Plain Bearings Made From Engineering Plastics

Plain bearings made from
engineering plastics
Plain bearings made from engineering plastics
Calculations Design Applications B.2.3
d1
d2
Measurements on plastic
bearings made from
various materials
Notes on assembly
Examples of applications

Contents
1.
Introduction
2.
General information on plain bearings
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.4.1
5
6
6
7
2.5.2
The tribological system, friction and wear

Applicability of testing
Definition of the coefficients of friction 0,
Dry running
Influence of the surface roughness of the
steel sliding surface
Lubrication
Effect of additives
(internal lubrication)
External lubrication
8
10
3.
Materials and material combinations
11
3.1
3.2
3.2.1
11
14
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.3.1
3.2.4
Materials
Material combinations
Coefficients of sliding friction of
Hostaform and Celanex
Model trials: coefficient of friction
Hostaform
Celanex
Coefficients of sliding friction of
Hostaform and Celanex when lubricated
Coefficients of static friction
Wear
Pin/shaft test
Noise
4.
Load-bearing capacity of plastic bearings
24
4.1
4.2
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.3
4.4
Permissible mean surface pressure pm perm.

Permissible thermal stress
Bearing temperature JL
Sliding surface temperature JF
Dynamic load-bearing capacity
Frictional wear
24
26
26
28
28
29
2.5
2.5.1
3.2.1.1
3.2.1.2
3.2.1.3
3.2.1.4
7
8
15
15
16
18
19
20
21
21
23

5.
Calculation example
30
6.
Notes on assembling plain bearings
31
6.1
6.3
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
Press-fit joint for plastic bearing

bushing/metal housing
Press-fitting the bearing bushings
Determination of dimensional change
due to deformation
Manufacture of plain bearings by means
of outsert moulding
Bearing clearance
Operating clearance SL
Fitting clearance SE
Manufacturing clearance SF
Calculation example
32
33
33
34
34
34
7.
35
8.
Explanation of symbols
41
9.
Literature
42
6.1.1
6.1.2
6.2
31
31
Introduction
General information
on plain bearings
Materials and
material combinations
Load-bearing capacity
of plastic bearings
Calculation example
Notes on assembling
plain bearings
Literature
31

1. Introduction
Plastic bearings by their very nature do not have the

high load-bearing capacity of metal bearings, but they
offer other advantages such as operation in conditions
of dry running and mixed friction, low noise,
maintenance-free operation, chemical resistance,
electrical insulation and have processing advantages.
Partially crystalline thermoplastics are generally
considerably more wear-resistant than amorphous
thermoplastics. This is confirmed by results of
measurements with a ring-disc test rig with steel as
the sliding partner [1].
Partially crystalline plastics are therefore nearly
always used for plain bearings. Of the plastics made
by Ticona GmbH the Hostaform (acetal
copolymer), Celanex (thermoplastic polyester) and
GUR (ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene)
ranges offer numerous possibilities for meeting the
different requirements of the various bearings.
Where the demands placed on e.g. service
temperature, chemical resistance, rigidity or
reproducible precision in production are extremely
high, the problem can be solved by using selected
grades of the high-performance Fortron
(polyphenylene sulphide) or Vectra (liquid crystal
polymer) ranges.
Fig. 1.1 Wear of various plastics against steel,

ring-disc test rig [1]
3.500
KA =
3.000
abrasion
pvt
2.500
Abrasion factor KA
Engineering thermoplastics have long demonstrated

their suitability as sliding materials. For decades they
have been used successfully in sliding applications in
precision engineering, in small electrical appliances
and in the electrical industry, to mention only a few
examples.
2.000
1.500
1.000
500
0
ABS
PC
Hostaform
PA 6
and 66
Celanex

2. General information
on plain bearings
2.1 The tribological system, friction and wear
The systematic investigation of the connection between

friction, lubrication and wear is known as tribology.
It is normally concerned with the interfacial
interactions of two bodies that are pressed against
each other and move relative to each other.
Standard ISO 4378-2 gives definitions and

characteristics for friction and wear [3].
Fig. 2.2 Test arrangement under
true plain bearing conditions
FN
a) radial bearing
The tribological behaviour of a material is determined

firstly by the tribological system (material
combination, surface roughness, lubricant) and
secondly by the stress factors (type of motion,
movement pattern, sliding speed, surface pressure,
temperature, loading time).
FN
Fig. 2.1 Diagram of a tribological system
b) oscillating, plane bearing
Stress factors
Structure of the tribological system

Mating body
Fig. 2.3 Test arrangement

for laboratory conditions [2]
Intermediate
substance
Surrounding
medium
Basic body
n
a) pin/disc
Surrounding medium
(wear phenomena)
Material loss
(amount of wear)
Wear characteristics
FN
b) block/ring
FN
n
It follows from this that neither sliding behaviour nor

wear is a material property. In both cases a system
characteristic is involved. Only the actual system
defines the tribological behaviour. Therefore the
sliding and wear characteristics of a system cannot be
predicted exactly. Trials are necessary to determine
the behaviour of the individual material combination
under the particular operating conditions.
n
FN
c) sphere/prism
Testing under true sliding conditions, fig. 2.2, and

tests under laboratory conditions for preliminary
selection of the material, fig. 2.3, are standardised [2]:

2.2 Applicability of testing

The more the test conditions differ from the actual
application, the greater is the uncertainty regarding
the applicability of the results.
Fig. 2.5 Abrasion of Hostaform with hard additives

as a function of the sliding motion and
roughness of the steel partner
30
constant motion
25
oscillating motion
Wear volume
Fig. 2.4 [4] compares two curves for the coefficient

of friction of the combination POM/austenitic steel
as a function of the temperature. They were
measured with two different sample geometries on
the same test rig and show marked deviations in the
value, e.g. at room temperature, as well as opposing
trends for the change in coefficient of friction as a
function of the temperature.
20
15
10
5
0
Fig. 2.4 Coefficients of friction of the combination

POM/austenitic steel as a function
of the temperature
Coefficient of friction
0.5
0.4
0.3
rough
relationships between the system structure, the stress

factors and the wear characteristics to be recognised.
Testing is therefore indispensable for material
development.
2.3 Definition of the coefficients of friction 0,
0.2
0.1
0
-50
smooth
-25
25
50
75
100
125
150
The coefficient of static friction 0 must be taken into

account when the sliding speed v = 0 and the
coefficient of dynamic friction when the sliding
speed v > 0; generally speaking, 0 > .
Temperature (C)
A Ring-disc test rig
p= 2.5 N/mm2, v = 0.01 m/s (p v = 0.025 N/mm2 m/s)
Fig. 2.6 Forces in a sliding combination
B Pin-disc test rig

p= 0.1 N/mm2, v = 0.5 m/s (p v = 0.05 N/mm2 m/s)
direction of motion
FR = FN
If the wear properties of products modified with hard

additives are estimated, care must be exercised in
applying the results of one tribological system to
another. This is illustrated by an investigation of two
systems with different types of motion. Studies involving the steady-motion test system show low wear
rates with rough and with smooth steel spheres. In
the oscillating-motion system the wear when the
plastic is combined with a smooth steel sphere is also
low but rises sharply when it is combined with a
rough steel sphere (fig. 2.5). When the hard additives
are similar in size to the grooves in the sliding partner,
they can be broken off from the plastic by these and
have a similar abrasive action to an abrasive additive.
These examples show that the significance of the
results of trials with simple test specimens and their
applicability to tribologically stressed components is
severely limited. Model trials do however enable basic
6
FN
FR
(Coulombs law of friction)

Coefficient of friction =
FR
= tan
FN
FR is the frictional force acting in

opposite direction of motion.
FR
FN

2.4.1 Influence of the surface roughness of the steel

sliding surface
In principle plain bearings made from polymer

materials can be operated dry. Regardless of the type
of plastic, the best sliding conditions in combination
with steel are achieved when the Rockwell hardness
of the surface of the metal sliding partner is greater
than 50 HRc. If the surface hardness of the metal
partner is lower, elevations in the rough surface can
break off in substantial amounts and become
embedded in the plastic sliding surface, where they
act as an abrasive [5]. In principle it is also true that
the sliding friction properties of combinations with
non-ferrous metals are all the better, the harder the
sliding partner is. The occasionally better thermal
conductivity of other metals (e.g. Cu, Al) compared
to steel does not offset the disadvantage of lower
hardness. If plastic slides against another plastic
instead of hardened steel, a lower constant coefficient
of sliding friction is likely [6]. Good plastic/plastic
combinations are:
POM
POM
POM
PBT or PET
PBT or PET
against
against
against
against
against
PA
PBT or PET
PE UHMW
PA
PE UHMW
This applies both to unmodified and to slip-modified

grades.
Trials under simulated operating conditions are
strongly advised for hard additives such as glass
fibres, glass spheres or mineral fillers because these
can cause severe wear.
Combinations of the same plastic are possible in
principle but some special points must be noted, see
Section 3.2. Despite better slip properties all
plastic/plastic combinations have lower load-bearing
capacity than plastic/metal combinations because of
their poorer heat dissipation.
In the case of very smooth steel surfaces (and presumably also other metals) a high coefficient of sliding
friction is observed with PA and POM but not with
PET and PBT (fig. 2.7). Adhesion forces and bonding
bridges come into play here [5]. PTFE-modified POM
can reduce this effect but not eliminate it (fig. 2.7).
With increasing surface roughness the coefficients of
sliding friction initially fall to a minimum and then
rise again. With very rough surfaces the plastic is then
machined, as a result of which the frictional forces
increase. The surface roughness of the plastic sliding
partner is of minor importance.
Fig. 2.7 Coefficients of sliding friction of some
plastics as a function of the mean roughness height
Rz, test conditions: tech. dry,
sliding partner HRc = 54 to 56;
p = 0.1 N/mm2 ,F < 40 C
0.6
PI
0.5
Coefficient of sliding friction
2.4 Dry running
PA 66
0.4
PET, PBT
POM
0.3
POM/PTFE
0.2
0.1
Mean roughness height Rz (m)
The frictional wear of the plastic generally rises with

increasing roughness of the metal partner. The frictional wear of roughness-sensitive plastics can therefore be reduced by a metal sliding surface with low
surface roughness (fig. 2.8). But then a higher coefficient of sliding friction may have to be accepted
(fig. 2.7).

