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SHRINKAGE
PROPERTIES
47
TO OTHER
Department of Pedology and Soil Survey and Department of Soil Physics, Agricultural
Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan (Israel)
(Received April 3, 1984; accepted after revision October 30, 1984)
ABSTRACT
Smith, C.W., Hadas, A., Dan, J. and Koyumdjisky, H., 1985. Shrinkage and Atterberg
limits in relation to other properties of principal soil types in Israel. Geoderma, 35:
47--65.
Soil samples collected from 32 sites across Israel representing major types were analyzed for their pedological characteristics and mechanical properties. Correlative relationships between shrinkage (measured by the coefficient of linear extensibility, COLE),
Atterberg limits (liquid and plastic) and the physical and chemical properties were established and indicate possibilities of estimating mechanical properties from known pedological data. Strong correlations were noted between mechanical properties and the pedological characteristics reflecting clay mineralogy and texture, e.g. cation-exchange capacity,
specific surface area, hygroscopic moisture and clay content. These relationships are
useful inasmuch as clay mineralogy is usually evident from soil classification. Sodicity and
salinity, common in dry soils of semi-arid regions, may introduce complicating factors
such as raising or lowering Atterberg limits, respectively. Shrinkage is similarly affected
being accentuated at high-sodium, low-salt levels and reduced in highly saline-sodic soils.
Organic matter was correlated with liquid and plastic limits, but no relationship with
shrinkage was noted. Calcium carbonate also had little influence on Atterberg limits.
The relationships presented may serve as first approximations. Mechanical properties
of the soil groups illustrate the range of values encountered among regions with differing
environmental conditions.
INTRODUCTION
D a t a c o n c e r n i n g s o i l m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s (e.g. A t t e r b e r g l i m i t s , C O L E ,
s h e a r s t r e n g t h , e t c . ) a r e r e q u i r e d b y civil a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s . T h e s e
d a t a a r e s o u g h t f o r t h e p l a n n i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t s , inc l u d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e s (e.g. e a r t h d a m c o n s t r u c t i o n , s e t t l i n g o f s t r u c tures, compaction of soil, etc.).
*Contribution from the Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel, 1984 Series, No. 1055-E.
0016-7061/85/$03.30
48
Determination of soil mechanical properties is presently, as in the past,
carried out on an ad hoc basis and such data are not generally available. A
correlative study in which the mechanical soil properties of major soil types
will be related to their chemical and physical properties thus seems feasible.
The basic information gathered for soil survey maps and bulletins (e.g. chemical, physical and mineralogical properties} may serve as a basis for primary
assessment of mechanical characteristics. Besides its basic scientific value as
a simple method of predicting and characterizing soil mechanical potentials
from one or several simple determinations, the approach would permit
estimation of mechanical properties from currently available soil survey data.
The mechanical properties sought by engineers would thus become available
directly from soil survey maps and publications while saving additional
tedious and expensive testing.
Correlative studies between chemical and physical properties {Banin and
Amiel, 1970} and between mechanical and other soil properties (Mortland,
1954; Farrar and Coleman, 1967; Franzmeier and Ross, 1968; Greene-Kelly~
1974} clearly show that close relationships do exist between certain properties. For 19 British soils, Farrar and Coleman found a close correlation between liquid limit, specific surface area and CEC. Similarly, Gill and Reaves
{1957} and Odell et al. (1960) found good relationships between Atterberg
limits and chemical and physical properties of various American soils containing mainly 2 : 1 clay minerals. Odell et al. carried o u t multiple correlations between liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index and three soil
properties (percentage organic carbon, percentage clay and percentage montmorillonite in the clay separate) for 26 soils in Illinois. The results indicated
very close relationships between Atterberg limits and those three properties.
Information regarding shrinkage of soils is essential for engineers. Shrinkage
of the soil is measured by the coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE).
Soils exhibiting high shrinkage are usually those with large amounts of montmorillonite present in the clay fraction. Shrinkage is usually related to expansible mineral content {Greene-Kelly, 1974), though softs containing equal
amounts of montmorillonite and kaolinite will behave much like a montmorillonitic soil and may have high COLE values (Franzmeier and Ross,
1968).
