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Geoderma, 35 (1985) 47---65

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam -- Printed in The Netherlands

SHRINKAGE
PROPERTIES

AND ATTERBERG LIMITS IN RELATION


OF PRINCIPAL SOIL TYPES IN ISRAEL*

47

TO OTHER

C.W. SMITH, A. HADAS, J. DAN and H. KOYUMDJISKY

Department of Pedology and Soil Survey and Department of Soil Physics, Agricultural
Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan (Israel)
(Received April 3, 1984; accepted after revision October 30, 1984)

ABSTRACT
Smith, C.W., Hadas, A., Dan, J. and Koyumdjisky, H., 1985. Shrinkage and Atterberg
limits in relation to other properties of principal soil types in Israel. Geoderma, 35:
47--65.
Soil samples collected from 32 sites across Israel representing major types were analyzed for their pedological characteristics and mechanical properties. Correlative relationships between shrinkage (measured by the coefficient of linear extensibility, COLE),
Atterberg limits (liquid and plastic) and the physical and chemical properties were established and indicate possibilities of estimating mechanical properties from known pedological data. Strong correlations were noted between mechanical properties and the pedological characteristics reflecting clay mineralogy and texture, e.g. cation-exchange capacity,
specific surface area, hygroscopic moisture and clay content. These relationships are
useful inasmuch as clay mineralogy is usually evident from soil classification. Sodicity and
salinity, common in dry soils of semi-arid regions, may introduce complicating factors
such as raising or lowering Atterberg limits, respectively. Shrinkage is similarly affected
being accentuated at high-sodium, low-salt levels and reduced in highly saline-sodic soils.
Organic matter was correlated with liquid and plastic limits, but no relationship with
shrinkage was noted. Calcium carbonate also had little influence on Atterberg limits.
The relationships presented may serve as first approximations. Mechanical properties
of the soil groups illustrate the range of values encountered among regions with differing
environmental conditions.

INTRODUCTION
D a t a c o n c e r n i n g s o i l m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s (e.g. A t t e r b e r g l i m i t s , C O L E ,
s h e a r s t r e n g t h , e t c . ) a r e r e q u i r e d b y civil a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l e n g i n e e r s . T h e s e
d a t a a r e s o u g h t f o r t h e p l a n n i n g a n d c o n s t r u c t i o n o f d i f f e r e n t p r o j e c t s , inc l u d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l p u r p o s e s (e.g. e a r t h d a m c o n s t r u c t i o n , s e t t l i n g o f s t r u c tures, compaction of soil, etc.).

*Contribution from the Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, Bet Dagan, Israel, 1984 Series, No. 1055-E.

0016-7061/85/$03.30

1985 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V.

48
Determination of soil mechanical properties is presently, as in the past,
carried out on an ad hoc basis and such data are not generally available. A
correlative study in which the mechanical soil properties of major soil types
will be related to their chemical and physical properties thus seems feasible.
The basic information gathered for soil survey maps and bulletins (e.g. chemical, physical and mineralogical properties} may serve as a basis for primary
assessment of mechanical characteristics. Besides its basic scientific value as
a simple method of predicting and characterizing soil mechanical potentials
from one or several simple determinations, the approach would permit
estimation of mechanical properties from currently available soil survey data.
The mechanical properties sought by engineers would thus become available
directly from soil survey maps and publications while saving additional
tedious and expensive testing.
Correlative studies between chemical and physical properties {Banin and
Amiel, 1970} and between mechanical and other soil properties (Mortland,
1954; Farrar and Coleman, 1967; Franzmeier and Ross, 1968; Greene-Kelly~
1974} clearly show that close relationships do exist between certain properties. For 19 British soils, Farrar and Coleman found a close correlation between liquid limit, specific surface area and CEC. Similarly, Gill and Reaves
{1957} and Odell et al. (1960) found good relationships between Atterberg
limits and chemical and physical properties of various American soils containing mainly 2 : 1 clay minerals. Odell et al. carried o u t multiple correlations between liquid limit, plastic limit and plasticity index and three soil
properties (percentage organic carbon, percentage clay and percentage montmorillonite in the clay separate) for 26 soils in Illinois. The results indicated
very close relationships between Atterberg limits and those three properties.
Information regarding shrinkage of soils is essential for engineers. Shrinkage
of the soil is measured by the coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE).
Soils exhibiting high shrinkage are usually those with large amounts of montmorillonite present in the clay fraction. Shrinkage is usually related to expansible mineral content {Greene-Kelly, 1974), though softs containing equal
amounts of montmorillonite and kaolinite will behave much like a montmorillonitic soil and may have high COLE values (Franzmeier and Ross,
1968).
The present study forms part of a larger investigation to relate mechanical
properties, of importance to engineers, to the chemical and physical properties of all major Israeli soil types. The aim of this paper is to present correlative information between the mechanical properties and the chemical and
physical properties of the soils.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Soils

Sixty-six samples representing various surface and sub-surface horizons


from 32 soil profiles were taken from as many locations in Israel. Soils in-

49
cluded swelling-shrinking soils (Grumusols or Vertisols), highly calcareous
and salt-affected soils of the Negev and the Jordan Valley and non-calcareous
red and brown Mediterranean soils from the Sharon Plain, Upper Galilee and
the Golan Heights. Soil classification and site information are given in Table
I. Soils were classified according to the Israeli system (Committee on Soil
Classification in Israel, 1979), the American system (Soil Survey Staff,
1975), and the FAO-UNESCO legend (FAO, 1974). The soil designations in
this text are from the original publications (Koyumdjisky et al., 1966; Dan
et al., 1968a, b, 1972, 1981; Dan and Singer, 1973). Rainfall data were compiled from Dorfman (1981).
Not all soils are classified at the same level. Most of the soils have been
defined at the soil family and soil t y p e level of the Israeli soil classification.
The correlations with the U.S. Soil T a x o n o m y and FAO-UNESCO legend are
at subgroup or higher levels.