Fig. 2.8 Trends in the frictional wear rate as a

function of the mean roughness height Rz,
sliding speed v = 0.5 m/s,
diameter 10 to 50 mm, dry,
sliding partner 54 to 56 HRc, p = 0.1 N/mm2,
F < 40 C
2.5 Lubrication
A distinction is drawn here between internal lubrication, which is embedded in particle form firmly in the
plastic, and traditional lubrication, which employs
lubricants added from outside (fig. 2.9).
Fig. 2.9 Lubrication of plastics
5
4
Internal lubrication
Traditional
lubrication
Incorporation of
Wetting by
Frictional wear rate (m/km)
POM
Solid lubricant
Liquid lubricant
2
Wax
Polymer particles
PTFE
PE UHMW
Special chalk
MoS2
Graphite
0.75
Silicone oil
Polyethylene glycol
Spraying-on
lubricant film
Absorption of oil
by pores
Immersion in
liquid lubricant
Once-only
lubrication with
grease
0.50
PET and PBT
2.5.1 Action of incorporated additives

(internal lubrication)
0.25
0
0.25
0.5
Mean roughness height Rz (m)
The yardstick for assessing surface roughness is the

mean roughness height Rz. This value is about 3.5-4.5
times greater than the arithmetic mean Ra. It bears no
relation to the maximum roughness height Rt. Also,
Rt is of importance only with very roughnesssensitive materials (e.g. PTFE without additives).
Table 2.1 shows the relationship between Rz and the
machining operations. It should also be noted
whether the machining grooves on the metal partner
run in sliding direction or at 90 to it. The roughness
at 90 to the machining grooves is about three to four
times greater than that in the direction of the
machining grooves.
Additives such as chalk, PTFE or silicone oil, which

are incorporated in one plastic partner, change the
tribological properties of the entire system. The action
will be described in principle with the system constant movement of smooth steel against Hostaform
C 9021 TF. The latter is modified with PTFE, fig. 2.10.
The PTFE is not completely dissolved and uniformly
distributed in the Hostaform but forms islands. The
smaller these islands are and the better distributed
they are, the better the modification performs.
Fig. 2.10 The tribological system

of smooth steel against Hostaform C 9021 TF
with constant motion
Sliding partner 1
(e.g. metal)
Table 2.1 Guide values for the roughness Rz

as a function of the machining operation
Machining operation
Rz [m]
Turning
>3
Grinding
0.5 to 3
Polishing, lapping
0.1
Thin, highly oriented

lubricant film (PTFE)
Sliding partner 2
Hostaform + PTFE
Matrix material (Hostaform)
Slip modification
(PTFE)

PTFE has a lower coefficient of friction in contact

with steel and is softer than Hostaform. As soon as
sufficient PTFE gets into the sliding surface between
steel and base material, it forms a lubricant film that
separates the materials from each other. Because PTFE
has a lower coefficient of friction in contact with steel
than Hostaform, the coefficient of friction of the
entire system drops. Furthermore, Hostaform and
PTFE accumulate in the surface valleys of the steel
partner. As a result the steel is ostensibly smoothed,
and so it has a less abrasive action on the Hostaform.
The system is post-lubricated by the normally very
low wear of the polymer blend: only in this way can
fresh PTFE get into the sliding surface. The other
modified polymer blends, in which soft polymers
with good slip properties or wax-like additives are
incorporated into the base material, act in a similar
manner.
Liquid lubricant additives such as silicone oil also
form a lubricant film. It should be noted, however,
that the surface of the injection-moulded component
frequently has no added lubricant, and so the initial
wear of the material combination during the runningin phase is greater than that later during operation.
The systems occasionally have a greater variation in
lubricant content in the sliding surface compared to
polymer modifications, and so the tribological values
measured can also vary greatly.
with metal an additional critical factor is oscillating

motion or a bearing system where the abrasion
remains in the bearing surface. As a result of the
motion particles are broken off from the plastic and
can become lodged in the surface valleys of the metal
sliding partner, thus increasing its roughness. The
result is increased wear of the polymer material.
When reinforced plastics are combined with metal
partners, care must be taken to ensure that very
smooth metal sliding surfaces are used. Their suitability must be tested in each case. Particular attention
must be paid to the fact that, because of the harder
surface, the wear can initially be somewhat lower than
that of unmodified matrix material. The crucial factor
is whether wear becomes so great during use that the
hard filler is exposed and remains in the sliding surface. This effect may not appear until after several
weeks of trouble-free operation, and wear can then
suddenly increase very sharply.
Despite this limitations there are very many applications in which chalk, for example, reliably reduces the
wear of a material combination. Examples are given in
Section 7.
In both cases the slip modification usually has the

effect of reducing the coefficient of friction compared
to that of the unfilled base material, and so lower
shear forces act on the sliding surface. This can reduce
the wear of the system.
With some tribologically modified grades the increase
in wear resistance is more important than the reduction in the coefficient of friction. To this end additives
are sometimes added that are harder than the base
polymer. The coefficient of friction is normally not
reduced as a result of this but in many cases even rises
slightly. Examples of this are special chalk or carbon
and glass fibres. These increase the hardness of the
polymer sliding partner, which can reduce abrasion.
This applies, however, only as long as the additives
are separated from the contact surface by a polymer
film. As soon as these come into contact with the
opposing material, increased wear is likely. Glass fibres
cause wear of the surface of the opposing material,
resulting in a rougher surface. This also occurs with
hardened steel. The rougher metal opposing material
increases directly the wear of the polymer material. In
the case of reinforced polymer materials in contact
9

2.5.2 External lubrication

If sliding surfaces are separated or even merely wetted
by lubricants such as oils or greases, the sliding friction characteristics are determined by the properties
of the lubricants. Even in the case of wetting, a lower
coefficient of sliding friction can be expected, which is
then in the range 0.05 to 0.12 for all sliding combinations. The differences between the various plastics
largely disappear.
The effect of once-only grease lubrication lasts for
300 to 1000 h, depending on the service conditions. In
principle, once-only lubrication is advisable on
assembly.
Under certain service conditions external lubrication
may be necessary for reasons other than to reduce
friction:
to protect the metal partner from corrosion,
to remove dust etc. that has penetrated or
to reduce wear.
Complex data on frictional wear make little sense
with oil- or grease-lubricated bearings because in any
case no frictional wear can be observed on any materials as long as the lubricant film is unbroken. If the
lubricant film is broken, the wear susceptibility of the
plastic in question in dry operation becomes more
important, depending on the effectiveness of the
remaining lubrication.
Greases based on mineral oil are suitable as lubricants,
usually with lithium soap as consistency modifier
(multipurpose greases). Adhesion to the plastic surface can be improved by special adhesion promoters.
POM and PBT are normally resistant to greases based
on mineral oil at all temperatures.
It should be noted that some mineral oils age, especially at elevated temperature. As a result decomposition products are produced that attack the plastics.
10
If greater demands are placed on oxidation resistance

(ageing resistance), service temperature range or physiological safety (e.g. food transport or packaging),
greases based on synthetic oils can be used. Suitable
oils are e.g. alkoxyfluorine oils, polyglycol ether oils
and silicone oils. Swelling of PBT and increased wear
of the combination POM/PBT was observed with
diester oils. Similarly, methyl silicone oils have a plasticising action on POM and on PBT, whereas phenylmethyl silicone oil has no effect.

3. Materials and material

combinations
3.1 Materials
Fig. 3.1 Typical behaviour of some unfilled

thermoplastic polymers
when used in plain bearings sliding at low velocity
against steel, without lubrication
(relative comparison) [7]
Stick-slip tendency
Ticona markets various modified low-friction/wear

grades as well as unfilled basic grades.
Table 3.1 gives an overview of Ticonas Hostaform
(POM) and Celanex (PBT) grades that are highly
suitable for plain bearings. These are supplemented
by selected Vectra (LCP), Fortron (PPS) and GUR
(PE-UHMW) grades.
high
2
no data
Partially crystalline materials are normally used for

bearings. Different polymers are employed,
depending on the application and requirements. An
overview of the typical tribological properties of
some unfilled thermoplastics is given in [7] (fig. 3.1).
low
PA 6
PA 66
PA 46
POM
PBT
PEEK
PPS
Coefficient of friction
high
Hostaform (POM)
low
Polyacetal is a hard material and therefore withstands

higher pressures but is more impact-sensitive than
polyamide. POM absorbs very little moisture.
Hostaform is a copolymer and resistant to numerous
chemicals, especially organic substances. Only a few
solvents are able to partially dissolve POM.
Hostaform withstands strong alkaline solutions, e.g.
50% NaOH, even at elevated temperatures.
Oxidising chemicals and strong acids (pH < 4) attack
POM.1)
Even the basic Hostaform grades are suitable for
many sliding applications. Hostaform is noted for
high dimensional stability and a low coefficient of
friction. It has good slip properties even in dry
operation or with inadequate lubrication.
PA 6
high
PA 66
PA 46
POM
PBT
PEEK
PPS
Tendency to wear (roughness of steel > 2 m)
low
PA 6
high
PA 66
PA 46
POM
PBT
PEEK
PPS
Tendency to wear (roughness of steel << 2 m)
Hostaform C 2521, C 9021, C 13021,

C 27021, C 52021
low
PA 6
Standard grades for injection moulding. The

products differ in flowability.
PA 66
PA 46
POM
PBT
PEEK
PPS
PEEK
PPS
Permissible surface pressure

high
Hostaform C 13031
Basic grade with increased rigidity and strength.
1)
Further information on chemical resistance is given in the individual

material brochures. Owing to the mechanical and thermal stress on the
materials in plain bearings the chemical resistance may be lower than
that of identical unstressed specimens.
low
PA 6
PA 66
PA 46
POM
PBT
11

Table 3.1 Low-friction materials from Ticona

Material
Tensile
modulus
Yield stress
Impact
strength
Charpy at 23 C
Notched
impact strength
Charpy at 23 C
Heat
deflection
temperature
Coefficient of
thermal expansion
between 23 C and 55 C
ISO 527 Part 1+2
ISO 527 Part 1+2
ISO 179 eU
ISO 179 eA
HDT/A
ISO 75 Part 1+2
DIN 53752
[MPa]
[MPa]
[kJ/m2]
[kJ/m2]
[C]
[1/C]
C 2521
2650
62
220
101
1.210-4
C 9021
2800
65
180
6,5
104
1.210-4
C 13021
2900
65
150
106
1.210-4
C 13031
3100
70
120
112
1.210-4
C 13021 RM
2900
65
140
102
1.210-4
C 9021 K
2900
62
100
100
1.210-4
C 13031 K
3200
68
110
1.210-4
C 9021 M
2800
65
120
100
1.210-4
C 9021 G
2300
45
30
3,5
88
1.310-4
C 9021 TF
2500
49
60
98
1.210-4
C 9021 AW
2600
58
150
88
1.210-4
C 9021 SW
2850
50
60
80
1.210-4
C 9021 FCT1
2700
61
82
1.210-4
C 9021 GV 1/30 GT
8800
120
8,5
162
0.410-4 long.
Hostaform
0.810-4 trans.
Celanex
2002-2
2600
58
no break
55
1.110-4
2500
2700
60
135
60
1.110-4
2302 GV 1/15
6100
110
35
6,5
190
0.3510-4 long.
X614
8400
130
190
0.3510-4 long.
X629
2600
56
3,3
55
1.110-4
7000
160
78
29
170
1410-6 long.
Vectra
A430
8210-6 trans.
A435
11000
175
34
29
230
7110-6 trans.
14400
165
44
8,5
HDT/C 215
720
17
no break
210
42
210-4
Fortron
1342L4
GUR
4120
12

Hostaform C 13021 RM
Celanex (PBT)
Easy-flowing; improved slip properties, e.g. for zip
fasteners.
With MoS2; for high surface pressure and low sliding

speed; the additive increases the coefficient of sliding
friction and reduces the stick-slip effect.
Celanex has similar hardness to Hostaform at room

temperature. The mechanical and tribological properties, however, change significantly above the glass
transition temperature of about 50C. Below this temperature wear and coefficient of friction of Celanex
are very low. PBT absorbs very little moisture. Celanex
has good weathering resistance and is resistant to
numerous solvents, oils, fats and salt solutions. PBT is
sensitive to hydrolysis at elevated temperatures.1)
Celanex is suitable for bearing temperatures below
50C and is used in precision engineering, in underwater equipment and guide bushings for gears. Celanex
is an ideal plastic sliding partner for Hostaform.
Hostaform C 9021 TF, C 27021 TF
Celanex 2002-2, Celanex 2500
With PTFE; for sliding combinations with very low

coefficient of friction (maintenance-free bearings).
Unfilled injection-moulding grades that differ in

flowability.
Hostaform C 9021 G
Celanex 2302 GV 1/15
With PE-UHMW; for mouldings in a tribologically

harsh environment
PBT/PET blend with 15% by weight glass fibres;

high surface gloss and high heat resistance.
Hostaform C 9021 AW
Celanex X629
With special additives; high resistance to wear and low

coefficient of friction
Injection-moulding grade with slip modification.
Hostaform C 9021 K, C 13031 K

