks, in been talked about factors influencing balance, importance
of sport, reaction time etc.
Static balance, dynamic balance, and reaction time were examined by performing Stork Stand Test, Star
Excursion Balance Test, and by using electronic reaction time device, respectively.
DYNAMIC BALANCE TEST: After determining the premier leg, in order to perform dynamic balance test,
initially, some explanation was given to subjects orally and practically demonstrated, then, each subject
performed trial star test 3 times. At the center of the star containing 8 lines connected with 45 angles, the
subject stood with their support foot on the center and non-support foot in anterior, posterior-medial, and
posterior-lateral directions, touching the possible furthest point without losing their balance and no mistake (not
moving the foot away from star center, not relying on the foot performing act of reach, and not falling) and
taking the foot back to the starting point. Turning order (clockwise or anticlockwise) depends on whether
supporting foot is right or left one. Then, subjects performed in each direction for 3 times. In order to obtain
distance in percentage of feet length, performances mean was recorded, divided by real length of foot, and
multiplied by 100. There was 10-sec rest after every trial implementation in each direction, Hertel (2003) &
Cote et Al. (2005).
STATIC BALANCE TEST: We asked the subject to remove their shoes and place the hands on the hips, then
place the non-supporting foot against the inside knee of the supporting leg. The stopwatch is started as the non-

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supporting foot been lifted from the floor. The stopwatch is stopped if any of the follow occurs: a) the hand(s)
come off the hips. b) The supporting foot spins or moves (hops) in any direction. c) The non-supporting foot
loses contact with the knee. d) The heel of the supporting foot touches the floor (Johnson & Nelson 1979).
REACTION TIME: Reaction time was measured with a visual choice reaction time device (Model 63035A;
LAFAYETTE INSTRUMENT CO) using light stimuli. The subjects were asked to press a button with their
index finger as quickly as possible when they observed the light stimulus on the light panel, placed in front of
them. And the time optioned recorded by timer (Model 54060; LAFAYETTE INSTRUMENT CO) been
recorded.
Result
Descriptive statistics was used to obtain means, standard deviations, and change percentage in this research.
After making sure, by independent t-test, that there was no significance difference between groups, the values
obtained before and after the training period were compared using paired t-test. Difference of the values
between the two groups was compared using independent t-test. A p value of less than 0.05 was accepted as
indicating significant difference between the compared values. Before Interventional yoga sessions, Descriptive
characteristics of the two groups of experimental and control, factors such as: Age, height and weight were
assessed from the results in Table 2.
Table 2: Descriptive characteristics of subjects
Group
Experimental

factor
Age(yr.)
High(SM)
Weight(kg)

number
22
22
22

M SD
54.504.48
1564.70
67.5213.46

Control

age(yr.)
high(SM)
weight(kg)

22
22
22

54.954.45
157.794.14
73.529.22

The data was analyzed using paired samples t test to compare the pre and post training values of both the
groups. P value of less than P 0.05 was accepted as indicating significant difference between the compared
values. The mean value of height, age, and weight in study group was not significantly less than in controls
(P0.05) as shown in Table 2.
Table 3: The difference between the two groups at pre-test and post-test results
Static Balance

M SD
Exercise

Pre test

31.7214.42

Post
77.3334.62
test
Control
Pre test 32.8013.42
Post
34.1612.63
test
*p0.05; **p0.01

Anterior
dynamic
balance
M SD
75.2012.34

**

90.978.16
77.847.87
77.908.95

**

Posterior-lateral
dynamic Balance

posterior-medial
dynamic Balance

Reaction
Time

M SD

M SD

M SD

68.3614.75
91.6310.49
77.639.87
75.609.43

78.7510.69
**

98.368.38

**

83.7711
82.0610.11

0.380.085
0.280.036 **
.390.085
0.380.082

Yoga training of 8 weeks produced a significant (T (21) = 7.74, p 0.000) increase in static balance, Anterior
dynamic balance (T (21) = 4.837, p 0.000), posterior-lateral dynamic balance (T (21) = 3.685, p 0.000),
posterior-medial dynamic balance (T (21) = 4.802, p 0.000) (Table 3). It also produced a highly significant (T(21)
= 4.674, p 0.000), decrease in simple reaction time. In contrast, the changes in these parameters in the control
group subjects were statistically insignificant.

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Figure 1: Percentage change in pre and post test subjects

Also, evidence showed that the exercise intervention, the exercise group increased by %170.67 in static balance,
%20.97 in anterior dynamic balance, %34.04 in posterior-lateral dynamic balance and increased %24.9 in
posterior-medial dynamic balance and %26.31 decrease in simple reaction time was observed; but there was no
significant difference among control group (Figure 1).