Methods
Atterberg limits are defined by the water contents required to produce
specified degrees of consistency that are measured in the laboratory (Sowers,
1965) and were determined according to the standard A.S.T.M. methods
(A.S.T.M., 1964).
The coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE) is an estimate of the linear
c o m p o n e n t of shrinkage in a soil sample represented by the equation:
--"

--

where Dw = diameter of the wet soil sample and Do = diameter of oven-dry


soil sample (Franzmeier and Ross, 1968). The soil sample was remoulded in
a 6-cm diameter lid at a moisture content approximating the liquid limit and
allowed to dry out over a period of days, noting the changes in weight and
diameter of the sample. Thereafter, the sample was dried in the oven at 105C
and the final measurements were taken.
Specific surface area was measured by ethylene glycol retention following
a method similar to that of Bower and Gschwend (1952). Soil samples were
dried in weighing bottles to constant weight in a vacuum over P2Os. Hygroscopic moisture was determined at this stage. A small amount of ethyleneglycol was added to each of the bottles, which were stored in a vacuum over
anhydrous CaC12. Bottles were weighed periodically until the weighing could
be reproduced within + 4 mg g-1.
Particle-size distribution was determined by the hydrometer method
according to Day (1965) except for omission of the peroxide pre-treatment,
due to the low organic matter content of most Israeli soils. The texture
classes in Table II are determined according to the USDA designations (Soil
Survey Staff, 1975).
Statistical linear regression analysis was applied to the results obtained
from the methods outlined above on a Hewlett-Packard 9825A computer.

Cumulic-Alluvisl R e d
Mediterranean Clay
Cumulic-Alluvial Red
M e d i t e r r a n e a n Clay
R e d Te~ra Rossa

Alluvial b r o w n G r u m u s o l
Non-Calcareous Basaltic
Dark-Brown Grumusol
Calcareous Basaltic DarkBrown Grumusol
Calcareous Natric
Reddish-Brown
Grurnusol
Non-Calcareous ReddishBrown Terra Rossa
Alluvial B r o w n G r u m u s o l
S a n d y Clay L o a m H a m m

M 14

Yad N a t h a n
G 65

Alluvial Argillic silty


Clay S e r o z e m
Marly H i g h l y C a l c a r e o u s
Serozem

K 28

K 19

Grey Quartzic Nazaz

N a 11

Gan Shemuel
Na 8

Barkan 3

B e t S h e ' a n 21

G 4

M 18

M 16

G 37

G 40

G 70

Marly Pale R e n d z i n a
Tuffic Red Mediterranean
Clay L o a m
Tuffic R e d Mediterranean
Clay
Basaltic B r o w n Medit e r r a n e a n Clay
Basaltic R e d Mediterranean Clay

Israel s y s t e m

According to:

OG 9
G151

Site N o .

Typic Calciorthid

Typic Haplargid

Typic Albaqualf

R u p t i c lithic
Xerochrept
Typic Chromoxerert
Typic Rhodoxeralf

Typic Chromoxerert

Typic Chromoxerert

Typic Chromoxerert
Typic Chromoxerert

Lithic Rhodoxeralf

Typic Rhodoxeralf

Typic Rhodoxeralf

Typic Rhodoxeralf

Typic Haploxeralf

Typic Rhodoxeralf

Lithic Xerorthent
Typic Rhodoxeralf

U.S.D.A. system

Soil i d e n t i f i c a t i o n a n d site c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e soils

TABLE I

Pleistocene basalt

Clay alluvium

Chromic Luvisol

Chromic Luvisol

Calcic Y e r m o s o l

Luvic Yermosol

Eutric Planosol

Chromic Vertisol
Chromic Luvisol

Eutrie Cambisol

Chromic Vertisol

Chromic Vertisol

Lisan marl

Alluvial clay
S a n d ( w i t h fine aeolian dust accumulation)
S a n d ( w i t h fine aeolian d u s t a c c u m u l a tion)
Alluvial s i l t y clay

Hard Eocene limestone

Pleistocene basalt

Clay alluvium
Early Pleistocene
basalt
Pliocene basalt

Hard Eocene limestone

Chromic Luvisol
Chromic Vertisol
Chromic Vertisol

Clay a l l u v i u m

Chromic Luvisol

Brunic Luvisol

Chromic Luvisol

Marl
Pleistocene volcanic
scoria
Pleistocene volcanic
scoria
Pleistocene basalt

Parent m a t e r i a l

Lithosol
Chromic Luvisol

FAO-UNESCO
legend

170

190

58O

60O
58O

4OO

35O

55O

60O
650

660

660

660

900

8OO

8OO

1100
900

Rainfall
(mm)

1
6

15

0
2

13

40
1

S l o p e (%)

Flat L o w e r Part
0
of Alluvial F a n
Dissected lacustrine 0
terrace

Lower Footslope

Steep Rocky
Slope
Level Floodplain
Moderate Upper
Slope

Gently Sloping
Plateau

Level P l a t e a u

Steep Western
Slope
Level Floodplain
Plateau

Undulating
dissected
plateau
Flat Valley
Bottom
Footslope

V. s t e e p s l o p e
Top of volcanic
cone
Top of volcanic
cone
Plateau

Topography

NG 94

NG 114

NG I I I

NG 82

NG 80

L o a m y D e s e r t Alluvial
Soft

40
40

Alluvial ~iay a n d silt


Alluvial l o a m

Takyric
Solonchak
Calcaric Fluvisol

T y p i c Tox~ifluvent

40

Coarse d e s e r t a l l u v i u m

Gypsic Yermosol

240
200

Petrogypsic Gypslorthid
Cambic Gypsiorthid

Luvic Yermo$ol
Luvic Yermosol

Gilat
Ram

370

50

Calcic L u v i s o l

Nahal Oz

250

O r t h i c S o l o n c h a k Alluvial sand

A e o l i a n loess
A e o l i a n loess

Haplic Xerosol

Chalky Rendzinic Desert


Lithic T o n ' i o r t h e n t
Lithosol
Loessial L i g h t B r o w n L o a m Calcic Mollic
Haploxeraif
Typic Hapiargid
Loessial B r o w n Soil
Typic Hapiargid
Loessial Argillic S e r o z e m