With special chalk; high resistance to wear, e.g. for
gear wheels; not suitable in combination with rough
steel shafts for oscillating motion.
Hostaform C 9021 M
Celanex X614
Hostaform C 9021 SW
With 20% by weight glass fibres and slip modification.
With special additives; high resistance to wear and low
coefficient of friction; in many cases no squeaking
noises when the material slides against itself or unmodified POM grades.
Hostaform C 9021 FCT1
Slip-modified grade with better mechanical properties
than AW and SW, especially for components with
weld line. The wear resistance is somewhat lower and
the coefficient of friction somewhat higher than that
of AW and SW.
Vectra (LCP)
Vectra is a liquid crystal polymer with service
temperatures up to 240C. Components made from
Vectra usually have high rigidity and anisotropic
mechanical properties. Vectra is inherently flameretardant and has very good chemical and oxidation
resistance.1)
Vectra is suitable for high-precision bearings, e.g. in
the clock and watch industry.
Vectra A430
Hostaform C 9021 GV 1/30 GT

With glass fibres and lubricant.
1)

material brochures. Owing to the mechanical and thermal stress on the
materials in bearings the chemical resistance may be lower than that of
identical unstressed specimens.
Vectra grade modified with 25% by weight PTFE

with good impact strength and very good slip
properties coupled with low wear. Uses are bearings
and wear-resistant applications.
13

Vectra A435
3.2 Material combinations
With 35% by weight PTFE and glass fibres
The selection of a suitable tribological material combination is always dependent on the tribological system
(load, motion, duration, ambient conditions etc.) and
the main requirement (coefficient of friction, wear,
noise etc.). Experience gained from one system often
cannot be applied to other systems; examples of this
are given in Section 2.2.
Fortron (PPS)
Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) is a inelastic, highly
crystalline thermoplastic that is normally used in modified form. The service temperature is up to 220C.
The fairly high coefficient of friction of 0.4 0.7 is
reduced by additives.
Fortron has excellent chemical resistance below
220C there are no known solvents that attack Fortron.
Further details will be found in [8].1)
Fortron can be used for bearings at elevated
temperature that come into contact with chemicals.
Fortron 1342L4
The experience described below can therefore be

regarded only as a guide and does not replace trials
in the actual application.
The heat dissipation from the contact surface plays an
important role in the failure of a bearing. Plastic/metal
combinations are generally capable of withstanding
greater loads than plastic/plastic combinations owing
to the higher heat dissipation of the metal partner.
Information on the requirements of the metal is given
in Section 2.4.
With glass fibres and slip modification
The ultrahigh-molecular-weight polyethylene GUR is

considerably softer than POM or PBT. It withstands
high shock stress. GUR has excellent resistance to
abrasive stress. PE-UHMW slides easily and has good
embeddability. It does not absorb any moisture. The
chemical resistance of GUR is very good, see also
[9].1) The good slip properties are retained even at
very low temperatures.
GUR bearings prove successful in demanding
conditions such as plants operating in sand-bearing
water, road construction, agricultural machinery
manufacture and in chemical plants. GUR is often
used in conveyor systems as a sliding guide for
conveyor chains made from Hostaform.
GUR 4120
Standard grade with an average molecular weight of
about 4.4 million g/mol. Processed by compression
sintering and ram extrusion.
Other GUR grades are listed in [10].
1)

material brochures. Owing to the mechanical and thermal stress on
the materials in bearings the chemical resistance may be lower than
that of identical unstressed specimens.
14
Different materials are normally used for the sliding

partners in plastic/plastic combinations.
With oscillating motion the coefficient of friction of
the combination Hostaform C 9021/Hostaform
C 9021 rises initially with increasing number of cycles,
whereas it rapidly reaches a constant value at a lower
level with the combination Hostaform C 9021/
Celanex 2002-2.
Fig. 3.2 Coefficient of dynamic friction

of various polymer combinations, determined in
oscillating trials, see Section 3.2.1.1
0.25
Coefficient of dynamic friction
GUR (PE-UHMW)
0.2
Hostaform C 9021 / Hostaform C 9021
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
23
Hostaform C 9021 / Celanex 2002-2
46
69
92
115
138
Cycles
162
185
208
230

In the case of POM in contact with modified POM

the additives give different results (see fig. 3.9).
3.2.1 Coefficients of friction of Hostaform

and Celanex
After a lengthy test duration the combination POM/

POM reaches a constant level with > 0.6. The values
for the MoS2 or chalk additives are similarly high,
whereas PTFE-modified POM as well as Hostaform
C 9021 SW and Hostaform C 9021 AW have similar
coefficients of friction to the combination Hostaform
C/Celanex.
The coefficient of friction is not a material

characteristic but depends on the tribological system
with its many variables. The coefficients of friction
documented here were normally determined with one
of the two systems described below.
If only one of the sliding partners consists of POM,

then suitable combinations are POM/PBT and
POM/PA, with which good results have been achieved
in applications involving solid friction (dry running)
or mixed friction (once-only lubrication on assembly). In comparison with plastic/steel combinations
they have lower coefficients of friction, and their
tendency to stick-slip is also much reduced. On the
other hand, the risk of overheating is greater.
Oscillating smooth motion (sphere/plate)
Owing to the glass transition2) at about 50C unreinforced PBT has fairly low heat resistance, see Table
3.1. For this reason the glass-fibre-reinforced products are mainly used when higher service temperatures caused by heat of friction or the ambient
temperature are likely. The glass fibre reinforcement
raises the heat resistance of the PBT grades to near the
crystalline melting range. They can therefore be used
as a sliding surface because in injection moulding
assuming high mould wall temperature a surface
layer with few glass fibres and good tribological
properties can be produced.
3.2.1.1 Coefficient of friction tests
Fig. 3.3 shows the test rig in which a sphere (dk = 13

mm) slides on a plate (dimensions 20 x 10 x 3 mm).
The movable table with the specimen holder is oscillated with a stroke of 13 mm, the speed curve being
roughly rectangular. The perpendicular force is
FN = 6 N, the mean sliding speed v = 120 and 600
mm/min, the test duration 2 to 8 h. This test system
is particularly suitable for determining the coefficients
of friction for any material combination.
Fig. 3.3 Oscillating motion test
Test conditions:
Material of sphere:
Sphere diameter:
Roughness height Rz:
Load FN:
Sliding speed:
Test duration:
steel, various materials

13 mm
0.1 m
6N
0.6 m/min
8h
Test arrangement:
FN
If glass fibres are exposed at the point of sliding contact

after a lengthy period of service, stick-slip, noise
generation and increased wear must be expected if the
sliding partner is steel.
Owing to the high thermal expansion and poor thermal conductivity of plastics a greater bearing clearance
must be provided for plastic/plastic combinations
than for metal/plastic combinations, see Section 6.3.
2)
Sphere 13 mm
Test specimen
The glass transition occurs when the glass transition temperature is reached.
At this temperature the amorphous molecule segments of partially crystalline
plastics become more mobile, as a result of which the amorphous parts change
from the glassy hard state to the soft tough state.
15

With the test system shown in fig. 3.4 coefficients of

friction can be determined under simulated bearing
conditions. A case-hardened steel shaft (CM V2, Rz =
0.8 m) slides in the circular plastic specimen.
Fig. 3.4 Constant motion test
Test conditions:
Material of shaft:
Shaft diameter:
Surface pressure FN:
steel (CMV2), case-hardened

10 mm
0.8 m
0.25 2.25 N/mm2
Sliding speed:
Test duration:
7 34 m/min
0.5 h
Fig. 3.5 Coefficient of dynamic friction of various

Hostaform grades in sliding contact with steel under
simulated bearing conditions with constant
motion, Rz = 0.8 m; v = 10 m/min
Constant motion (bearings)
0.6
Hostaform C 9021 M,
C 9021 K, C 13031 K
Hostaform C 2521,
C 9021, C 13021
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
Hostaform C 9021 G,
C 9021 AW
0.1
Hostaform C 9021 TF,

C 9021 SW
0
0.25 0.5
2 2.25
1.5
Surface pressure (N/mm2)
Test arrangement:
Test system:
plain bearing on shaft
Specimen
Force
transducer
4
10
20
FN
3.2.1.2 Hostaform
Slip-modified grades under constant motion
Fig. 3.5 plots coefficients of friction of unmodified
Hostaform and some tribologically modified grades
in sliding contact with hardened polished steel under
simulated bearing conditions (fig. 3.4). The surface
pressure was varied but the sliding speed v = 10 m/min
was kept constant for the trial. The coefficient of
friction tends to fall slightly with increasing surface
pressure.
Since the values for the individual products are scattered, they are grouped together to give a better
picture.
The products containing slip-modifying additives
have lower coefficients of friction than standard
Hostaform. Hostaform C 9021 SW and C 9021 TF
give the lowest values, followed by Hostaform C 9021
AW and C 9021 G. Hostaform C 9021 K has a slightly
higher coefficient of friction than the unmodified
Hostaform C 9021. MoS2-modified Hostaform
C 9021 M has a higher coefficient of friction than
16
Hostaform C 9021 at this mean sliding speed. If with

this test arrangement the sliding speed at a constant
surface pressure (p = 1.25 N/mm2) is varied in the range
8 < v < 32 m/min, the coefficient of friction of the
grades mentioned above tends to increase very slightly.
The advantages of Hostaform C 9021 M become
evident at very low sliding speeds (v = 5 mm/min).
Here the coefficient of friction of Hostaform C 9021 M
is considerably below that of Hostaform C 9021
(fig. 3.6).

Hostaform grades in sliding contact with steel with
a roughness height of 2 m as a function of the
surface pressure p at a very low sliding
speed v = 5 mm/min
0.15
FR
Hostaform C 9021 K
0.10
Hostaform C 9021
0.05
Hostaform C 9021 M, C 9021 TF
10
15
Surface pressure p (N/mm2)
20

Slip-modified grades under oscillating motion

In sliding contact with smooth steel under oscillating
motion, test arrangement as shown in fig. 3.3, all
grades with the exception of Hostaform C 9021 M
have lower coefficients of friction than Hostaform
C 9021 (fig. 3.7).
Fig. 3.7 Coefficients of dynamic friction
of various Hostaform grades in contact with steel
under oscillating motion after 8 h
The combination of Hostaform C 9021 in contact with

Hostaform C 9021 gives high coefficients of friction,
which are reduced hardly at all by additions of chalk
or MoS2 (fig. 3.9). Low values can be achieved with
Hostaform C 9021 TF, C 9021 AW or C 9021 SW.
slip-modified Hostaform grades in contact with
Hostaform C 9021 under oscillating motion
in accordance with fig. 3.3
1
Mean surface pressure: 40 N/mm2
FN = 6 N
Sliding speed: 0.6 m/min
Test duration: 2 h
Mod. POM sphere
13 mm
FN = 10 N; v = 1 mm/s
0.3
0.1
C 9021
In the case of the combination of Hostaform C 9021

with other polymers as sliding partner it is evident
that low coefficients of friction are possible especially
with Celanex (PBT). Glass-fibre-reinforced sliding
partners give higher coefficients of friction than the
unmodified basic grades (fig. 3.8).
Fig. 3.8 Coefficient of dynamic friction of
Hostaform C 9021 in contact with various plastics
under oscillating motion
0.6
Plate: Hostaform C 9021
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
PC
PA 12
PA 12 +
30 % GF
PA 6 +
30 % GF
PS
Celanex
2300
GV 1/30
PA 6
Celanex
2500
0.6
3
0.4
0.2
C 9021
C 9021 K
C 9021 M
C 9021 SW
C 9021 AW
C 9021 TF
Impact-modified and
glass-fibre-reinforced Hostaform
The tribological properties of Hostaform are similarly
influenced by other modifiers. Thus, the coefficients
of friction of the impact-modified grades Hostaform
S 9064 and S 9244 are higher than those of Hostaform
C 9021 (fig. 3.10).
impact-resistant Hostaform in contact with steel
under simulated bearing conditions, v = 10 m/min
Mean surface pressure: 40 N/mm2