The present study forms part of a larger investigation to relate mechanical
properties, of importance to engineers, to the chemical and physical properties of all major Israeli soil types. The aim of this paper is to present correlative information between the mechanical properties and the chemical and
physical properties of the soils.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soils
49
cluded swelling-shrinking soils (Grumusols or Vertisols), highly calcareous
and salt-affected soils of the Negev and the Jordan Valley and non-calcareous
red and brown Mediterranean soils from the Sharon Plain, Upper Galilee and
the Golan Heights. Soil classification and site information are given in Table
I. Soils were classified according to the Israeli system (Committee on Soil
Classification in Israel, 1979), the American system (Soil Survey Staff,
1975), and the FAO-UNESCO legend (FAO, 1974). The soil designations in
this text are from the original publications (Koyumdjisky et al., 1966; Dan
et al., 1968a, b, 1972, 1981; Dan and Singer, 1973). Rainfall data were compiled from Dorfman (1981).
Not all soils are classified at the same level. Most of the soils have been
defined at the soil family and soil t y p e level of the Israeli soil classification.
The correlations with the U.S. Soil T a x o n o m y and FAO-UNESCO legend are
at subgroup or higher levels.
Methods
Atterberg limits are defined by the water contents required to produce
specified degrees of consistency that are measured in the laboratory (Sowers,
1965) and were determined according to the standard A.S.T.M. methods
(A.S.T.M., 1964).
The coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE) is an estimate of the linear
c o m p o n e n t of shrinkage in a soil sample represented by the equation:
--"
--
Cumulic-Alluvisl R e d
Mediterranean Clay
Cumulic-Alluvial Red
M e d i t e r r a n e a n Clay
R e d Te~ra Rossa
Alluvial b r o w n G r u m u s o l
Non-Calcareous Basaltic
Dark-Brown Grumusol
Calcareous Basaltic DarkBrown Grumusol
Calcareous Natric
Reddish-Brown
Grurnusol
Non-Calcareous ReddishBrown Terra Rossa
Alluvial B r o w n G r u m u s o l
S a n d y Clay L o a m H a m m
M 14
Yad N a t h a n
G 65
K 28
K 19
N a 11
Gan Shemuel
Na 8
Barkan 3
B e t S h e ' a n 21
G 4
M 18
M 16
G 37
G 40
G 70
Marly Pale R e n d z i n a
Tuffic Red Mediterranean
Clay L o a m
Tuffic R e d Mediterranean
Clay
Basaltic B r o w n Medit e r r a n e a n Clay
Basaltic R e d Mediterranean Clay
Israel s y s t e m
According to:
OG 9
G151
Site N o .
Typic Calciorthid
Typic Haplargid
Typic Albaqualf
R u p t i c lithic
Xerochrept
Typic Chromoxerert
Typic Rhodoxeralf
Typic Chromoxerert
Typic Chromoxerert
Typic Chromoxerert
Typic Chromoxerert
Lithic Rhodoxeralf
Typic Rhodoxeralf
Typic Rhodoxeralf
Typic Rhodoxeralf
Typic Haploxeralf
Typic Rhodoxeralf
Lithic Xerorthent
Typic Rhodoxeralf
U.S.D.A. system
TABLE I
Pleistocene basalt
Clay alluvium
Chromic Luvisol
Chromic Luvisol
Calcic Y e r m o s o l
Luvic Yermosol
Eutric Planosol
Chromic Vertisol
Chromic Luvisol
Eutrie Cambisol
Chromic Vertisol
Chromic Vertisol
Lisan marl
Alluvial clay
S a n d ( w i t h fine aeolian dust accumulation)
S a n d ( w i t h fine aeolian d u s t a c c u m u l a tion)
Alluvial s i l t y clay
Pleistocene basalt
Clay alluvium
Early Pleistocene
basalt
Pliocene basalt
Chromic Luvisol
Chromic Vertisol
Chromic Vertisol
Clay a l l u v i u m
Chromic Luvisol
Brunic Luvisol
Chromic Luvisol
Marl
Pleistocene volcanic
scoria
Pleistocene volcanic
scoria
Pleistocene basalt