SH 8 6

250

T y p i c S aior t h i d

A e o l i a n loess

Haplic Xerosol

IAthic T o r r i o r t h e n t

Non-saline B r o w n L i t h o s o l

SH 8 5

400

50

Hard Turonian limestone


Chalk

Lithosol

Lithic Xerorthent

BG 27

400

G l e y i c S o l o n c h a k Alluvial silt a n d clay

Nari l i m e s t o n e
(calcrete)
Chalk

R end zina

Lithic Haploxeroll

BG 2 6

450

460

Typic Salorthid

A e o l i a n silt a n d clay

Vertic Luvisol

Vertic Palexeraif

Givati

Silty C l a y - - l o a m y Alluvial
Sterile G l e y S o l o n c h a k
S a n d y L o a m Alluvial
Solonchak
Petrogypaic Regosolic
Reg
Clayey Takyr

A e o l i a n clay

C h r o m i c Vertisol

Typic Chl~moxerer t

Calcareous Cumulic
Aeolian Brown
Grumusol
Silty C l a y e y , C u m u l i c
Aeolian Grumic Dark
B r o w n Clay
Non-Calcareous Brown
Rendzina
C h a l k y Pale R e n d z i r m

Qedma
2

Hillcrest

U n d u l a t i n g Upland
F i a t Hilltop
U n d u l a t i n g Upland
Saline M u d f l a t

0
0

Flat D r y M u d f i a t

Slightly Sloping
Alluvial F a n
Flat A r e a o n
Ridgecrest
Fiat D r y P l a y a

0
4

30

M o u n t a i n Slope

Upper moderate
2
slope of h i l l t o p
Hilly A r e a , S t e e p 3 0
Slo.ve
M o u n t a i n Slope
15

Hillcrest

c~

52

TABLE II
Physical and c h e m i c a l d a t a f o r t h e soils s t u d i e d
Site no.

Depth
(cm)

Horizon

Texture

Organic
matter
(%)

CaCO 3 CEC* 1
(%)
( m e q . / 1 0 0 g)

ESP*

OG 9

0--35
35--70
70+
0--30
0--13
25+
0--30
0--17
17--30
35--55
0--20
20--40
0--15
50--200
0--30
0--20
20--60
0--15
20--60
0--20
20--60
90--120
0--12
12--30
0--30
0--17
44--70
71--89
110--180
0--11
20--44
44--64
0--6
6--20
20--60
0~4
4--23
23--60
0--35
120--160
0--30
0--15
15 30

A
AC
C11
A
A
B2R
A
Ap
AB
B:~
Ap
B21
At
B2R
Ap
At
B2
At
B2
Ap
BI
B2:
All
At:

Silty clay l o a m
Clay
Clay
Silty clay l o a m
Loam
S t o n y clay
Clay
S a n d y clay l o a m
Clay
Clay
C~ay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay
Clay

1.5
1.1
n.d.
n.d.
2.8
1.1
2.0
1.7
1.1
0.8
n.d.
n.d.
3.4
n.d.
n.d.
3.5
n.d.
1.6
1.3
1.3
0.9
0.0
3.6
2.9
n.d.
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
12.0
4.8

49.0
44.2
47.0
0,0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.5
n.d.
n.d.
0.0
0.0
3.7
4.3
23.5
24.3
25.2
0.3
0.2
15,1
0.1
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.2
16.3
18.5
18.6
35.9
38.0
40.4
16.6
16.6
16.9
2.5
2.5

25.6
21.1
21.8
24.1
27.8
31.0
19.8
13.7
17.0
22.5
25.7
27.0
47.9
n.d.
n.d.
55.6
57.2
79.6
78.9
40.7
41.1
43.0
61.1
62.8
n.d.
7.6
15.9
16.5
7.4
18.2
16.2
14.6
21.4
26.3
26.0
21.3
22.2
20.2
31.4
38.7
58.8
66.4
56.0

1.4
2.0
2.0
1.3
1.4
0.9
1.1
2.6
2.2
1.6
1.4
1.4
1.0
1.0
n.d.
1.3
1.4
1.0
1.5
1.5
9.4
16.1
0.8
0.9
1.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
n.d.
2.0
2.0
12.4
15.0
17.9
13.2
17.1
14.4
2.3
20.9
1.0
1.0
1.5

0--17
17--40
40--60
0--14
0--12
12--25
25+
0--30

A
Ctl
Ct2
A~
A~
C
R
A~

5.2
2.1
1.1
2.7
2.1
1.8
n.d.
2.6

64.7
74.2
88.2
21.5
65.6
77.4
n.d.
11.0

18.2
15.6
12.5
25.7
14.2
18.2
n.d.
15.1

3.0
3.5
4.0
2.3
6.3
12.2
n.d.
4.3

n.d,
n.d.
1.0
0.6
0.6

11.4
30.0
35.5
53.3
59.3

12.4
13.0
8.9
15.7
19.5

4.0
23.0
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.

G 70
G 40
G 37
M14

M 16
M 18
Yad N a t h a n
G 65
G 4
Bet S h c ' a n 21

Barkan 3
Gau Shemuel
NA 8

Na 11

K 28

K 19

Qedma
Givati
B G 26

BG 27

S H 85
SH 86

N a h a l Oz
Gilat
Ram
NG 80

0--30
0--30
0--13
14--30
40--60

Ap
B~t
B3t
C12
A
B1
B:
A1
A3
B21
A1
A:
Ac
A
B
Ap
At
AB

Clay
Clay
Sandy loam
S a n d y clay l o a m
Sandy loam
Sand
Sand
S a n d y clay l o a m
S a n d y clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay
Clay l o a m
Clay
Clay
Clay l o a m
G r a v e l l y silty clay
G r a v e l l y silty clay
loam
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay
Silty clay
Fine s a n d y clay
loam
Loam
Clay l o a m
Silt l o a m
Silty clay l o a m
Silty clay l o a m

53
T A B L E II (continued)
Site no.

Depth
(cm)