FN = 6 N
Sliding speed: 0.6 m/min
Test duration: 2 h
Plastic sphere
13 mm
0.8
C 9021 G
C 9021 AW
C 9021 TF
C 9021 M
C 9021 K
C 9021 SW
0.6
no measuring
point
0.2
FN = 6 N; v = 10 mm/s
0.4
no measuring
point
0.5
S 9064 / S 9244
0.5
0.4
0.3
C 9021
0.2
0.1
0
0.5
Test system:
plain bearing on shaft
0.75
1.25
1.5
1.75
2.25
17


reinforced Hostaform grades as a function of the
surface pressure in sliding contact with steel with
a roughness height of about 2 m
(sliding speed v = 10 m/min) compared to the
standard grade C 9021
C 9021 GV 1/30
0.5
C 9021
GV 1/30 GT
0.5
v = 10 m/min
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
0.3
C 9021
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2.0
2.0

Celanex 2500 as a function of the sliding speed,
determined under simulated bearing conditions in
sliding contact with steel (Rz = 2 m, bearing
clearance 1%, test duration 30 min)
p = 1,25 N/mm2
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
1.0
0.5
0.4
0.2
0.6

Celanex 2500 as a function of the surface pressure,
determined under simulated bearing conditions in
sliding contact with steel (Rz = 2 m, bearing
clearance 1%, test duration 45 min)
For Hostaform C 9021 GV 1/30, reinforced only

with glass fibres, a coefficient of friction under
constant simulated bearing conditions is measured
that is markedly higher than that of Hostaform
C 9021. In some applications Hostaform C 9021
GV 1/30 GT offers a solution. At low sliding speeds
and low surface pressures the coefficient of friction is
even lower than that of Hostaform C 9021. It must
be borne in mind, however, that the coefficient of
friction rises significantly with increasing surface
pressure and constant sliding speed until the level of
Hostaform C 9021 GV 1/30 is reached, fig. 3.11. This
also occurs with constant surface pressure and rising
sliding speed.
2.4
0.2
1.0
2.0
Sliding speed v (m/min)
3.2.1.3 Celanex
coefficients of friction than Celanex 2300 GV 1/30

especially in the range 1 to 4 hours (see fig. 3.14).
Celanex has similar good slip properties as the acetal

copolymer Hostaform.
A coefficient of friction = 0.4 was measured under

identical conditions for unreinforced PBT.
When unreinforced Celanex 2500 is in sliding contact

with steel, the coefficients of dynamic friction are
between 0.2 and 0.45, depending on surface pressure
p and sliding speed v (see figs. 3.12; 3.13).
Presumably the wear of the reinforced Celanex specimens is so low that no glass fibres have broken off
from the matrix and are not present as abraded particles on the sliding surface. As soon as this happens,
the coefficients of friction of Celanex 2300 GV 1/30
and Celanex X614 rise.
Coefficients of friction for reinforced Celanex were

measured under oscillating motion against a smooth
steel sphere. The fibre-reinforced and additionally
slip-modified Celanex X614 proves to have lower
18

Fig. 3.14 Curve of the coefficients of friction plotted

against time for reinforced Celanex under oscillating
motion in contact with smooth steel 100 Cr 6
(Rz = 0.1 m)
Fig. 3.15 Curve of the coefficient of sliding

friction of a Hostaform bearing/steel shaft
combination as a function of the shaft speed with
oil lubrication [11]
0.10
0.8
0.6
Celanex 2300 GV 1/30
0.4
0.2
Celanex X 614
0
injection-moulded bearing
20 mm
lubricated with oil
0.08
0.09
Test duration (h)
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
Hostaform C 13021 / steel shaft
0.02
3.2.1.4 Coefficients of sliding friction of

Hostaform and Celanex when lubricated
0.01
0
200
400
600
800
1000 1200 1400
Shaft speed (rpm)
Fig. 3.16 Curve of the coefficient of sliding

friction of a 30% glass-fibre-reinforced Celanex
bearing/ steel shaft combination as a function
of the shaft speed with oil lubrication [11]
0.10
0.09
injection-moulded bearing
20 mm
lubricated with oil
0.08
In the case of lubricated bearings that operate under

solid and mixed friction, coefficients of friction
between 0.05 and 0.15 are likely. Significantly lower
coefficients of sliding friction can be expected with
high-speed shafts, where a hydrodynamic film is
formed (see fig. 3.15). The differences between the
various plastics then largely disappear. Here too,
however, glass fibre reinforcement leads to higher
coefficients of sliding friction, fig. 3.16.
Shaft: 100 Cr 6
Rz = 1.0 m
p = 25 N/cm2
= 1.31 %
U = 25 C
0.07
Shaft: 100 Cr 6
Rz = 1.0 m
p = 25 N/cm2
= 1.53 %
U = 27 C
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
Celanex with 30% GF / steel shaft
0.02
0.01
0
200
400
600
800
1000 1200 1400
Shaft speed (rpm)
19

3.2.2 Coefficient of static friction

Coefficients of static friction were measured for
various combinations of Hostaform grades [12]. The
test arrangement is shown in fig. 3.17; coefficients of
static friction of various Hostaform combinations at
room temperature are given in table 3.2 and of combinations of Hostaform with aluminium and galvanised
steel sheet in table 3.3.
Fig. 3.17 Diagram of the test arrangement for determining the coefficient of static friction
Weight
Force transducer
slide partner
Test specimen
Specimen holder
Table 3.2 Coefficients of static friction

of various Hostaform combinations
at room temperature
Table 3.3 Coefficients of static friction

of various combinations of Hostaform with
aluminium and galvanised steel sheet
Material
Sliding
partner
Surface
pressure
[MPa]
Coefficient of
static friction 0
[-]
Material
Sliding partner
C 9021
C 9021
0.48
C 9021
Aluminium
23
0.26
C 9021
C 9021
0.79
C 9021
Aluminium
23
0.23
C 9021 AW
C 9021
0.69
C 9021
Aluminium
80
0.20
C 9021 AW
C 9021
0.62
C 9021
Aluminium
80
0.24
C 9021 GV 1/30
C 9021
0.43
C 9021 AW
Aluminium
23
0.23
C 9021 GV 1/30
C 9021
0.47
C 9021 AW
Aluminium
23
0.22
C 9021 K
C 9021
0.65
C 9021 AW
Aluminium
80
0.22
C 9021 K
C 9021
0.67
C 9021 AW
Aluminium
80
0.22
C 9021 M
C 9021
0.69
C 9021
Galvanised steel
23
0.19
C 9021 M
C 9021
0.89
C 9021
Galvanised steel
23
0.24
C 9021 SW
C 9021
0.53
C 9021
Galvanised steel
80
0.19
C 9021 SW
C 9021
0.63
C 9021
Galvanised steel
80
0.17
C 9021 GV 1/30 GT
C 9021
0.59
C 9021 AW
Galvanised steel
23
0.25
C 9021 GV 1/30 GT
C 9021
0.65
C 9021 AW
Galvanised steel
23
0.22
C 9021 AW
Galvanised steel
80
0.14
C 9021 AW
Galvanised steel
80
0.10
20
Surface Temperature Coefficient

pressure
of static
[MPa]
[C]
friction 0 [-]

3.2.3 Wear
Like slip properties, wear is not a material property
but a system characteristic that limits severely the
applicability of test results. In particular the wear of
products with hard additives such as glass fibres or
chalk depends greatly on the roughness of the sliding
partner, the surface pressure or the type of motion.
Furthermore, the creep properties of such modified
materials can differ significantly from the results of
shorter tests. In short-time tests it is often only the
property of the component surface or the outer layer,
which contains only small amounts of the filler
depending on the processing conditions, that is tested.
In applications where wear is likely the outer layer is
worn away after an initial phase, and so the fillers,
some of which are abrasive, are deposited on the
sliding surface. As a result the abrasion properties can
change significantly. An example of this is given in
Section 2.2. In critical cases tests under actual system
conditions are absolutely essential.
advantage is that the sliding surface does not to have

to be machined, and so injection-moulded surfaces
can be studied. As a rule, however, faced test
specimens are investigated so that material properties
rather than injection moulding conditions are
compared.
Fig. 3.18 Pin/shaft test for assessing
wear
Test conditions:
Material of shaft:
Shaft diameter:
Load:
Sliding speed:
Test duration:
3.2.3.1 Pin /shaft test
Test arrangement:
FN
Specimen
The wear properties are also modified by the addition

of pigments. In practice increased wear as well as
reduced wear are observed. In critical cases, therefore,
tests with the special coloration under the actual
system conditions are essential.
Wear volumes for various unmodified Hostaform
grades in contact with steel were determined in trials
with the pin/shaft test system. The materials differ
only in flowability and average molecular weight. The
values for wear volumes are close together but the
results indicate that under the conditions of the test
the wear tends to be lowest with a fairly high average
molecular weight (= lower melt flow rate).
steel
65 mm
0.8 m
3N
136 m/min
60 h
12
Wear of Hostaform
The unmodified polyacetals are generally regarded as
low-wear materials in combination with steel shafts
with Rz << 2 m [7]. In combination with rough steel
shafts, Rz > 2 m, POM is however assessed less
favourably than other partially crystalline plastics such
as PA 6, PA 66 or PBT (fig. 3.1).
In this system the flat face of a cylindrical pin made

from the material being investigated (diameter 12 mm)
slides against a steel shaft (CVM2; diameter 65 mm).
The standard force is FN = 3 N, the sliding speed v =
136 m/min and the average roughness height of the
steel shaft Rz = 0.8 m. After a test duration of 60 hours
the groove width b of the plastic specimen is measured
and from this the wear volume is calculated. The test
arrangement allows the wear properties of the different
plastics or plastic modifications to be investigated
comparatively. The surface pressure changes with the
groove width and thus with the test duration. However, groove widths of 2 to 3 mm are achieved after
only about one-tenth of the total test duration, after
which the surface pressure changes only slightly. One
21

Just like the coefficient of friction, the wear of

Hostaform is influenced by additives. Fig. 3.19 shows
wear values for various Hostaform grades in contact
with steel, measured with the pin/shaft system
(fig. 3.18). The test duration was 60 h.
10
30
Wear volume (mm3)
Fig. 3.19 Wear properties of

various Hostaform grades in contact with steel,
pin/shaft system after 60 h, Rz = 0.8 m

impact-modified Hostaform in contact with steel,
pin/shaft system
10
C 27021
S 27063
24
60
Test duration (h)
Steel

glass-sphere-modified Hostaform in contact
with steel, pin/shaft system
C 9021
C 9021 TF
C 9021 K
C 9021 SW
C 9021
C 9021 G
C 9021 AW
+ 3%
silicone oil
Wear is also reduced by the slip modifiers PTFE,

PE-UHMW and silicone oil. The addition of special
chalk to Hostaform C 9021 K and the special
compounds Hostaform C 9021 AW and Hostaform
C 9021 SW also give good results.
Greater wear of impact-modified Hostaform grades
than of the corresponding basic grades must be
expected with a lengthy sliding time. Whereas the wear
of the impact-modified grades after 10 hours test duration is even lower than that of the basic product, the
reverse applies after 60 hours. In comparing the
impact-modified grades with each other it is evident
that the grade with the higher addition, Hostaform
S 27064, always suffers greater wear than Hostaform
S 27063 (fig. 3.20).
In the case of glass-sphere-filled grades the wear
volume is also dependent on the level of filler. With
a glass sphere content up to 20% the wear volumes
recorded with the pin/shaft test system are lower than
those of Hostaform C 9021. With a glass sphere
content of 30% the wear is higher, fig. 3.21.
30
Wear volume (mm3)
S 27064
Steel
6 10
Pin/shaft test system