Parent m a t e r i a l
Lithosol
Chromic Luvisol
FAO-UNESCO
legend
170
190
58O
60O
58O
4OO
35O
55O
60O
650
660
660
660
900
8OO
8OO
1100
900
Rainfall
(mm)
1
6
15
0
2
13
40
1
S l o p e (%)
Flat L o w e r Part
0
of Alluvial F a n
Dissected lacustrine 0
terrace
Lower Footslope
Steep Rocky
Slope
Level Floodplain
Moderate Upper
Slope
Gently Sloping
Plateau
Level P l a t e a u
Steep Western
Slope
Level Floodplain
Plateau
Undulating
dissected
plateau
Flat Valley
Bottom
Footslope
V. s t e e p s l o p e
Top of volcanic
cone
Top of volcanic
cone
Plateau
Topography
NG 94
NG 114
NG I I I
NG 82
NG 80
L o a m y D e s e r t Alluvial
Soft
40
40
Takyric
Solonchak
Calcaric Fluvisol
T y p i c Tox~ifluvent
40
Coarse d e s e r t a l l u v i u m
Gypsic Yermosol
240
200
Petrogypsic Gypslorthid
Cambic Gypsiorthid
Luvic Yermo$ol
Luvic Yermosol
Gilat
Ram
370
50
Calcic L u v i s o l
Nahal Oz
250
O r t h i c S o l o n c h a k Alluvial sand
A e o l i a n loess
A e o l i a n loess
Haplic Xerosol
SH 8 6
250
T y p i c S aior t h i d
A e o l i a n loess
Haplic Xerosol
IAthic T o r r i o r t h e n t
Non-saline B r o w n L i t h o s o l
SH 8 5
400
50
Lithosol
Lithic Xerorthent
BG 27
400
Nari l i m e s t o n e
(calcrete)
Chalk
R end zina
Lithic Haploxeroll
BG 2 6
450
460
Typic Salorthid
A e o l i a n silt a n d clay
Vertic Luvisol
Vertic Palexeraif
Givati
Silty C l a y - - l o a m y Alluvial
Sterile G l e y S o l o n c h a k
S a n d y L o a m Alluvial
Solonchak
Petrogypaic Regosolic
Reg
Clayey Takyr
A e o l i a n clay
C h r o m i c Vertisol
Typic Chl~moxerer t
Calcareous Cumulic
Aeolian Brown
Grumusol
Silty C l a y e y , C u m u l i c
Aeolian Grumic Dark
B r o w n Clay
Non-Calcareous Brown
Rendzina
C h a l k y Pale R e n d z i r m
Qedma
2
Hillcrest
U n d u l a t i n g Upland
F i a t Hilltop
U n d u l a t i n g Upland
Saline M u d f l a t
0
0
Flat D r y M u d f i a t
Slightly Sloping
Alluvial F a n
Flat A r e a o n
Ridgecrest
Fiat D r y P l a y a
0
4
30
M o u n t a i n Slope
Upper moderate
2
slope of h i l l t o p
Hilly A r e a , S t e e p 3 0
Slo.ve
M o u n t a i n Slope
15
Hillcrest
c~
52
TABLE II
Physical and c h e m i c a l d a t a f o r t h e soils s t u d i e d
Site no.
Depth
(cm)
Horizon
Texture
Organic
matter
(%)
CaCO 3 CEC* 1
(%)
( m e q . / 1 0 0 g)
ESP*
OG 9
0--35
35--70
70+
0--30
0--13
25+
0--30
0--17
17--30
35--55
0--20
20--40
0--15
50--200
0--30
0--20
20--60
0--15
20--60
0--20
20--60
90--120
0--12
12--30
0--30
0--17
44--70
71--89
110--180
0--11
20--44
44--64
0--6
6--20
20--60
0~4
4--23
23--60
0--35
120--160
0--30
0--15
15 30
A
AC
C11
A
A
B2R
A
Ap
AB
B:~
Ap
B21
At
B2R
Ap
At
B2
At
B2
Ap
BI
B2:
All
At:
Silty clay l o a m
Clay
Clay
Silty clay l o a m
Loam
S t o n y clay
Clay
S a n d y clay l o a m
Clay
Clay
C~ay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
1.5
1.1
n.d.
n.d.
2.8
1.1
2.0
1.7
1.1
0.8
n.d.
n.d.
3.4
n.d.
n.d.
3.5
n.d.
1.6
1.3
1.3
0.9
0.0
3.6
2.9
n.d.
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
12.0
4.8
49.0
44.2
47.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.5
n.d.
n.d.
0.0
0.0
3.7
4.3
23.5
24.3
25.2
0.3
0.2
15,1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
16.3
18.5
18.6
35.9
38.0
40.4
16.6
16.6
16.9
2.5
2.5
25.6
21.1
21.8
24.1
27.8
31.0
19.8
13.7
17.0
22.5
25.7
27.0
47.9
n.d.
n.d.
55.6
57.2
79.6
78.9
40.7
41.1
43.0
61.1
62.8
n.d.
7.6
15.9
16.5
7.4
18.2
16.2
14.6
21.4
26.3
26.0
21.3
22.2
20.2
31.4
38.7
58.8
66.4
56.0
1.4
2.0
2.0
1.3
1.4
0.9
1.1
2.6
2.2
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.0
1.0
n.d.