NG 82

NG 111
NG 114
NG 94

0--11
20--50
50--70
0--20
40--70
0--5
0--20
20-50

Horizon

Texture

Organic
matter
(%)

CaCO 3 CEc*t
(%)
( m e q , / l O 0 g)

ESP*I

A1/B2
Cll
A1
A
C

Fine s a n d y l o a m
Sandy loam
Loamy sand
Silty clay loam
Silty clay loam
Silty clay loam
Loam
Silty clay loam

1.2
0.9
0.4
0.2
0.4
n.d.
0.4
0.4

30,5
32,2
37.4
35,3
32,8
23.1
41.6
41.9

n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
16.2
26.4
52.8
17.9
20.4

7.0
5.5
6.7
9.0
8.0
30.8
10.3
11.3

N o t e : I n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g G 1 5 1 w a s n o t a v a i l a b l e , h e n c e its o m i s s i o n f r o m this T a b l e ; * 1CEC =


Cation Exchange Capacity; ESP = Exchangeable Sodium Percentage.

RESULTS

Table I provides site information. Chemical, physical and mechanical data


of the 66 soil samples are presented in Tables II and III, ordered according
to geographical location from north to south.
Results of the regression analysis carried out on these data are presented
in a correlation matrix (Table IV) given in the following section. Only the
linear regression correlation coefficients are presented in Table IV.
DISCUSSION

The principal features of interest in the study are the relationships between the three mechanical properties: liquid limit, plastic limit and coefficient of linear extensibility (COLE), and the physical and chemical properties: specific surface area, clay percentage, hygroscopic water (Pw), CEC,
organic matter, calcium carbonate and exchangeable sodium percentage.

Liquid limit
Liquid limit is highly correlated with specific surface area, CEC and
hygroscopic water. A significant relationship also exists between liquid limit
and clay percentage and to a lesser extent with ESP and organic matter.
Similar findings were recorded by Odell et al. (1960) and Farrar and Cole
man (1967) who found liquid limit to be closely correlated with CEC, clay
percentage and clay mineralogy, reflected here in specific surface area.
Liquid limit is more closely related to specific surface area than to clay
content (Fig. 1, A and D) and consequently tends to reflect clay mineralogy
of a soil. Because clay mineralogy is usually evident from the soil classification, this is a particularly useful relationship for liquid limit prediction. Highly significant relationships were found between CEC, hygroscopic water and
specific surface area, and are consistent with data in the literature (Mortland,
1954; Gill and Reaves, 1957; Banin and Amiel, 1970). The data in Table IV

54

T A B L E III
P h y s i c a l a n d m e c h a n i c a l d a t a f o r t h e soils s t u d i e d
Site n o .

OG 9

G 151

G 70
G 40
G 37
M-14

M 16
M 18
Yad N a t h a n
G 65
G 4
B e t S h e ' a n 21

Barkan 3
Gan Shemuel
Na 8

N a 11

K 28

K 19

Qedma
Givati
BG 26

BG 27

S H 85
SH 86

Nahal Oz
Gilat
Ram
N G 80

Depth
(cm)

0--35
35--70
70+
0--15
30-05
140--200
0--30
0--13
25+
0--30
0--17
17--30
35--55
0--20
20--40
0--15
50--200
0--30
0--20
20--60
0--15
20---60
0--20
20--60
90--120
0--12
12--30
0--30
0--17
44--70
71--89
110--180
0--11
11--20
20--40
0--6
6--20
20--60
0--4
4--23
23--60
0--35
120--160
0--30
0--15
15--30
0--17
17--40
40--60
0--14
0--12
12--25
25+
0--30
0--30
0--30
0--13
14--30
40--60

Horizon

A
AC
C~1
A
B2
C
A
A
B:R
A
Ap
AB
B21
Ap
B:l
A1
B2R
Ap
A~
B2
AI
B:
Ap
BI
B22
All
AI:
Ap
B:t
B3t
Cl2
Al
Bl
B2
A~
A3
B21
A1
A3
Ac
A
B
Ap
A1
Ab
A
CH
Cl2
Az
A1
C
R
A1

Clay
(%)

18
43
51
48
74
47
50
25
43
44
28
57
71
69
54
81
95
50
67
68
75
62
61
58
68
66
79
54
14
27
11
4
4
28
30
33
38
38
35
46
29
49
49
41
43
39
35
35
55
32
41
50
51
31
23
30
15
19
35

S.S,A.* 1
(m: g-l)

114
146
168
142
241
318
136
115
158
135
118
119
154
150
211
242
277
n.d.
262
243
399
449
249
187
235
154
299
209
55
80
36
24
15
93
110
94
84
92
87
109
126
176
250
174
123
233
70
102
99
136
79
87
74
108
n.d.
93
n.d.
109
69

Atterberg limits
Liquid

Plastic

33.6
41.6
38,0
44.6
70.6
70.8
35.6
35.6
37.6
31.0
35.2
36,2
43.2
45.4
45.2
44.6
69.6
55.2
50.0
55.8
71.6
70.0
41.4
58.2
72.8
54.6
55.4
51.0
20.0
30.0
20.4
21.6
21.1
43.2
45.0
28.2
26.8
25.0
26.4
25.0
26.6
47.8
69.3
42.4
56.4
56.0
48.2
37.6
54.5
28.8
35.8
41.0
42.0
34.2
26.8
24.4
21.8
41.0
29.8

22.3
26.8
28.7
29.6
41.1
47.6
30.9
24.4
24.6
19.1
21.8
21.4
22.7
22,8
29.3
28.3
37.2
29.2
29.1
28.7
41.8
42.3
28.0
30.2
31.5
33.1
34.0
25.7
19.8

17.8
16.3
20.5
19.3
19.3
21.1
15.1
18.9
28.3
29.8
34.1
36.5
36.6
35.3
25.3
34.7
19.3
25.9
27.5
24.5
21.7
19.3
17.9
22,5
22.1

COLE* 1

Hygroscopic
w a t e r (%)