Discussion and Conclusion

The aim of present research was to study effects of 8 weeks selected Hata yoga and pranayama exercises on
old women's static balance, dynamic balance, and simple reaction time. Based on result of this research, such
exercises improved the elderly's static and dynamic balances and influenced reaction time significantly. Finding
of this research are in agreement with result of researches done by Spence (1987), Bulat (2007), Narayana
(2009), Schmid (2010), and Janati Sepideh (2009) based on efficacy of doing exercise on balance and reaction
time of individuals; But they are not in agreement with results of studies carried out by Buchner (1997), Engels
(1998), Silver & Butcher (2005), Madan Muhan (2005), and Moris (2008).
According to the results of previous research it seems Hata yoga and pranayama exercises are capable of
preserving and improving skeletal-muscle, sensory and nervous systems in terms of such factors as flexibility,
muscular endurance and strength, joint motion range, coordination among different body organs as well as of
increasing concentration, attention, and memorization which drop as a result of aging. Also, such exercises
result in increased maintenance of functional independence, increased self- confidence, and improved life
quality of old people, Goncalves et al. (2011) & Alfieri et al. (2010).
Aging process results in disorders of eyesight, vestibular entrances, , and of body sensory information which,
in turn, result in reduced environ- mental perception and reduced precision of movements. On the other hand,
aging process is associated with reduction in number of neuromuscular fibers, which reduces muscular strength
and power resulting in disorder of motor performance, Hakkinen (2007).
Such skeletal , muscular , sensory , neural (motor control) changes as muscular strength needed for
maintaining stability of physique control and eyesight needed for identifying external environmental factors and
helping sensorimotor system react in certain walking situations can influence mobility, Clary et al. (2006).
When muscles lose their flexibility, length-strain relationship is changed, preventing muscles from reaching
peak strain being intensified through muscles weakness and contraction. Muscles' shortening can be caused by
different factors such as improper physique position, muscular inactivity and weakness, and aging. Muscles'
inactivity leads to altered constructional proteins and mitochondrial metabolism as a result of which the number
of sarcomeres decreases and deposits of articulatory tissue increase which, in turn; result in shortened muscles
and limited joint mobility.
Research done on animal models has shown that for shortened muscles, doing stretch exercises once a week
is sufficient to reduce muscles' atrophy, Cote et al. (2005), therefore, increased muscular strength in stretch
performance may be attributed to better interaction between actin and myosin fibers improving functional
performance of muscles, Hakkinen et al. (2007).
Schmidt's findings (2010) based on effectiveness of intervening yoga exercises, increasing significance on
the scale of fear of falling, static balance, and lower body flexibility all support above result. But during their
study on 30 college students who did yoga exercises 50 min per session twice a week for 6 weeks, Silver &

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Buchner (2005) observed no difference between their static and dynamic balances, which can be due to low
number of exercise sessions. In 2008, Morris studied the effects of 8 weeks Hata yoga exercises on 18 old
women, but despite of low number of subjects, he observed no significant results in relation to the these
individuals' balance.
Also, reaction time, which is an indirect index of ability of central nervous system processing and a simple
tool to determine sensorimotor-functional relationship, is heavily influenced by age. Reaction time (RT)
including central nervous mechanism and its study are of interest physiologically. RT is an index of excitement
of cerebral cortex a decrease in which indicates improvement of sensorimotor performance and increase in
ability of central nervous system processing, Shashikala et al. (2006).
Circulation of blood carrying oxygen decreases as age increase, resulting in functional changes in circulation
system and in reduction of physical activities. It must be kept in mind that increased level of physical activity in
the elderly increases cerebral blood circulation and the amount of oxygen received by cerebral cells. Influenced
by the amount of blood and nutrients received, quality of brain function has the potential for influencing
elements of reaction time such as reception time, integration time, and motor outburst time,
Gallahue and Ozmun (2006). Evidence obtained from previous studies supports this idea that availability of
glucose and oxygen influences cognitive function, Shashikala et al. (2006). This can be evidence of
effectiveness of yoga exercises (accompanied by precise respiration-expiration) done during Narayana's study
(2009) although Madan's research (2005) reached some conclusion opposed to previous findings and this
difference can be due to subjects' age.
Although above studies generally examined effects of doing sport exercises, focusing on studies done in the
field of Hata yoga exercises has revealed paradoxical results, which can be due to age, time duration, number of
participants, and type of protocol employed. It is recommended that future studies pay attention to effects of
yoga exercises on muscular strength, coordination, memory, and cognitive abilities.
In general, this point can be obtained from present research and previous ones that Hata yoga exercises
focusing on Asana and respiratory exercises will be capable of increasing joint flexibility, muscular strength,
concentration and attention as well as rising the amount of available glucose and oxygen, resulting in better
blood circulation, improved balance of old people, and reduced reaction time. Therefore, doing yoga exercise is
suggested for people at old age stage or entering this stage and who are not able to perform high-tension
activities and/or doing so is harmful for them.
Acknowledgement
Many thanks to respected people helping this research to be accomplish by participating in this study and to
cherished instructor, Mrs. Mohammady nejad, for her efforts.

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