C 9021 GV 3/30
20
Steel
C 9021
10
C 9021 GV 3/20
C 9021 GV 3/10
2
6 10
24
60
Test duration (h)
Glass-fibre-reinforced Hostaform C 9021 GV 1/30

also has higher wear than the basic grade Hostaform
C 9021. If low wear values are required coupled with
increased rigidity, Hostaform C 9021 GV 1/30 GT
should be tested. In tests with the pin/shaft system
this grade modified with glass fibres and slip agents
displays better wear properties in contact with steel
than Hostaform C 9021 and Hostaform C 9021 GV
1/30 (fig. 3.22).
Fig. 3.22 Rigidity and abrasion of
fibre-reinforced Hostaform; pin/shaft test system in
contact with steel Rz = 0.8 m, F = 3 N, after 60 h
40
Wear volume (mm3)
Wear volume (mm3)
Shaft: steel
Rz = 0.8 m
20

8
30
20
C 9021 GV 1/30
Steel
10
0
2000
C 9021 GV 1/30 GT
C 9021
4000
6000
8000
Modulus of elasticity (MPa)
22
10000

Wear of Celanex
3.2.4 Noise
Unreinforced Celanex has good wear properties if

surface pressure p and sliding speed v are limited to
values that preclude a noticeable increase in sliding
surface temperature. Generally speaking, PBT is
regarded as suffering somewhat greater wear in
contact with smooth steel shafts (Rz << 2 m) and
somewhat less wear in contact with rough steel shafts
(Rz > 2 m) than POM, fig. 3.1 [7]. In tests with the
pin/shaft system in contact with steel (Rz = 0.8 m)
both the unreinforced Celanex 2500 and some glassfibre-reinforced Celanex grades showed higher wear
resistance than unmodified Hostaform C 9021, see
fig. 3.23.
Alongside friction and wear, noise generation in sliding

contact is attracting increasing attention. Noise generation too is a system characteristic, which can be
influenced only partly by the choice of material.
Fig. 3.23 Wear properties of various

Celanex grades compared with Hostaform in dry
sliding contact; pin/shaft system in contact with steel
(Rz = 0.8 m, v = 136 m/min, F = 3 N,
test duration 60 h)
As a rule the combination of identical plastics, e.g.

Hostaform C 9021 with itself, has a greater tendency
to squeaking than a combination of different polymers, e.g. Hostaform and Celanex. In some cases the
combination of Hostaform C with impact-modified
Hostaform S runs quietly, whereas Hostaform C
against itself can cause squeaking.
In some applications the combination of identical
plastics is however unavoidable, especially where
Hostaform is concerned. Noise generation was taken
into consideration in developing Hostaform C 9021
SW, fig. 3.24.
Fig. 3.24 Noise generation of various Hostaform
grades in sliding contact with Hostaform C 9021
12
Wear volume (mm3)
10
F
Sliding partner: Hostaform C 9021

Pressure load 1-11 N/mm2
v = 0.6 m/s
= 20 C
8
6
Test material
Sliding partner
Hostaform C 9021
= without
squeaking noise
25.6 mm
0
2500
2300
GV 1/10
2300
GV 1/20
2300
GV 1/30
C 9021
squeaking
C 9021
squeaking
C 9021 AW
not
measurable
C 9021 SW
0
4
6
8
10
12
Owing to the greatly differing conditions in the

various tribological systems it is essential to carry out
tests in the actual application.
23

Fig. 4.2 Dimensions of radial bearings

b Bearing width
Da Outside diameter
of bearing bushing
Fig. 4.1a Principle of the radial bearing
Di
Among the commonest lubricating tasks in industry

is the lubrication of shaft bearings of all kinds. Plain
bearings with radial load-bearing capacity (radial
bearings) and those with axial load-bearing capacity
(axial bearings) are available for this purpose, fig. 4.1.
Da
4. Load-bearing capacity
of plastic bearings
Di
Inside diameter
of bearing bushing
wall thickness of
the bearing
4.1 Permissible mean surface pressure pm perm.

n
FN
Fig. 4.1b Principle of the axial bearing

FN
Only in the case of plain bearings with extremely low

sliding speed where heat evolution is insignificant and
can be ignored is the load-bearing capacity
determined by the surface pressure. This can also
apply if slight motion occurs only occasionally. In
these cases the load-bearing capacity of the bearing is
determined solely by the possible compressive load.
In the vast majority of cases, however, the loadbearing capacity of a plain bearing is limited by the
heat of friction arising in operation (Section 4.2).
Assuming contact over the entire face, the mean
surface pressure pm for radial bearings is
pm =
FN
b dw
[N/mm2]
where
FN = bearing load [N]
b = bearing width [mm]
dW = shaft diameter [mm]
(4.1)
The condition to be met is

The following investigations relate to radial bearings
because this type of bearing is the one most used.
The critical dimensions of radial bearings are shown
in fig. 4.2.
pm pm perm.
(4.2)
where the values in table 4.1 are to be entered as permissible mean surface pressures. If the loads occurring
remain below the permissible mean surface pressures
quoted, appreciable deformation is not likely [19].
24

Table 4.1
Permissible mean surface pressures pm perm.
Sliding material
Permissible mean surface pressures pm perm.

[N/mm2]
Hostaform
Fig. 4.3 Relationship between mean

surface pressure and maximum surface pressure
after sine distribution and according to Hertz [5]
18
Celanex, unreinforced
15
Celanex 3200-2 (15% GF)
18
FN
dw
In the case of radial bearings, however, the maximum

load in the centre of the contact surface of shaft and
bearing bushing can be several times that of the mean
surface pressure pm. Since uniform stress distribution
over the surface certainly does not correspond to the
actual conditions and since the Hertzian equations
give usable values in any case with low pressures and
a fairly large bearing clearance, it appears reasonable
to distribute the stress according to a sine function.
The maximum stress in the centre of the contact
surface then exceeds the mean surface pressure pm by
at least /2.
(4.3)
For unencased radial bearings fig. 4.4 gives the pmax

limit curves under short-time load as a function of
the mean bearing temperature L below which a total
deformation of about 2% of the bearing wall
thickness occurs.
Fig. 4.5 shows the corresponding curves for a loading
time of 1000 h. The deformation increases only
slightly if the loading time is even longer.
Below a deformation of 2% a linear dependence of
the deformation on the pressure can be expected, i.e.
the deformation can be interpolated linearly between
0 and 2%. Thus, for example, the total deformation
after 1000 h is = 1.33% for a POM radial bearing
with Di = 20 mm, L = 50C and pmax = 10 N/mm2.
This means a shaft displacement dw = 0.27 mm
where Di = 20 mm.
b = bearing width
pm
2
pmax S
pmE
pmax H = 0,836
pmax H
= relative bearing clearance
Di dw
dw
4
Fig. 4.4 Maximum surface pressure as a function
of the mean bearing temperature for unencased
radial bearings. Total deformation of the wall
thickness under short-time stress < 2%
Max. surface pressure pmax (N/mm2)
pmaxS = pm [N/mm2]
2
F
b dw
pmax S =
60
PA 66 dry
50
40
30
POM
PA 66 moist
20
10
0
-20
PET
0
100
50
Mean bearing temperature L (C)
Fig. 4.5 Maximum surface pressure as a function

of the mean bearing temperature for unencased
radial bearings. Total deformation of the wall
thickness after 1000 h < 2%
Fig. 4.3 shows the differences between mean surface

pressure pm , maximum Hertzian pressure pmax H
and maximum surface pressure after sine distribution
pmax S
pm =
30
20
POM
10
PA 66 moist
0
-20
PET
50
100
25

20
dW = 40
60
100
80
PA 66 dry
60
15
b = 30
45
POM
PA 66 moist
40
20
0
-20
50
For radial bearings corresponding roughly to fig. 4.7

and ambient temperatures u 80C the following
equation is derived from equation 4.4 on the basis of
practical trials with a combination with a steel shaft:
100
L = u + f
4.2 Permissible thermal load

In studying the thermal load on a bearing a distinction is drawn between the bearing temperature L and
the sliding surface temperature F at the point where
heat is generated.
4.2.1 Bearing temperature L
The bearing temperature has a decisive influence on
the load-bearing capacity and the service life of a
thermoplastic plain bearing. The temperature that
occurs in a plain bearing as a result of the heat of
friction can be estimated mathematically by the heat
balance. The calculation of the bearing temperature is
based largely on [5, 13]. For radial bearings the
general equation from the heat balance is:
pm v
T =
p K1
s
m K2
2b
(4.4)
In laboratory tests on bearings in accordance with fig.

4.7 the sliding speed was observed by [5, 13] to have
an exponential influence on the bearing temperature.
With some plastics (e.g. polyethylene) a significant
dependence of the coefficient of sliding friction on the
temperature was additionally noted. The main materials discussed here, POM and PBT, were not affected
26
Fig. 4.7 Arrangement and dimensions of the

radial bearings in the test [13].
20.07
Di = 40.09
60.12
Fig. 4.6 Maximum surface pressure as a

function of the mean bearing temperature
for well-encased radial bearings.
by this and so this effect is not taken into

consideration in what follows.
24
Da = 46
68
If the deformability of the bearing bushing is limited

because e.g. the face of the bearing bushing is encased,
the load can be increased depending on how restricted
deformation is. Fig. 4.6 shows the limit curves for
well-encased bearings.
318.3 pm v
0.18
s
1.36
b
1
(4.5)
Note:
It should be borne in mind that the values given in
the equations quoted are in the unit specified.
u
ambient temperature [C]
pm
mean surface pressure (N/mm2)
v
sliding speed [m/s]
coefficient of sliding friction

1
roughness coefficient (groove direction factor)
(Table 4.2)

characteristic for rotary or oscillating bearing
motion (Table 4.3)
f
correction factor for taking the operating time
into consideration (equation 4.7)
s
bearing wall thickness [mm]
b
bearing width [mm]
p
thermal conductivity of the polymer [W/mK]
m
thermal conductivity of the metal partner
[W/mK]
K1, K2 are factors that indicate how the heat
dissipation is influenced by the bearing design

It is assumed that the mean ambient temperature is

equal to the mean bearing temperature on
commencement of load application. On the basis of
the bearing load the temperature is increased by the
following factors:
load applied to the bearing,

geometrical dimensions of the bearing,
lubricating conditions,
roughness of the metal partner in dry running,
sliding speed,
temperature-dependent coefficients of sliding
friction.
If sliding surfaces are lubricated, the slip properties

are determined by the properties of the lubricant. In
the case of oil lubrication the value of = 0.05, whereas in the case of grease lubrication = 0.1. In both
cases the roughness coefficient is 1. With technically
dry sliding surfaces the dependencies given in Section
3.2.1 apply.
Table. 4.3 Characteristic value for the bearing

motion at various dynamic loads
Dynamic load
Characteristic value for the

bearing motion
[-]
Radial bearing with rotary motion
= 1.4
Radial bearing with oscillating motion,

pivoting angle > 45
= 1.3

pivoting angle < 45
= 1.2

pivoting angle < 25
= 1.0
If the dynamic load-bearing capacity of a bearing

depends primarily on the heat generated, plain bearings made from thermoplastics can be subjected to
higher loads, the shorter the operating time is. The
operating time OT is defined as the ratio of the
loading time t to the total cycle time T in percent
OT =
Furthermore, in dry running the coefficient of sliding
friction depends on the surface of the metal sliding
partner. 1 allows for the direction of the machining
grooves on the shaft in calculating the temperature. If
the direction of the grooves and the direction of
rotation are the same, the values from Table 4.2 are
used. If the directions are different, then 1 = 1.
Table. 4.2 Groove direction factor 1 for the
coefficient of sliding friction in dry running
1)
t
T
100%
(4.6)
The cycle time selected is 60 min; a longer loading

time must be regarded as continuous operation. The
loading time t is therefore the maximum loading time
occurring within these 60 min.
The factor f can now be determined by the following
equation:
Rz1)
[m]
Hostaform
1
Celanex
1
PA
1
f = 0.35 + 0.0137 OT 0.75 104 (OT)2 [-]
< 0.5
1.1
1.0
1.1
0.5-1
1.1
0.9
1.2
f = 1 if T > 60 min
(continuous operation)
1-2
1.1
0.85
1.2
2-4
1.0
0.85
1.1
4-6
0.9
0.8
1.0
(4.7)
mean roughness height Rz, see Section 2.4.1
This leads to a usable estimate of the mean bearing

temperature L for radial bearings of standard design,
i.e. bearing housing made of metal with adequate heat
conduction.
Table 4.3 gives the characteristic for the bearing
motion for various dynamic loads on a radial
bearing.
27