0.111
0,136
0.117
0.091
0.188
0.072
0.096
0.132
0,143
0.091
0.106
0.132
0.154
0.165
0.175
0.171
0.212
0.154
0.224
0.225
0,277
0.270
0,165
0.263
0.242
0.221
0.230
0.212
0.035
0.071
0.035
0,000
0.000
0.111
0.165
0.068
0.076
0.091
0,071
0.071
0.081
0.176
0.143
0,194
0.159
0.200
0.091
0.091
0.111
0.106
0.091
0.096
0.111
0.096
0.000
0,116
0.000
0.091
0.065

2.9
4.6
4.8
6.3
11,2
16,8
4.6
3.9
5.7
4.0
4.7
3.9
4.4
5.6
7.0
7.3
9.4
n.d.
8.0
8.4
11.9
13.6
8.2
7.0
8.0
5.3
9.0
5.3
1.8
2.8
1.2
0.7
0.4
3.5
4,1
2.9
3.9
3.2
3.0
4.1
n.d.
4.5
7.4
5.6
6.9
7.7
4.8
3.5
3.3
4.1
3.4
2.7
2.4
3.4
n.d.
n.d.
n.d.
4.7
3.0

55
T A B L E I I I (continued)

Site n o .

N G 82

N G 111
NG 114
N G 94

Depth
(cm)

0---11
20--50
50--70
0--20
40--70
0-5
0--20
20--50

Horizon

Clay
(%)

AI/B2
Cll
A1
A
C

12
16
9
31
29
27
19
43

S . S . A . *s
(m 2 g-l)

49
46
20
61
120
64
46
85

Atterberg limits
Liquid

Plastic

23.8
23.0
19.9
23.8
21.4
17.8
17.6
26.0

---18.6
16.6
16.0
17.0
19.5

C O L E .1

0.000
0.008
0.000
0.062
0.058
0.031
0.025
0.066

Hygroscopic
w a t e r (%)

2.5
2.5
1.1
3.6
4.5
2.0
1.5
2.7

* I S . S , A . = s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e axea; C O L E = c o e f f i c i e n t o f l i n e a r e x t e n s i b i l i t y ; - - = v a l u e u n a t t a i n a b l e .

show that these three parameters correlate very well with liquid limit, and
we propose that one of these properties can be used for estimating liquid
limit. This is convenient, due to the regular availability of hygroscopic moisture and CEC data in soil survey bulletins. The following equations have
been found for the above-mentioned relationships.
LL = 0.140 SSA + 19.805;

r 2 = 0.672

LL = 3.648 Pw + 22.329;

r 2 = 0.723

LL = 0.574 CEC + 21.897;

r 2 = 0.722

LL = 0,575 CLAY + 15.345;

r 2 = 0.593

The relationship between clay content and liquid limit is highly significant
though the correlation is not s o high as those between liquid limit and hygroscopic water, CEC and specific surface area. This is to be expected considering the widely divergent nature of the clay minerals in these soils. At a given
clay content two soils may show much different liquid limits due to their
differing mineralogies with their consequent effects on specific surface area.
Only in soils with similar clay mineralogy can clay percentage be used as an
accurate tool in predicting liquid limit (Odell et al., 1960). The magnitude of
the correlations found in the present study, however, emphasizes the
possible use of clay percentage in predicting mechanical properties for a wide
range o f soils, although predictive priority must be given to other properties,
such as specific surface area, hygroscopic moisture and CEC if such data are
available.
For a sodium-affected non-saline soil (e.g., Qedma, Bet She'an 21), the
liquid limit is higher (Fig. 1A) because sodium increases the effective specific
surface area due to partial dispersion and increased hydration between
particles. This effect was also noted by Nettleton and Brasher (1983) and
will diminish with increasing electrolyte concentration. For highly saline
soils the salt concentration in solution negates the effect of exchangeable
sodium and is high enough in some cases to produce conditions opposite
to those described above for non-saline, sodic soils. Compression of the

56
double layer induced by the high electrolyte concentration leads to a stabilising effect probably due to flocculation. Hence, lower liquid limits are ob
tained than would be anticipated from the specific surface area, saline soils
thus form a group of soils lying below the regression line on a plot of liquid
limit against specific surface area (Fig. 1A).
A significant relationship was found between liquid limit and organic
matter (Table IV). This is in agreement with Odell et al. (1960). Amounts of
organic matter in a soil increase its liquid and plastic limits due to their
100

(A)

100

80

80
;~.:

I-

(B)

60

$6o

'

g4o
-J

2O
0

,(~.

'LL = 0.141SSA

20

19.805

200

LL = 3 648 Pw + 22 329
!

400

13

15

HYGROSCOPIC WATER

SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA 0mZ/g)

100

100

(C

80

(%)

(D)

80

I'-

P" 6 0

"~60

-J

4o
,-I
:

20

.:.

..

.J

r=077"*
LL =0.574

C E C + 21 8 7 9

20
LL=0.575CLAY

40

60

80

100

CATION EXCHANGE CAPAClTY(meq/IOOg )

G0

2O

4O

+ 15.345

6O

8O

CLAY (%)

Fig. 1. Liquid limit as a f u n c t i o n o f the properties listed b e l o w : A. specific surface area;


B. hygroscopic moisture (Pw); C. c a t i o n e x c h a n g e capacity; D. clay (%).
Legend: a -- saline non-sodic soils; 0 = soils high in organic matter; ~ = non-saline, sodic
soils; = tuffic and scoria derived soils.