1.3
1.4
1.0
1.5
1.5
9.4
16.1
0.8
0.9
1.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
n.d.
2.0
2.0
12.4
15.0
17.9
13.2
17.1
14.4
2.3
20.9
1.0
1.0
1.5
0--17
17--40
40--60
0--14
0--12
12--25
25+
0--30
A
Ctl
Ct2
A~
A~
C
R
A~
5.2
2.1
1.1
2.7
2.1
1.8
n.d.
2.6
64.7
74.2
88.2
21.5
65.6
77.4
n.d.
11.0
18.2
15.6
12.5
25.7
14.2
18.2
n.d.
15.1
3.0
3.5
4.0
2.3
6.3
12.2
n.d.
4.3
n.d,
n.d.
1.0
0.6
0.6
11.4
30.0
35.5
53.3
59.3
12.4
13.0
8.9
15.7
19.5
4.0
23.0
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
G 70
G 40
G 37
M14
M 16
M 18
Yad N a t h a n
G 65
G 4
Bet S h c ' a n 21
Barkan 3
Gau Shemuel
NA 8
Na 11
K 28
K 19
Qedma
Givati
B G 26
BG 27
S H 85
SH 86
N a h a l Oz
Gilat
Ram
NG 80
0--30
0--30
0--13
14--30
40--60
Ap
B~t
B3t
C12
A
B1
B:
A1
A3
B21
A1
A:
Ac
A
B
Ap
At
AB
Clay
Clay
Sandy loam
S a n d y clay l o a m
Sandy loam
Sand
Sand
S a n d y clay l o a m
S a n d y clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay
Clay l o a m
Clay
Clay
Clay l o a m
G r a v e l l y silty clay
G r a v e l l y silty clay
loam
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay
Silty clay
Fine s a n d y clay
loam
Loam
Clay l o a m
Silt l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
53
T A B L E II (continued)
Site no.
Depth
(cm)
NG 82
NG 111
NG 114
NG 94
0--11
20--50
50--70
0--20
40--70
0--5
0--20
20-50
Horizon
Texture
Organic
matter
(%)
CaCO 3 CEc*t
(%)
( m e q , / l O 0 g)
ESP*I
A1/B2
Cll
A1
A
C
Fine s a n d y l o a m
Sandy loam
Loamy sand
Silty clay loam
Silty clay loam
Silty clay loam
Loam
Silty clay loam
1.2
0.9
0.4
0.2
0.4
n.d.
0.4
0.4
30,5
32,2
37.4
35,3
32,8
23.1
41.6
41.9
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
16.2
26.4
52.8
17.9
20.4
7.0
5.5
6.7
9.0
8.0
30.8
10.3
11.3
RESULTS
The principal features of interest in the study are the relationships between the three mechanical properties: liquid limit, plastic limit and coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE), and the physical and chemical properties: specific surface area, clay percentage, hygroscopic water (Pw), CEC,
organic matter, calcium carbonate and exchangeable sodium percentage.
Liquid limit
Liquid limit is highly correlated with specific surface area, CEC and
hygroscopic water. A significant relationship also exists between liquid limit
and clay percentage and to a lesser extent with ESP and organic matter.
Similar findings were recorded by Odell et al. (1960) and Farrar and Cole
man (1967) who found liquid limit to be closely correlated with CEC, clay
percentage and clay mineralogy, reflected here in specific surface area.
Liquid limit is more closely related to specific surface area than to clay
content (Fig. 1, A and D) and consequently tends to reflect clay mineralogy
of a soil. Because clay mineralogy is usually evident from the soil classification, this is a particularly useful relationship for liquid limit prediction. Highly significant relationships were found between CEC, hygroscopic water and
specific surface area, and are consistent with data in the literature (Mortland,
1954; Gill and Reaves, 1957; Banin and Amiel, 1970). The data in Table IV
54
T A B L E III
P h y s i c a l a n d m e c h a n i c a l d a t a f o r t h e soils s t u d i e d
Site n o .