4.2.2 Sliding surface temperature F

The sliding surface temperature F for radial bearings
can be estimated from the following equation [5, 13]:
F = u + (1.15 + L/170) (L u) [C]
with L from equation 4.5
(4.8)
The following is required for trouble-free operation:

F F perm.
The load limit shown in fig. 4.8 was determined for

Hostaform on bearing bushings (Di = 15 mm, wall
thickness s = 2 mm) designed to receive polished steel
shafts with a technically dry sliding surface (mean
roughness height Rz = 2.5 m) and a relative operating clearance SL (see Section 6.3.1) of about 1%:
Fig. 4.8 Recommended load limits for
unlubricated bearings made from Hostaform,
measured for bearing bushings
(Di = 15 mm, s = 2 mm) in contact with steel
Rz = 2.5 m; bearing clearance SL = 1 %.
(4.9)
10
F perm.
[C]
Material
Hostaform
100
Celanex
100
PA 66
95
N m
)
2
mm
min
Table. 4.4 Permissible sliding surface temperature

F perm. of some engineering plastics
The permissible sliding surface temperature F perm. of

some engineering plastics is shown in table 4.4.
Spec. bearing load x

peripheral speed (p v)
8
6
unlubricated
4
10
20
40
(
Peripheral speed v
60
m
)
min
80 100
At peripheral speeds up to about 30 m/min the value

N
m
pmv = 8 mm
min
can be assumed for unlubricated
bearings made from POM.
2
4.3 Dynamic load-bearing capacity
N
For PBT and PA 66 values of 4.2 mm
Trials with tribological systems show that the wear in

the system rises very sharply as soon as a systemspecific critical load is exceeded. This depends on
both the surface pressure and the sliding speed.
At higher peripheral speeds the critical pmv value is

smaller. At higher pmv values the bearings must normally be lubricated to keep wear within bounds.
Therefore, for rough calculations, occasionally only

the product of mean surface pressure pm and sliding
N
m
speed v in mm
min
is used as the design criterion.
Limitations and reservations, some of which are
discussed at the end of this section, must be borne in
mind.
2
m
min
are realistic.
The permissible pmv value is valid only to a very

limited extent as a characteristic for the dynamic loadbearing capacity of a plain bearing. The actual load
limit is determined much more by the sliding surface
temperature, which depends not only on pressure and
speed but also on the bearing wall thickness, the sliding
partner, the ambient temperature and the operating
time, see equation 4.5. It must also be borne in mind
that the type of bearing (radial or axial bearing) and
the type of motion (constant or oscillating) also influence the temperature in the bearing.
In addition, the permissible dynamic load is also
limited by the level of frictional wear. If heat
dissipation is of minor importance, the permissible
pmv value is even determined solely by the level of
permissible wear. But neither the pmv value nor the
bearing temperature include this.
28

4.4 Frictional wear

Unlubricated plain bearings wear in operation, and so
the service life of a bearing is always finite. This also
applies if the parameters discussed above, namely
bearing temperature and pm v value, are below the
material-dependent limit values (Section 4.2 and 4.3).
In individual cases it may be possible to predict the
wear of a system as a function of the loads and the
time. For plastics there is however no guideline
enabling the wear and the expected service life to be
calculated reliably in advance [13].
Trials under simulated service conditions are
therefore essential in developing and designing
plain bearings.
29

5. Calculation example
The rotor shaft of an electric motor is to be carried in
two maintenance-free radial bearings made from
plastic. Hostaform C 9021 TF was specified as the
bearing material. Rotor shaft: steel, polished, Rz = 1
m. Other parameters specified:
The values of the individual parameters are calculated

as follows:
Ambient temperature u = 30 C (specified)
Sliding speed v =
Shaft diameter dw,

Inside diameter of bearing D i
Speed n
Weight of rotor plus shaft G
Load per bearing FN
Outside diameter of bearing Da
Bearing width b
10 mm
1000 min-1
20 N
10 N
15 mm
10 mm
Questions:
a) Is the mean surface pressure pm in the permissible
range?
How high is pmax?
b) How high is the temperature load on the bearing,
assuming a maximum ambient temperature
u = 30C?
c) Is the pmv value below the critical value?
dw n
60
0.01 m 1000
60
= 0.524 m/s
=
Characteristic = 1.4 for radial bearings with rotary

motion (from table 4.3).
Coefficient of sliding friction for Hostaform
C 9021 TF extrapolated from fig. 3.5: = 0.25
(although v in the diagram is only 10 m/min).
Roughness coefficient 1 = 1.1 from Table 4.2
Operating time correction factor f = 1,
since T > 60 min (equation 4.7)
Equation 4.5 thus gives
Solution:
a) In accordance with equation 4.1 the mean surface
pressure for radial bearings is
318.3 0.1 0.5241,4

0.25 1,1
0.18
1.36
+
10
2.5
= 47 C
pm = FN [N/mm2]
b dw
=
L = 30 + 1
The sliding surface temperature in accordance with

equation 4.8 is
L
F = u + 1.15 +
(L u ) [C]
170
10 N
10 mm 10 mm
= 0.1 N/mm2

47
= 30 + 1.15 +
170 (47 30 ) = 54 C
The permissible mean surface pressure for Hostaform

C 9021 TF according to Table 4.1 is pm perm. =
18 N/mm2. Since pm < pm perm. , it is not necessary to
continue calculating to pmax .
According to Table 4.4 a sliding surface temperature

up to 100C is permissible for Hostaform.
b) The mean bearing temperature is calculated in

accordance with equation 4.5 as follows:
c) The critical pmv value is given in

depends on the peripheral speed:
L = u + f
318.3 p v
0.18
s
1.36
b
1
N
m
mm2 min
and
v = 0.524 m/s = 31.4 m/min

pm v = 0.1 N/mm2 31.4 m/min
= 3.1
N
m
mm2 min
<8
N
m
mm2 min
The pmv value is thus below the critical value.

30

6. Notes on assembling plain

bearings
If plastic plain bearings are used as functional elements in metal components, various manufacturing
and assembly techniques are possible. The plastic
bearings are either
manufactured separately (injection-moulded,
machined) and then press-fitted into a metal part or
anchored directly in a metal baseplate in outsert
moulding.
6.1
Press-fit joint for a plastic bearing

bushing/metal housing
6.1.2 Determination of dimensional

change due to deformation
In the case of the frequently used metal/plastic combinations the entire deformation corresponding to
interference U is taken up by the plastic part. This
reduces, for example the bearing clearance of a plastic
bearing bushing press-fitted into a metal housing,
fig. 6.1.
Fig. 6.1 Change in diameter
of a plastic bearing bushing
press-fitted into a metal housing
6.1.1 Press-fitting the bearing bushings
The interference U known from experience to be

dependent on the bearing bushing outside diameter
Da is defined as the difference in diameter between
the cylindrical joint elements.
Table 6.1 shows the relative interference, defined as
U / Da 100% for various plastics, broken down
according to outside diameter ranges.
5
The change in inside diameter of the bearing bushing
is calculated as follows:
Table 6.1 Recommended relative interference

Relative interference
Material
U
100 %
Da
Outside
Outside
Outside
dia. Da
dia. Da
dia. Da
up to 5 mm
5 to 30 mm
over 30 mm
Hostaform basic grades
0.5 to 1.0
Hostaform, slip-modified grades
0.5 to 1.0
Celanex, unreinforced
0.5 to 1.0
Celanex 3200-2
Di
Da
Di + Di
In design calculations for a press-fit joint for a plastic

bearing bushing/metal housing the interference U is a
particularly critical parameter [14].
2
D i = U
Da
di
D (1 ) + (1 + )
Da
[mm]
(6.1)
where Poissons ratio for plastics 0.4.

Equation 6.1 is plotted in fig. 6.2 as a function of the
diameter ratio Da/Di for various relative interference
values U.
The load-bearing capacity of the press-fit joint is

determined mainly by the interference value.
31

Fig. 6.2 Change in the inside diameter of a plastic

bearing bushing press-fitted into a metal housing
as a function of the diameter ratio for various
interference values U
Fig. 6.3 Influence of mould wall temperature,

mould cavity pressure, flow path length and
moulded part thickness on moulding shrinkage MS,
post-shrinkage PS and total shrinkage TS
1.00
U = 0.90 mm
a) Shrinkage as a function of mould wall temperature
0.90
Change in diameter Di (mm)
Shrinkage
TS
0.80
U = 0.75 mm
0.70
U = 0.60 mm
PS
MS
0.60
U = 0.45 mm
0.50
Mould wall temperature
0.40
U = 0.30 mm
b) Shrinkage as a function of flow path length

(flow cross-section = constant)
0.30
Calculation example p.34
0.20
TS
0.10
1
Da/Di
Shrinkage
U = 0.15 mm
Care should be taken to ensure that no material is

sheared off at the plastic part during the joining operation. In order to achieve this
Flow path length
c) Shrinkage as a function of (mould cavity) pressure
Shrinkage
a sufficiently large chamfer should be provided,

in the case of the plastic bushing/metal housing
arrangement the plastic part should be cooled.
MS
6.2 Manufacture of plain bearings by outsert

moulding
Outsert-moulded components are produced largely
from Hostaform; only in exceptional cases are other
Ticona plastics considered [15].
TS
MS
Pressure
d) Shrinkage as a function of moulded part thickness
The influence of the mould wall temperature, mould

cavity pressure, flow path length and moulded part
thickness on moulding shrinkage MS, post-shrinkage
PS and total shrinkage TS are shown qualitatively in
figs. 6.3a to d [16].
32
TS
Shrinkage
As a partially crystalline engineering thermoplastic,

Hostaform has a relatively large shrinkage (guide
value: about 2%), which is required for the necessary
flexible anchoring of the functional elements in the
baseplate.
MS
Moulded part thickness

6.3 Bearing clearance
In principle two plain bearing designs are used in

outsert moulding, fig. 6.4.
A distinction must be drawn between operating

clearance (basic clearance or minimum clearance) SL,
assembly clearance SE and manufacturing clearance SF,
fig. 6.5 [17].
Fig. 6.4 Plain bearing designs

for outsert moulding
Design A
Fig. 6.5 Diagram of the

different bearing clearances
dPl
SE
dFl
SF
Di
Di
SL
Design B
Di
6.3.1 Operating clearance S L
dPl
dFl
Design A: Di 1 mm
Design B: Di < 1 mm
Plain bearings are connected to the baseplate by flanges.