IO0

57
TABLE

IV

Regression coefficients (r)


SSA
SSA
CLAY
Pw
LL
PL
COLE
CEC
ESP
OM
CaCO s

CLAY

Pw

LL

PL

COLE

CEC

ESP

OM

CaCO3

0.76**

0.98**
0.63**

0.82**
0.77**
O.S5*S

0.71"*
0.60**
0.82**
0.68**

0.82**
0.81"*
0.88**
0.84**
0.62**

0.85**
0.66**
0.86**
0.77**
0.75**
0.81'*

0.33*
0.24
0.32*
--0.46**
--0.49**
-4).37**
0.25

0.16
0.21
0.29*
0.38**
0.44**
0.09
0.25
0.34

0.31"
O.17
0.27*
0.13
0.07
0.30*
0.28*
0.30*
0.18

*Denotes significance at the 1 % probability level; ** denotes significance at the 5 % probability level.

effect of reducing compaction and to the strong attraction of water to


humus (Pitty, 1979).
No correlation was found between liquid limit and calcium carbonate c o n
tent.
Plastic limit

Plastic limit is highly correlated with all of the measured soil properties
apart from calcium carbonate. Highest correlations exist with CEC, hygroscopic water and specific surface area as noted previously b y Gill and Reaves
(1957), Odell et al. (1960) and Farrar and Coleman (1967). Lower but still
significant correlations exist with clay percentage and organic matter (Table
IV). Generally, the correlation coefficients are lower than the corresponding
coefficients for liquid limit correlations. This is believed to be due to the
greater experimental error involved in the determination of plastic limits as
reported b y Farrar and Coleman (1967).
The plastic limits were not as highly correlated with the clay percentage as
with hygroscopic water, CEC and specific surface area, indicating that the
clay mineralogy is of greater importance than the amount of clay in plastic
limit correlation.
Salt-affected soils have the lowest plastic limits of those studied and lie
below the regression line (Fig. 2C), indicating a lower plastic limit than
would be anticipated from their specific surface areas. Plastic limits for nonsaline sodic soils do not show a significant deviation from the regression line
(Fig. 2C). This differs from the trend of sodic non-saline soils for the liquid
limit--specific surface area relationship and may be attributable to the higher
relative experimental error of plastic limit determination. Plastic limit was
also closely correlated with organic matter. This is attributed to raising the
amount of water taken up by organic matter before plasticity can be attained.
We propose that the plastic limit can be estimated quite accurately from
the knowledge of one of the following easily distinguished parameters, name-

58

50

(A)

50

([5)

/J

r~

-' .

r =O.75"*
PL= 0.280 CEC + 17168

PL = 2.077 P. 1,5.242

10

10

20

40

60

80

100

CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY(meq/10Og)


50

50

20
..I
a.

r ~ 0.71

10!

HYGROSCOPIC

(C)

4O

200

12

15

WATER (%)

(D)

,._

4O

20

"

PL = 0.064 SSA + 16601

400

r = 060 .,.
P L = 0 2 5 8 CLAY + 14,329

10

SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA (rnZ/g)

20

40
CLAY

60

.I

80

(%)

Fig. 2. Plastic limit as a f u n c t i o n of the properties listed below: A. c a t i o n e x c h a n g e capacity; B. h y g r o s c o p i c m o i s t u r e ; C. specific surface area ; D. clay (%). ( For legend see Fig. 1. )

ly, h y g r o s c o p i c m o i s t u r e , CEC and specific surface area. T h e s e relationships


are represented b y t h e f o l l o w i n g equations:
PL = 0 . 0 6 4 S S A + 1 6 . 6 0 1 ;

r~ = 0 . 5 0 4

PL = 2 . 0 7 7 Pw + 1 5 . 2 4 2 ;

r: = 0 . 6 7 2

PL = 0 . 2 8 0 CEC + 1 7 . 1 6 8 ;

r: = 0 . 5 6 3

E s t i m a t i o n o f plastic limit will be a f f e c t e d by organic m a t t e r c o n t e n t and


t h e s o d i u m status o f the soil, b o t h o f w h i c h m u s t be t a k e n into a c c o u n t in
a n y such assessment, either by differentiating b e t w e e n saline and non-saline
sodic soils or by applying multivariate regression analysis.

.I

100

59

Coefficient of linear extensibility


COLE shows highly significant correlations with hygroscopic water,
specific surface area, CEC and clay percentage (Table IV). A somewhat lower
b u t still significant correlation exists with exchangeable sodium percentage.
The close correlations between the first three of these indicate the close
relationship between clay mineralogy and COLE.
COLE is dependent not only on clay mineralogy but also on the amount
of clay. This is illustrated by the high regression coefficient between COLE
and clay content (Table IV). Clayey montmorillonitic soils show highest
COLE values (0.270) and sands and saline soils the lowest values. Kaolinitic
soils high in clay show rather high COLE values {0.170) b u t these are much
lower than those for montmorillonitic soils with similar texture.
Franzmeier and Ross (1968) also showed that relationships exist between
clay mineralogy, amount of clay and COLE. Their highest COLE values also
occurred when the soil was high in both clay and montmorillonite, although
their values for soils similar in clay content and mineralogy were much lower
than ours. Greene-Kelly (1974) reported high correlations between contents
o f expansible minerals and COLE for a smaller range o f British soils of mixed mineralogy.
Correlation coefficients between COLE and CEC and COLE and clay content were 0.81 in both cases. Franzmeier and Ross (1968) reported regression coefficients for COLE and CEC of 0.89 and for COLE and clay content
of 0.79 for a group of predominantly montmorillonitic soils. Their number
of samples was much lower than the one used in this study.
Sodium and salinity affect both shrinkage and swelling. In sodic non-saline
Grumusols (Vertisols) shrinkage is very high. These soils lie above the regression line in a graph showing the relationship between COLE and specific surface area (Fig. 3C}. Greater shrinkage than expected occurs due to the effect
of sodium bringing about a larger effective surface area due to dispersion,
hydration and increased probability of reorientation. At the other extreme,
very low COLE values o f saline soils lead to a grouping of these soils below
the lower end of the regression line (Fig. 3C). For these soils, the higher
electrolyte concentration stabilizes the soil structure, causing less shrinkage
than anticipated from specific surface area values.
The relationship between COLE and ESP (Fig. 3D) is misleading. High
COLE values are observed at low ESP values and a correlation coefficient of
- 0 . 3 7 is reported, suggesting that as ESP increases, shrinkage decreases. It
seems clear that, because most soils have little sodium present on their exchange complex, other more major factors are of importance in determining
shrinkage (e.g. specific surface area) at low ESP values. When ESP is high,
however, it tends to enhance the magnitude of COLE by creating more suitable conditions for shrinkage. Thus, at the range of values where ESP has a
major effect on shrinkage the relationship may well show a positive correlation.