OG 9
G 151
G 70
G 40
G 37
M-14
M 16
M 18
Yad N a t h a n
G 65
G 4
B e t S h e ' a n 21
Barkan 3
Gan Shemuel
Na 8
N a 11
K 28
K 19
Qedma
Givati
BG 26
BG 27
S H 85
SH 86
Nahal Oz
Gilat
Ram
N G 80
Depth
(cm)
0--35
35--70
70+
0--15
30-05
140--200
0--30
0--13
25+
0--30
0--17
17--30
35--55
0--20
20--40
0--15
50--200
0--30
0--20
20--60
0--15
20---60
0--20
20--60
90--120
0--12
12--30
0--30
0--17
44--70
71--89
110--180
0--11
11--20
20--40
0--6
6--20
20--60
0--4
4--23
23--60
0--35
120--160
0--30
0--15
15--30
0--17
17--40
40--60
0--14
0--12
12--25
25+
0--30
0--30
0--30
0--13
14--30
40--60
Horizon
A
AC
C~1
A
B2
C
A
A
B:R
A
Ap
AB
B21
Ap
B:l
A1
B2R
Ap
A~
B2
AI
B:
Ap
BI
B22
All
AI:
Ap
B:t
B3t
Cl2
Al
Bl
B2
A~
A3
B21
A1
A3
Ac
A
B
Ap
A1
Ab
A
CH
Cl2
Az
A1
C
R
A1
Clay
(%)
18
43
51
48
74
47
50
25
43
44
28
57
71
69
54
81
95
50
67
68
75
62
61
58
68
66
79
54
14
27
11
4
4
28
30
33
38
38
35
46
29
49
49
41
43
39
35
35
55
32
41
50
51
31
23
30
15
19
35
S.S,A.* 1
(m: g-l)
114
146
168
142
241
318
136
115
158
135
118
119
154
150
211
242
277
n.d.
262
243
399
449
249
187
235
154
299
209
55
80
36
24
15
93
110
94
84
92
87
109
126
176
250
174
123
233
70
102
99
136
79
87
74
108
n.d.
93
n.d.
109
69
Atterberg limits
Liquid
Plastic
33.6
41.6
38,0
44.6
70.6
70.8
35.6
35.6
37.6
31.0
35.2
36,2
43.2
45.4
45.2
44.6
69.6
55.2
50.0
55.8
71.6
70.0
41.4
58.2
72.8
54.6
55.4
51.0
20.0
30.0
20.4
21.6
21.1
43.2
45.0
28.2
26.8
25.0
26.4
25.0
26.6
47.8
69.3
42.4
56.4
56.0
48.2
37.6
54.5
28.8
35.8
41.0
42.0
34.2
26.8
24.4
21.8
41.0
29.8
22.3
26.8
28.7
29.6
41.1
47.6
30.9
24.4
24.6
19.1
21.8
21.4
22.7
22,8
29.3
28.3
37.2
29.2
29.1
28.7
41.8
42.3
28.0
30.2
31.5
33.1
34.0
25.7
19.8
17.8
16.3
20.5
19.3
19.3
21.1
15.1
18.9
28.3
29.8
34.1
36.5
36.6
35.3
25.3
34.7
19.3
25.9
27.5
24.5
21.7
19.3
17.9
22,5
22.1
COLE* 1
Hygroscopic
w a t e r (%)
0.111
0,136
0.117
0.091
0.188
0.072
0.096
0.132
0,143
0.091
0.106
0.132
0.154
0.165
0.175
0.171
0.212
0.154
0.224
0.225
0,277
0.270
0,165
0.263
0.242
0.221
0.230
0.212
0.035
0.071
0.035
0,000
0.000
0.111
0.165
0.068
0.076
0.091
0,071
0.071
0.081
0.176
0.143
0,194
0.159
0.200
0.091
0.091
0.111
0.106
0.091
0.096
0.111
0.096
0.000
0,116
0.000
0.091
0.065
2.9
4.6
4.8
6.3
11,2
16,8
4.6
3.9
5.7
4.0
4.7
3.9
4.4
5.6
7.0
7.3
9.4
n.d.
8.0
8.4
11.9
13.6
8.2
7.0
8.0
5.3
9.0
5.3
1.8
2.8
1.2
0.7
0.4
3.5
4,1
2.9
3.9
3.2
3.0
4.1
n.d.
4.5
7.4
5.6
6.9
7.7
4.8
3.5
3.3
4.1
3.4
2.7
2.4
3.4
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
4.7
3.0
55
T A B L E I I I (continued)
Site n o .
N G 82
N G 111
NG 114
N G 94
Depth
(cm)
0---11
20--50
50--70
0--20
40--70
0-5
0--20
20--50
Horizon
Clay
(%)
AI/B2
Cll
A1
A
C
12
16
9
31
29
27
19
43
S . S . A . *s
(m 2 g-l)
49
46
20
61
120
64
46
85
Atterberg limits
Liquid
Plastic
23.8
23.0
19.9
23.8
21.4
17.8
17.6
26.0
---18.6
16.6
16.0
17.0
19.5
C O L E .1
0.000
0.008
0.000
0.062
0.058
0.031
0.025
0.066
Hygroscopic
w a t e r (%)
2.5
2.5
1.1
3.6
4.5
2.0
1.5
2.7
* I S . S , A . = s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e axea; C O L E = c o e f f i c i e n t o f l i n e a r e x t e n s i b i l i t y ; - - = v a l u e u n a t t a i n a b l e .
show that these three parameters correlate very well with liquid limit, and
we propose that one of these properties can be used for estimating liquid
limit. This is convenient, due to the regular availability of hygroscopic moisture and CEC data in soil survey bulletins. The following equations have
been found for the above-mentioned relationships.