Normally speaking, additional anchorage to prevent
rotation is not necessary.
To avoid fairly large differences in shrinkage (risk of
distortion) the wall thickness of the bearing
(Da Di)/2 should be about twice the baseplate
thickness s.
This is defined as the clearance that must still be

present as the minimum clearance under the most
unfavourable conditions so that the bearing does not
seize. This clearance is plotted in fig. 6.6 as a function
of the bearing diameter. According to [18] a clearance
of 3% relative to the inside diameter (actual dimension) Di is recommended for a diameter of 0.5 mm.
Fig. 6.6 Operating clearance of bearing bushings
made from thermoplastics as a function
of the bearing diameter [6]
1.0
dPl diameter of receiving hole in the baseplate

Di inside diameter of bearing
dFl outside diameter of flange
Operating clearance (%)
dPl Di
0.8
2s
dFl Di 4 mm
(6.2)
The height h of the anchorage can be taken from [15].
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Bearing diameter (mm)
33

If a bearing has to meet higher requirements, the

operating clearance selected can be smaller than that
given in fig. 6.6. But in that case the operating conditions should be known precisely so that adequate
consideration can be given in particular to the influence of temperature. According to [13], for example,
Table 6.2 Relative dimensional change due

to moisture F for calculating the bearing clearance
for unconditioned plain bearing bushings between
1 and 5 mm
PA 66
POM
PBT
0.006
for saturation in standard

conditions 23C/50 % r.h.
0.011
for water-lubricated bearings
0.028
for bearings in normal ambient humidity

(central European climate)
SL (0.008 to 0.015)

dw
dw = shaft diameter
(6.3)
0.0035 0.001
is recommended.
6.3.4 Calculation example
6.3.2 Assembly clearance SE
How large is the manufacturing clearance SF in the

calculation example in Section 5?
This is the clearance in the assembled state but before

operating temperature is reached. It differs from the
manufacturing clearance SF only if the bearing bushing is press-fitted into the housing. Equation 6.1
enables a good estimate of this reduction in diameter
to be made.
The manufacturing clearance is the dimension by

which the inside diameter of the bearing has to be
made greater than the shaft diameter in order for the
operating clearance SL to be guaranteed under
operating conditions.
SF = SL + 2s(f + ) + Di [mm]
(6.4)
SF takes into account not only the reduction in clearance when bearing bushings are press-fitted but also
the expected dimensional changes due to thermal
expansion and possible moisture absorption (see Table
6.2).
coefficient of thermal expansion [K1] from Table 3.1
= L ass. where L is the expected maximum
mean bearing temperature
34
In accordance with equation 6.4

[mm]
Since the bearings concerned are required to be of

high precision, SL is determined from equation 6.3.
SL (0.008 to 0.015)
dw
0.011
10
0.035 mm
With Da = 15 mm the interference U is calculated in
accordance with table 6.1 as
s = bearing wall thickness [mm]
Di from equation 6.1
Solution
SF = SL + 2s (F + ) + Di
6.3.3 Manufacturing clearance S F
ass. temperature during assembly
Assembly temperature ass. = 20C
U
= 3%
Da
U = 0.03 Da = 0.03 15 mm = 0.45 mm
With
Da
15
=
= 1.5, Di is calculated from fig. 6.2
Di
10
Di = 0.49 mm
Thus, with F = 0 (from Table 6.2), = 1.2 10-4 K-1
(from Table 3.1) and = L ass. = 27 K
SF = 0.035 + 2 2.5 (0 + 1.2 10-4 27) + 0.49
= 0.035 + 0.016 + 0.49
= 0.541 mm

7. Examples of applications
Fig. 7.1 Bearing bushing for

light metal hinge plates
Bearing bushing for light metal hinge plates

The suitability of the bearing bushing made from
Hostaform C 9021 TF illustrated in fig. 7.1 for hinge
plates was tested in a device in which an aluminium
door measuring 1000 x 2000 mm and weighing
760 N was fixed to the frame by means of the hinge
plates and opened to an angle of 80 and closed 10 6
times. The door was closed by means of a door
closer whose closing time was adjusted to 4 s. The
weight of the door and the distance of 712 mm
between the hinges resulted in a surface pressure on
the bearing bushing of p1 = 3.4 N/mm2 in vertical
direction and p2 = 1.8 N/mm2 in horizontal direction
(pressure on the face of the hole). The 10 6 movements
corresponded to a total sliding distance of 14 km; the
hinges were not lubricated.
Fig. 7.2 Baseplate for watch
At the end of the test the wear of the bearing bushings was measured against the displacement of the
door. In the vertical direction the upper and the lower
hinge plates dropped by 0.2 mm. The vertical door
gap increased by 0.2 mm at the upper hinge plate and
decreased by 0.2 mm at the lower hinge plate. This
minor displacement and the associated slight wear of
the bearing bushings are regarded as acceptable.
Baseplate for watch
Fig. 7.2 shows the baseplate of a watch made from
Vectra A530 in which the bearings for the various
spindles of the drive are integrated. The bearings have
a diameter of Di = 0.14 mm, which may vary by a
maximum of 0.01 mm, the minimum bearing clearance
being 0.005 mm. The spindles for the hour, minute
and second hands run unlubricated in the bearings.
The spindle for the hour hand is made of brass, the
other spindles are made of electrolytically polished
steel. No wear in the bearings was recorded in tests.
The second hand completes more than 10 7 revolutions
over a period of 20 years.
Fig. 7.3 Radiator valve
Radiator valve
When a radiator valve (fig. 7.3) is adjusted, two
cylinders slide into each other via a four-start screw
thread. Owing to the required strength the glassfibre-reinforced Celanex 3300-2 was selected for the
outer part and a polyamide with 35% glass fibres for
the inner part. In the test the valve is opened and
closed 5000 times, corresponding to a slide path of
about 400 m. Despite the reinforcing materials only

minimal signs of wear were observed.
35

Guide element for sliding roof
Fig. 7.4 Guide element for sliding roof
The guide element illustrated in fig. 7.4 consists of a

spring steel band onto which three plastic parts made
from Hostaform C 9021 M are outsert-moulded. The
guide element slides slowly back and forth in an
anodised aluminium frame, must not display stick-slip
properties and should operate as quietly as possible.
The system is once-only lubricated with grease on
assembly.
In the test 9000 cycles are performed in which the roof
is opened fully and then closed with several intermediate stops between the two positions. With a sliding
roof length of 50 cm, this corresponds to a slide path
of 9 km. The climatic conditions are varied in a
defined manner during the test so as to ensure that
temperature fluctuation and exposure to moisture and
dust do not affect operation.
Fig. 7.5 Outsert-moulded

mounting plate for video recorder
Outsert-moulded baseplate for video recorder

Fig. 7.5 shows various plain bearings made from
Hostaform C 13021 that were outsert-moulded onto
a metal baseplate. The reference point of the baseplate
is a spindle made from Hostaform for the Celanex
cam wheel. The spindle , which also positions the
cassette, is used for centring and at the same time
holds the curved wheel by means of moulded-on snap
hooks. Brake wheels made from Hostaform C 9021 K
are mounted on the spindles and brake the winding
disc. The eccentric audio head adjustment with a
cross-slot is injection-moulded into the baseplate so
that it can rotate.
Control unit for washing machine
The wash programme is set by means of the control
unit of a washing machine (fig. 7.6). A control lever
slides over the running surface of a rotating control
disc . Originally the control lever and the control
disc were made from Hostaform C 9021, but squeaking noises occurred with this material combination.
After replacing the material for the control lever with
Hostaform C 9021 SW, the noise level was reduced
markedly and no more squeaking noises were heard.
In the test the control unit was rotated 360 more than
1500 times every 6 minutes. To check wear the parts
were weighed before and after the test on a balance
with an accuracy of 0.0001 g. No weight decrease was
observed with the combination of Hostaform C 9021
SW / Hostaform C 9021, but with the combination of
Hostaform C 9021/Hostaform C 9021 it was 0.0013 g.
36
Fig. 7.6 Control unit for washing machine

Slider for car window winder
Fig. 7.7 Slider for car window winder
A window winder system consists, among other

things, of a slider on which the window rests and a
rail in which the slider slides up and down. Fig. 7.7
shows a system with a slider made from Hostaform
C 9021 AW, which runs in a rail made of polyestercoated metal sheet. The system is lubricated once
only with grease on assembly. The slider is snappedon. Owing to changes in climatic conditions and the
associated dimensional changes the surface pressure
varies in the test and in operation.
Table 7.1 shows the test cycle used for testing the
system. With an adjusting path of 50 cm for the
window the sliding distance in the test is about 20
km.
Corner piece for window locking system
There are various systems on the market for locking
windows. In the simplest variant locking is done
manually at one point in the window frame by
turning the locking lever. Other window systems
have several locking points in the window frame. For
these the movement of the locking lever must also be
transmitted round the corners of the window. Fig.
7.8 shows a corner piece in which this movement is
transmitted by a spring steel band . The steel band
with a roughness Rz < 0.5 mm slides back and forth
in a guide made from Hostaform C 9021 K.
Both low operating forces and low wear over a service
temperature range of -20 to 80C are required. In the
test sliding wear marks were visible after 20,000 load
cycles but the wear volume was too small for it to be
measured without expensive and sophisticated measuring equipment.
Table 7.1 Test cycle for window winder

Test no.
Conditions
Speed
Number of cycles
23C
about 130 mm/s
7.500
Dust-laden
80C
about 130 mm/s
3.750
Dust-laden
60C, 90 % r. F.
about 130 mm/s
7.500
-20 C
about 60 mm/s
667
Dust-laden
10 C, 95 % r. F.
about 130 mm/s
833
-30C
about 25 mm/s
167
23 C
about 130 mm/s
417
Fig. 7.8 Corner piece for window locking system
37

Gear wheels
Fig. 7.9 Gear wheels
On a test rig gear wheels are tested in continuous

operation with the following parameters: modulus m
= 2 mm, number of teeth z = 40/50, width b = 15 mm,
peripheral speed v = 12 m/s. In this continuous service test the number of load cycles is determined at
which failure of the gear wheel as a function of the
torque applied occurs either as a result of wear or of
tooth root fracture. If gear wheels made from the
basic grades Hostaform C 2521 or C 9021 enmesh
with wheels made from the same grade, they fail
normally as a result of wear at the tooth flank, fig. 7.9.
If gear wheels made from Hostaform C 9021 K are
used, they fail only at a significantly higher number of
load cycles. Fig. 7.10 shows that e.g. with a load
characteristic cperm. of 3 the number of load cycles
until failure can be increased more than 10 times by
using Hostaform C 9021 K compared to Hostaform
C 2521. Both wear and tooth root fracture have been
observed as causes of failure of Hostaform C 9021 K.
Fig. 7.10 Load characteristic cperm.

for gear wheels made from Hostaform (material
combination Hostaform/Hostaform, v = 12 m/s)
Ventilation for dishwasher
The control lever and the closing mechanism made

from Fortron 1342L4 slide in the housing made from
mineral-filled polyamide. The bearing spindles are
also made from mineral-filled polyamide (d 5 mm).
The bearing clearance selected is large enough to
ensure a clearance fit even if the polyamide undergoes
thermal expansion and absorbs moisture.
Load characteristic cperm. (N/mm2)
A special ventilation mechanism in a dishwasher

ensures that the hot steam can escape from the
machine during the drying cycle. For this purpose the
air outlet is opened in two stages by a lever system,
fig. 7.11.
12
c=
10
Ft
bk m
8
C 9021 K dry running
C 2521 dry running
4
2
0
105
106
107
Number of load cycles
Fig. 7.11 Ventilation for dishwasher

The crucial factor in the choice of material was the
resistance to chemicals and hydrolysis at elevated
temperature as well as the low susceptibility to environmental stress cracking. But the tribological properties of the materials used must also not be ignored.
This is shown by tests in which the closing mechanism is opened to an angle of 90 and closed 100,000
times in dry running conditions and over 10,000 times
in dishwashing conditions; no signs of wear occurred
with the material combination selected.
38
108