60

0.30

(A)

(B)

0.30

0.20

0.20

'/

U 0.10,

r~O 88""
.!

COLE=O023Pw+ 0106

0.10
~

0.00

12

0.00

15

HYGROSCOPIC WATER (%)

;u"/

"":

~
0%-"

,:

i. "
~

'

20

40

60

80

100

CATION EXCHANGE CAPAClTY(meq/1OOg)

"

0.10

COLE=00034 CEC+0 0271

,J"i

r : 082""

= 00027 + 01503

0.10

COLE 0 0007 SSA + 0.0264


=

'
200

'

,
400

'

SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA ( r n Z / g )

10

~
20

30

EXCHANGEABLE SOOfdM PERCENTAGE

Fig. 3. C O L E as a f u n c t i o n o f t h e p r o p e r t i e s listed b e l o w : A. h y g r o s c o p i c w a t e r ; B. c a t i o n
e x c h a n g e c a p a c i t y ; C. s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e a r e a ; D. e x c h a n g e a b l e s o d i u m p e r c e n t a g e . ( F o r
l e g e n d see Fig. 1.)

C O L E m a y be p r e d i c t e d b y a k n o w l e d g e o f h y g r o s c o p i c w a t e r , CEC a n d
s p e c i f i c s u r f a c e area b y using o n e o f t h e f o l l o w i n g e q u a t i o n s p r e s e n t e d below. O r g a n i c m a t t e r has l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e on C O L E in Israeli soils b e c a u s e o f
inherently low contents.
COLE = 0.0007 SSA + 0.0264;

r 2 = 0.672

C O L E = 0 . 0 2 3 0 Pw + 0 . 0 1 0 6 ;

r 2 = 0.774

C O L E = 0 . 0 0 3 4 CEC + 0 . 0 2 7 1 ;

r: = 0.656

61

Evaluation o f the results o f statistical analysis


The linear relationships established between liquid limit, plastic limit and
COLE, on the one hand, and specific surface area, CEC and hygroscopic
water, on the other, although first approximations, support a hypothesis
that there are strong relationships between mechanical and physical and
chemical soil properties. The r-values obtained are 0.71 to 0.88 (for plastic
limit -- specific surface area and hygroscopic water -- COLE, respectively)
which though being significant at the ~ = 0.05 probability level, suggest that
these relationships should be examined for possible existence of non-linear
relationships or through multi-variable regressions. The squares of r-values
reflect the ratio between the variance o f y on x, namely the explained
variance of the regressions and the total variance of the sampled population.
In our case for r = 0.71 to 0.88 or r 2 = 0.501 to 0.774 this means t h a t the
equations given may account for at least 50% of the variance in the case of
plastic limit -- specific surface area, or 77.4% for COLE - - h y g r o s c o p i c
water, respectively. The remainder within the range of 49.9 to 22.6%, for
example, is variance attributed to experimental errors and interactions unaccounted for or to a different form of relationship, e.g. curvilinear, which
may better fit the data sets.
The relative experimental standard errors involved in determinations of
liquid limit, plastic limit and COLE are within 10%, 25% and 5%, respectively, which amounts to experimental error variance of about 2.5%, 6.25% and
1.3%, respectively. Thus, one can deduce that almost all the unexplained
variance obtained for the liquid limit, plastic limit and COLE linear regressions is due to factors other than the experimental methods used. As an
example the best fits between plastic limit -- specific surface area and COLE
hygroscopic water are a second-degree polynomial (r 2 = 0.696} and a
hyperbola (r 2 -- 0.789), respectively. The variance explainable by the regression lines improved by 20% and 2%, respectively, yet about 25% to 10%
of the respective variance seems due to unaccounted interactions.
-

GENERAL CONCLUSIONS

To sum up, the correlations between pedological characteristics and some


mechanical properties of major Israeli soil types brought out the following
points:
(1) Mechanical properties may be estimated as a first approximation from
knowledge of clay mineralogical status and texture of soils. Especially strong
correlations exist between the mechanical properties and specific surface
area, hygroscopic moisture, CEC and to a lesser extent, clay content.
(2) Secondary factors such as salinity and sodicity introduce complicating
effects. Sodic, non-saline soils tend to have higher shrinkages, liquid limits
and plastic limits because of increases in effective specific surface area due to
the presence of Na +. On the other hand, high electrolyte concentrations

62
negate the effect of Na in sodic-saline soils; flocculation occurs, and shrinkage and Atterberg limits are lower.
(3) Positive correlations were noted between organic matter and Atterberg
limits. Organic matter increases the effective specific surface area and hence
the potential for water retention thus leading to higher liquid and plastic
limits. In this way organic matter also acts as a secondary factor in influencing
mechanical properties.
(4) Calcium carbonate appears to have little effect on liquid and plastic
limits.
(5) Secondary interactions {such as sodicity, organic matter, etc.) account
for part of the residual variance. A knowledge of these interactions obtained
through multivariate regression analysis would improve regression coefficients. Experimental errors may account for up to 10%, 25% and 5% of the
unexplained variances for liquid limit, plastic limit and COLE, respectively.
Other residual variance may be caused by spatial variability of soils in the
field.