LL = 0.140 SSA + 19.805;
r 2 = 0.672
LL = 3.648 Pw + 22.329;
r 2 = 0.723
r 2 = 0.722
r 2 = 0.593
The relationship between clay content and liquid limit is highly significant
though the correlation is not s o high as those between liquid limit and hygroscopic water, CEC and specific surface area. This is to be expected considering the widely divergent nature of the clay minerals in these soils. At a given
clay content two soils may show much different liquid limits due to their
differing mineralogies with their consequent effects on specific surface area.
Only in soils with similar clay mineralogy can clay percentage be used as an
accurate tool in predicting liquid limit (Odell et al., 1960). The magnitude of
the correlations found in the present study, however, emphasizes the
possible use of clay percentage in predicting mechanical properties for a wide
range o f soils, although predictive priority must be given to other properties,
such as specific surface area, hygroscopic moisture and CEC if such data are
available.
For a sodium-affected non-saline soil (e.g., Qedma, Bet She'an 21), the
liquid limit is higher (Fig. 1A) because sodium increases the effective specific
surface area due to partial dispersion and increased hydration between
particles. This effect was also noted by Nettleton and Brasher (1983) and
will diminish with increasing electrolyte concentration. For highly saline
soils the salt concentration in solution negates the effect of exchangeable
sodium and is high enough in some cases to produce conditions opposite
to those described above for non-saline, sodic soils. Compression of the
56
double layer induced by the high electrolyte concentration leads to a stabilising effect probably due to flocculation. Hence, lower liquid limits are ob
tained than would be anticipated from the specific surface area, saline soils
thus form a group of soils lying below the regression line on a plot of liquid
limit against specific surface area (Fig. 1A).
A significant relationship was found between liquid limit and organic
matter (Table IV). This is in agreement with Odell et al. (1960). Amounts of
organic matter in a soil increase its liquid and plastic limits due to their
100
(A)
100
80
80
;~.:
I-
(B)
60
$6o
'
g4o
-J
2O
0
,(~.
'LL = 0.141SSA
20
19.805
200
LL = 3 648 Pw + 22 329
!
400
13
15
HYGROSCOPIC WATER
100
100
(C
80
(%)
(D)
80
I'-
P" 6 0
"~60
-J
4o
,-I
:
20
.:.
..
.J
r=077"*
LL =0.574
C E C + 21 8 7 9
20
LL=0.575CLAY
40
60
80
100
G0
2O
4O
+ 15.345
6O
8O
CLAY (%)
IO0
57
TABLE
IV
CLAY
Pw
LL
PL
COLE
CEC
ESP
OM
CaCO3
0.76**
0.98**
0.63**
0.82**
0.77**
O.S5*S
0.71"*
0.60**
0.82**
0.68**
0.82**
0.81"*
0.88**
0.84**
0.62**
0.85**
0.66**
0.86**
0.77**
0.75**
0.81'*
0.33*
0.24
0.32*
--0.46**
--0.49**
-4).37**
0.25
0.16
0.21
0.29*
0.38**
0.44**
0.09
0.25
0.34
0.31"
O.17
0.27*
0.13
0.07
0.30*
0.28*
0.30*
0.18
*Denotes significance at the 1 % probability level; ** denotes significance at the 5 % probability level.
Plastic limit is highly correlated with all of the measured soil properties
apart from calcium carbonate. Highest correlations exist with CEC, hygroscopic water and specific surface area as noted previously b y Gill and Reaves
(1957), Odell et al. (1960) and Farrar and Coleman (1967). Lower but still
significant correlations exist with clay percentage and organic matter (Table
IV). Generally, the correlation coefficients are lower than the corresponding
coefficients for liquid limit correlations. This is believed to be due to the
greater experimental error involved in the determination of plastic limits as
reported b y Farrar and Coleman (1967).
The plastic limits were not as highly correlated with the clay percentage as
with hygroscopic water, CEC and specific surface area, indicating that the
clay mineralogy is of greater importance than the amount of clay in plastic
limit correlation.