Mechanical properties of characteristic soil groupings


Although the chief aim of the paper is to present correlations between
pairs of properties, the range of soils studied makes it useful to note the
consequent ranges of physical and mechanical attributes of these soils. These
softs are grouped according to similar conditions.
(1) Salt-affected soils of the Negev and Jordan Valley (Alluvial Brown
soils, Alluvial Desert soils, Solonchaks, Calcareous Serozems, Reg soils). These
softs are highly saline and sodic and exhibit the lowest liquid limit value of
17.6 (Table III). Liquid limits do not exceed 30. Plastic limits show a similar
trend ranging from 15.1 to 22.5, again among the lowest in Israel. In some
cases the low clay contents of these soils prevented determination of the
plastic limit.
COLE values were very low, with soils showing little or no shrinkage.
These low values are due to the low clay contents of the soils and the effects
of salt in the soil solution which tends to stabilise the soil structure.
(2) Highly calcareous soils (Pale Rendzinas, Rendzinic Lithosols). The
main features of these soils are their high calcium carbonate contents due to
the nature of the parent material, usually chalk or marl. Correlations do not
exist between Atterberg limits and calcium carbonate (Table IV), but calcium carbonate affects these mechanical properties through its ability to
supply surface area to the soft, inasmuch as a large part of it exists in the silt
and clay fractions.
COLE values for these soils generally do not exceed 0.120 but if their clay
contents are higher so are their COLE values.
Grouping softs high in calcium carbonate together in terms of their Atter-

63
berg limits is not feasible. Other variables in the profiles such as clay contents, ESP and organic matter have stronger effects on Atterberg limits than
does calcium carbonate, consequently the limits will reflect other properties.
At the same time, COLE values are lower in the case of calcareous soils due
to the presence of CaCO~ rather than expansible clay minerals in the clay
fractions.
(3) Highly swelling-shrinking soils (Grumusols). Mechanical properties of
these soils show the most extreme behaviour of those studied (Table IV).
Due to the nature of the montmorillonite clay, the soils can adsorb large
amounts of water. Thus liquid and plastic limits are very high.
In sub-humid to humid areas some kaolinite may be present and the Atterberg limits and COLE values are relatively low. In semi-arid areas a drier environment and less leaching gives rise to more montmorillonite and a resulting higher specific surface area (Dan and Singer, 1973) and consequently
Atterberg limits and COLE values are also higher. Values for liquid limits of
Grumusols in semi-arid regions (e.g. G4) are as high as 70. In still drier
regions sodium may be present, especially in deeper soil layers (Bet She'an
21,90-120), and liquid limits are even higher (73). As leaching increases, these
values fall to about 48--60 for Grumusols in the Coastal Plain and the high
rainfall areas of the Golan. Plastic limits show a very similar pattern with values up to 42 for soils (sodic and non-sodic) of semi-arid regions. In the more
humid regions plastic limits show a lower range of values from 25--35.
(4) Red and Brown Mediterranean soils: (a) Terra Rossa (on limestone).
Terra Rossa soils in Israel may be represented b y the Malkiyya series of soils
of the northern part which have been subject to high leaching and by the
Barkan profile, representative of soils of the somewhat drier central mountainous region.
Because of their highly leached status the Malkiyya series have a predominantly kaolinitic clay fraction, leading to a low specific surface area.
Consequently, these soils have low liquid limits {35--45) and plastic limits
(21--29), despite high clay contents (Table III).
Terra Rossa of the drier areas shows appreciably higher liquid and plastic
limits (55 and 33, respectively). This is due to the higher specific surface
areas because of appreciable amounts of montmorillonite, attributed to the
drier conditions.
COLE values show a similar distribution in the t w o regions. In the predominantly kaolinitic soils values are lower than would be expected from the
clay contents. Nevertheless, values are relatively high with a range of 0.10
to 0.20 and increase with higher clay contents (Table III). COLE values on
the drier Terra Rossa of central Israel are higher, due to the presence of
montmorillonite, reaching values up to 0.23 {Table III).
(b) Red and Brown Mediterranean soils on basalt and tuff. The clayey Red
and Brown Mediterranean soils of the Golan Heights derived from basalt and

64
t u f f are p r e d o m i n a n t l y kaolinitic d u e to t h e high rainfall o f t h e area, and
possess low specific surface areas. Liquid and plastic limits are c o n s e q u e n t l y
low in w e a t h e r e d h o r i z o n s (liquid limit, 38; plastic limit, 30). C O L E values
range f r o m 0 . 1 4 3 in t h e less l e a c h e d soils to 0 . 0 9 0 in m o r e highly leached
c o u n t e r p a r t s (Table III). We infer t h a t t h e f o r m e r h a v e slightly higher m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e c o n t e n t s . High values f o r specific surface areas were f o u n d in the
w e a t h e r i n g h o r i z o n s o f a soil f o r m e d on tuffic m a t e r i a l (G 151). Water retent i o n is high, and h e n c e plastic and liquid limits are v e r y high (G 151; 3 0 - - 9 3 ,
140--200).
(c) Hamra soils. T h e relative p r o p o r t i o n s o f sand and clay, and t h e n a t u r e
o f the clay, d o m i n a t e t h e m e c h a n i c a l p r o p e r t i e s o f t h e coastal R e d Medit e r r a n e a n ( H a m r a ) soils. Sand and s a n d y l o a m h o r i z o n s have v e r y low liquid
limits ( < 2 0 ) and so little clay t h a t t h e y d o n o t e x h i b i t a plastic limit. T h e
argillic h o r i z o n shows a m a r k e d increase in liquid limit and also t h e existence
o f a plastic limit. In t h e l o w e r argillic h o r i z o n o f t h e p l a n o s o l (Nazzaz, usually f o u n d in a d e p r e s s i o n ) , m o n t m o r i l l o n i t e is evident in t h e clay fraction.
T h e liquid limit reflects this f e a t u r e and a p p r o a c h e s 45 a l t h o u g h t h e plastic
limit stays relatively low ( T a b l e I I I ) .
C O L E values range f r o m zero in t h e sands to as high as 0 . 1 6 5 in t h e pred o m i n a n t l y m o n t m o r i l l o n i t i c argillic h o r i z o n o f t h e planosol. In general,
h o w e v e r , C O L E values are v e r y low f o r these soils (Table III).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
T h e research p r o j e c t was p a r t l y s u p p o r t e d b y a g r a n t f r o m the Soil Cons e r v a t i o n D e p a r t m e n t o f t h e Ministry o f A g r i c u l t u r e u n d e r P r o j e c t No.
3 0 4 - 0 0 9 0 7 . T h a n k s are also d u e t o Mr. A v s h a l o m S h a l o m f o r his technical
assistance.
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