Salt-affected soils have the lowest plastic limits of those studied and lie
below the regression line (Fig. 2C), indicating a lower plastic limit than
would be anticipated from their specific surface areas. Plastic limits for nonsaline sodic soils do not show a significant deviation from the regression line
(Fig. 2C). This differs from the trend of sodic non-saline soils for the liquid
limit--specific surface area relationship and may be attributable to the higher
relative experimental error of plastic limit determination. Plastic limit was
also closely correlated with organic matter. This is attributed to raising the
amount of water taken up by organic matter before plasticity can be attained.
We propose that the plastic limit can be estimated quite accurately from
the knowledge of one of the following easily distinguished parameters, name-
58
50
(A)
50
([5)
/J
r~
-' .
r =O.75"*
PL= 0.280 CEC + 17168
PL = 2.077 P. 1,5.242
10
10
20
40
60
80
100
50
20
..I
a.
r ~ 0.71
10!
HYGROSCOPIC
(C)
4O
200
12
15
WATER (%)
(D)
,._
4O
20
"
400
r = 060 .,.
P L = 0 2 5 8 CLAY + 14,329
10
20
40
CLAY
60
.I
80
(%)
Fig. 2. Plastic limit as a f u n c t i o n of the properties listed below: A. c a t i o n e x c h a n g e capacity; B. h y g r o s c o p i c m o i s t u r e ; C. specific surface area ; D. clay (%). ( For legend see Fig. 1. )
r~ = 0 . 5 0 4
PL = 2 . 0 7 7 Pw + 1 5 . 2 4 2 ;
r: = 0 . 6 7 2
PL = 0 . 2 8 0 CEC + 1 7 . 1 6 8 ;
r: = 0 . 5 6 3
.I
100
59
60
0.30
(A)
(B)
0.30
0.20
0.20
'/
U 0.10,
r~O 88""
.!
COLE=O023Pw+ 0106
0.10
~
0.00
12
0.00
15
;u"/
"":
~
0%-"
,:
i. "
~
'
20
40
60
80
100
"
0.10
,J"i
r : 082""
= 00027 + 01503
0.10
'
200
'
,
400
'
10
~
20
30
Fig. 3. C O L E as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s listed b e l o w : A. h y g r o s c o p i c w a t e r ; B. c a t i o n
e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y ; C. s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e a r e a ; D. e x c h a n g e a b l e s o d i u m p e r c e n t a g e . ( F o r
l e g e n d see Fig. 1.)
C O L E m a y be p r e d i c t e d b y a k n o w l e d g e o f h y g r o s c o p i c w a t e r , CEC a n d
s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e area b y using o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d below. O r g a n i c m a t t e r has l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on C O L E in Israeli soils b e c a u s e o f
inherently low contents.
COLE = 0.0007 SSA + 0.0264;
r 2 = 0.672
C O L E = 0 . 0 2 3 0 Pw + 0 . 0 1 0 6 ;
r 2 = 0.774
C O L E = 0 . 0 0 3 4 CEC + 0 . 0 2 7 1 ;
r: = 0.656
61
GENERAL CONCLUSIONS
62
negate the effect of Na in sodic-saline soils; flocculation occurs, and shrinkage and Atterberg limits are lower.
(3) Positive correlations were noted between organic matter and Atterberg
limits. Organic matter increases the effective specific surface area and hence
the potential for water retention thus leading to higher liquid and plastic
limits. In this way organic matter also acts as a secondary factor in influencing
mechanical properties.
(4) Calcium carbonate appears to have little effect on liquid and plastic
limits.
(5) Secondary interactions {such as sodicity, organic matter, etc.) account
for part of the residual variance. A knowledge of these interactions obtained
through multivariate regression analysis would improve regression coefficients. Experimental errors may account for up to 10%, 25% and 5% of the
unexplained variances for liquid limit, plastic limit and COLE, respectively.
Other residual variance may be caused by spatial variability of soils in the
field.
63
berg limits is not feasible. Other variables in the profiles such as clay contents, ESP and organic matter have stronger effects on Atterberg limits than
does calcium carbonate, consequently the limits will reflect other properties.
At the same time, COLE values are lower in the case of calcareous soils due
to the presence of CaCO~ rather than expansible clay minerals in the clay
fractions.
(3) Highly swelling-shrinking soils (Grumusols). Mechanical properties of
these soils show the most extreme behaviour of those studied (Table IV).
Due to the nature of the montmorillonite clay, the soils can adsorb large
amounts of water. Thus liquid and plastic limits are very high.
In sub-humid to humid areas some kaolinite may be present and the Atterberg limits and COLE values are relatively low. In semi-arid areas a drier environment and less leaching gives rise to more montmorillonite and a resulting higher specific surface area (Dan and Singer, 1973) and consequently
Atterberg limits and COLE values are also higher. Values for liquid limits of
Grumusols in semi-arid regions (e.g. G4) are as high as 70. In still drier
regions sodium may be present, especially in deeper soil layers (Bet She'an
21,90-120), and liquid limits are even higher (73). As leaching increases, these
values fall to about 48--60 for Grumusols in the Coastal Plain and the high
rainfall areas of the Golan. Plastic limits show a very similar pattern with values up to 42 for soils (sodic and non-sodic) of semi-arid regions. In the more
humid regions plastic limits show a lower range of values from 25--35.
(4) Red and Brown Mediterranean soils: (a) Terra Rossa (on limestone).
Terra Rossa soils in Israel may be represented b y the Malkiyya series of soils
of the northern part which have been subject to high leaching and by the
Barkan profile, representative of soils of the somewhat drier central mountainous region.
Because of their highly leached status the Malkiyya series have a predominantly kaolinitic clay fraction, leading to a low specific surface area.
Consequently, these soils have low liquid limits {35--45) and plastic limits
(21--29), despite high clay contents (Table III).
Terra Rossa of the drier areas shows appreciably higher liquid and plastic
limits (55 and 33, respectively). This is due to the higher specific surface
areas because of appreciable amounts of montmorillonite, attributed to the
drier conditions.
COLE values show a similar distribution in the t w o regions. In the predominantly kaolinitic soils values are lower than would be expected from the
clay contents. Nevertheless, values are relatively high with a range of 0.10
to 0.20 and increase with higher clay contents (Table III). COLE values on
the drier Terra Rossa of central Israel are higher, due to the presence of
montmorillonite, reaching values up to 0.23 {Table III).
(b) Red and Brown Mediterranean soils on basalt and tuff. The clayey Red
and Brown Mediterranean soils of the Golan Heights derived from basalt and
64
t u f f are p r e d o m i n a n t l y kaolinitic d u e to t h e high rainfall o f t h e area, and
possess low specific surface areas. Liquid and plastic limits are c o n s e q u e n t l y
low in w e a t h e r e d h o r i z o n s (liquid limit, 38; plastic limit, 30). C O L E values
range f r o m 0 . 1 4 3 in t h e less l e a c h e d soils to 0 . 0 9 0 in m o r e highly leached
c o u n t e r p a r t s (Table III). We infer t h a t t h e f o r m e r h a v e slightly higher m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e c o n t e n t s . High values f o r specific surface areas were f o u n d in the
w e a t h e r i n g h o r i z o n s o f a soil f o r m e d on tuffic m a t e r i a l (G 151). Water retent i o n is high, and h e n c e plastic and liquid limits are v e r y high (G 151; 3 0 - - 9 3 ,
140--200).
(c) Hamra soils. T h e relative p r o p o r t i o n s o f sand and clay, and t h e n a t u r e
o f the clay, d o m i n a t e t h e m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e coastal R e d Medit e r r a n e a n ( H a m r a ) soils. Sand and s a n d y l o a m h o r i z o n s have v e r y low liquid
limits ( < 2 0 ) and so little clay t h a t t h e y d o n o t e x h i b i t a plastic limit. T h e
argillic h o r i z o n shows a m a r k e d increase in liquid limit and also t h e existence
o f a plastic limit. In t h e l o w e r argillic h o r i z o n o f t h e p l a n o s o l (Nazzaz, usually f o u n d in a d e p r e s s i o n ) , m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e is evident in t h e clay fraction.
T h e liquid limit reflects this f e a t u r e and a p p r o a c h e s 45 a l t h o u g h t h e plastic
limit stays relatively low ( T a b l e I I I ) .
C O L E values range f r o m zero in t h e sands to as high as 0 . 1 6 5 in t h e pred o m i n a n t l y m o n t m o r i l l o n i t i c argillic h o r i z o n o f t h e planosol. In general,
h o w e v e r , C O L E values are v e r y low f o r these soils (Table III).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h e research p r o j e c t was p a r t l y s u p p o r t e d b y a g r a n t f r o m the Soil Cons e r v a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e Ministry o f A g r i c u l t u r e u n d e r P r o j e c t No.
3 0 4 - 0 0 9 0 7 . T h a n k s are also d u e t o Mr. A v s h a l o m S h a l o m f o r his technical
assistance.
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