Insulin dispensing unit
Fig. 7.12 Insulin dispensing pen
When insulin is injected, liquid volumes of 0.02-0.7

ml are dispensed with a maximum variation of 10%
and less than 0.01 ml in absolute terms. In the
reusable pen shown in fig. 7.12 the coupling made
from Hostaform C 9021 SW slides against a coupling
nut made from Hostaform C 13021 RM. The
adjusting cylinder with dose indicator slides against
the stainless steel housing.
The individual sawteeth of the friction coupling are
designed as inclined planes. Both parts of the friction
coupling are held together by means of a spring and
must be separated when the injection volume is set.
The perceptible and audible engagement after each
segment makes the pen suitable for blind people as
well. Both coupling parts were initially to be made
from Hostaform C 9021 but this caused squeaking
noises, which did not occur with the combination of
Hostaform C 9021 SW / C 13021 RM.
This material combination has a low coefficient of
friction. A low coefficient of friction is crucial for
low operating force of the friction coupling, as is
clear from the following equation (see also fig. 7.12).
Foperation =
+ tan
1 tan
Foperation
Fspring
( = 0.2)
( = 0.5)
Fig. 7.13 Axial bearings for electric toothbrush
Fspring
where = tan
The lower the coefficient of sliding friction is, the
lower is the operating force Foperation with identical
angle of inclination and identical spring force
Fspring.
This is shown by way of example in fig. 7.12 with =
0.2 and = 0.5.
The abrasion of all components has to be minimal
for the entire service life. The markings on the
adjusting cylinder must additionally be extremely
abrasion-resistant. Therefore the cylinder is made
from Hostaform C 9021 10/9005 and the marking is
applied by laser beam.
The insulin pen was tested for over 8000 injections,
corresponding to a service life of over 7 years. After
this test the pens were still fully functional. The
dispensing accuracy too was in the specified range.
Axial bearings for electric toothbrush

The oscillating motion of an electric toothbrush is
transmitted from the handle to the detachable brush
head by means of a movable coupling element, fig.
7.13. The coupling pin made from steel 1.4305 slides
up and down against the bearing surface made from
Hostaform C 9021. The stroke is 2.4 mm, the frequency 65 Hz. In axial direction the coupling pin has
a roughness height Rz = 0.2 mm. The surface pressure
was not determined. The toothbrush is designed for
a service life of 330 operating hours, corresponding
to a sliding distance of about 185 km.
39

Slider for cooker hood

To open and close a cooker hood a guide piece made
from Celanex 2360 GV 1/10 FL slides in a guide rail
made from unreinforced flame-retardant polycarbonate (fig. 7.14). The slide path is about 20 cm. With
an average of 3 operations per day and assuming a
service life of 10 years (~ 10,000 cycles) this gives a
slide path of about 4 km.
The different lever actions of the flap (weight up to
80 N) give rise to high peak values for the surface
pressure and thus also high coefficients of friction. At
the same time the high temperatures above a cooker
require high dimensional stability up to a service
temperature of about 120C.
It is not necessary to lubricate the sliding surface
because grease-laden vapours from cooking are
deposited on the sliding surface. The manufacturer,
however, applies a molybdenum paste lubricant so as
to ensure easy operation of the exhaust hood as
supplied and in demonstrations.
The guide piece made from Celanex also performs the
following functions:
Exact positioning of the limit switch for the fan
motor
Adjustment of the operating force of the flap by
means of an adjusting screw
Mounting for the grease filter
Absorption and distribution of the gripping force
of about 5000 N when the cooker hood is transported by a forklift truck
40
Fig. 7.14 Slider for cooker hood

8. Explanation of symbols
b
bk
bearing width
minimum tooth width
load characteristic
Da
dFL
s
SE
SF
SL
wall thickness of the bearing

assembly clearance
manufacturing clearance
operating clearance
t
T
TS
loading time
total cycle time
total shrinkage
dw
outside diameter of bearing bushing

outside diameter of flange
(outsert moulding)
inside diameter of bearing bushing
sphere diameter
diameter of receiving hole in baseplate
(outsert moulding)
shaft diameter
modulus of elasticity
dw
Di
f
FN
FR
Ft
correction factor for taking the operating

time into consideration
perpendicular force
frictional force
peripheral force
shaft displacement
change in inside diameter of bearing
when press-fitted
coefficient of thermal expansion
F
relative dimensional change due to

moisture
height
characteristic for rotary or oscillating

motion
m
p
thermal conductivity of the metal

partner
thermal conductivity of the polymer
Di
dK
dPl
K1, K1
are factors that indicate how heat

conduction is influenced by the bearing
design
U
interference
U 100% relative interference
Da
v
sliding speed
m
MS
modul of a gear wheel

mould shrinkage
speed
coefficient of sliding friction

coefficient of static friction
OT
operating time
Poissons ratio
p
pm
pmax H
pmax S
1
pm perm.
PS
surface pressure
mean surface pressure
maximum Hertzian pressure
maximum surface pressure after sine
distribution
permissible mean surface pressure
post-shrinkage
F
u
Fperm.
L
ass.
roughness coefficient
(groove direction factor)
sliding surface temperature
ambient temperature
permissible sliding surface temperature
mean bearing temperature
temperature when bearing is assembled
Rt
Rz
maximum roughness height

mean roughness height
relative bearing clearance
41

9. Literature
[1]
W.J. Bartz et al.:

Selbstschmierende und wartungsfreie
Gleitlager, Expert Verlag, 1993
[2]
ISO/FDIS 7148-22 1999 (E)

Plain bearings - Testing of the tribological
behaviour of bearing materials
Part 2: Testing of polymer-based bearing
materials; 1999 E
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
DIN ISO 4378-2

Gleitlager - Begriffe, Definitionen und
Einteilung - Part 2: Reibung und Verschlei
Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 1999
G. Halach:
Gleitreibungsverhalten von Kunststoffen
gegen Stahl und seine Deutung mit molekularmechanischen Modellvorstellungen;
Dissertation, University of Stuttgart, 1974
G. Erhard, E. Strickle:
Gleitelemente aus thermoplastischen
Kunststoffen
Kunststoffe 62, 1972
Part 1: p. 2-9
Part 2: p. 232-234
Part 3: p. 282-288
VDI-Richtlinie 2541
Gleitlager aus thermoplastischen Kunststoffen,
1975
[7]
DIN ISO 6691 Draft

Thermoplastische Polymere fr Gleitlager;
Klassifizierung und Bezeichnung, Jan. 1999
[8]
Ticona GmbH:
Fortron Chemical Resistance Guide,
Version 3.0
[9]
Ticona GmbH:
GUR; Bestndigkeit gegen Chemikalien
und andere Medien
[10]
Ticona GmbH:
GUR product brochure
[11]
Test report by the Forschungsgesellschaft fr

Uhren- und Feingerte-Technik e.V., Stuttgart,
dated March 26, 1981
42
[12]
J. Flck, K. Friedrich:
Bestimmung des Haftreibungskoeffizienten
verschiedener POM-Paarungen
IVW-Bericht 97-84; Kaiserslautern, 1997
[13]
G. Erhard:
Konstruieren mit Kunststoffen
Hanser Verlag, Munich; Vienna, 1993
[14]
Ticona GmbH:
B.3.4 Design calculations for press-fit joints
[15]
Ticona GmbH:
C.3.5 Outsert moulding with Hostaform
[16]
Ticona GmbH:
C.3.3 Design of mouldings made from
engineering plastics
[17]
G. Erhard, E. Strickle:
Maschinenelemente aus thermoplastischen
Kunststoffen
VDI-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf, 1978
[18]
H. Detter, K. Holecek:
Der Reibungswiderstand und die
Beanspruchung von feinmechanischen
Lagern im Trockenlauf bei kleinen
Gleitgeschwindigkeiten
Feinwerktechnik 74, 1970, No. 11
[19]
R. Meldt, H. Rber:
Polyacetale und Polyalkylenterephthalate
helfen Gleitprobleme lsen
Konstruktion 25, 1973, p. 357-363

Notice to users:
To the best of our knowledge, the information contained in this publication is accurate, however we do
not assume any liability whatsoever for the accuracy
and completeness of such information. The information contained in this publication should not be
construed as a promise or guarantee of specific
properties of our products.
Further, the analysis techniques included in this
publication are often simplifications and, therefore,
approximate in nature. More vigorous analysis techniques and prototype testing are strongly recommended to verify satisfactory part performance.
Anyone intending to rely on any recommendation
or to use any equipment, processing technique or
material mentioned in this publication should satisfy
themselves that they can meet all applicable safety
and health standards.
It is the sole responsibility of the users to investigate
whether any existing patents are infringed by the use
of the materials mentioned in this publication.
Properties of molded parts can be influenced by a
wide variety of factors including, but not limited to,
material selection, additives, part design, processing
conditions and environmental exposure. Any determination of the suitability of a particular material and
part design for any use contemplated by the user is
the sole responsibility of the user. The user must
verify that the material, as subsequently processed,
meets the requirements of the particular product or
use. The user is encouraged to test prototypes or
samples of the product under the harshest conditions
to be encountered to determine the suitability of the
materials.
Material data and values included in this publication

are either based on testing of laboratory test specimens
and represent data that fall within the normal range
of properties for natural material or were extracted
from various published sources. All are believed to be
representative. These values alone do not represent a
sufficient basis for any part design and are not intended
for use in establishing maximum, minimum, or ranges
of values for specification purposes. Colorants or
other additives may cause significant variations in
data values.
We strongly recommend that users seek and adhere to
the manufacturers current instructions for handling
each material they use, and to entrust the handling of
such material to adequately trained personnel only.
Please call the numbers listed overleaf for additional
technical information. Call Customer Services at the
number listed overleaf for the appropriate Material
Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) before attempting to process our products. Moreover, there is a need to reduce
human exposure to many materials to the lowest
practical limits in view of possible adverse effects.
To the extent that any hazards may have been mentioned in this publication, we neither suggest nor
guarantee that such hazards are the only ones that
exist.
The products mentioned herein are not intended for
use in medical or dental implants.
Copyright by Ticona GmbH
Edition: March 2001
9
43
Hostaform POM
Celcon POM
Duracon POM
Celanex PBT
Impet PET
Vandar thermoplastic polyester blends
Riteflex TPE-E
Vectra LCP
Fortron PPS
Topas COC
Celstran LFT
Compel LFT
Ticona GmbH
Customer Service Europe
D-65926 Frankfurt am Main
Tel.: +49 (0) 69-3 05-8 47 32
Fax: +49 (0) 69-3 05-8 47 35
B 2.3 D BR-03.2001
GUR PE-UHMW

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Plain bearings made from

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

Calculations Design Applications B.2.3

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

General information on plain bearings

The tribological system, friction and wear

Materials and material combinations

Load-bearing capacity of plastic bearings

Permissible mean surface pressure pm perm.

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

Notes on assembling plain bearings

Press-fit joint for plastic bearing

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

Plastic bearings by their very nature do not have the

Fig. 1.1 Wear of various plastics against steel,

Engineering thermoplastics have long demonstrated

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

The systematic investigation of the connection between

Standard ISO 4378-2 gives definitions and

The tribological behaviour of a material is determined

Fig. 2.1 Diagram of a tribological system

b) oscillating, plane bearing

Structure of the tribological system

Fig. 2.3 Test arrangement

It follows from this that neither sliding behaviour nor

Testing under true sliding conditions, fig. 2.2, and

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

2.2 Applicability of testing

Fig. 2.5 Abrasion of Hostaform with hard additives

Fig. 2.4 [4] compares two curves for the coefficient

Fig. 2.4 Coefficients of friction of the combination

relationships between the system structure, the stress

The coefficient of static friction 0 must be taken into

Fig. 2.6 Forces in a sliding combination

B Pin-disc test rig

If the wear properties of products modified with hard

(Coulombs law of friction)

FR is the frictional force acting in

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

2.4.1 Influence of the surface roughness of the steel

In principle plain bearings made from polymer

This applies both to unmodified and to slip-modified

2.4 Dry running

Mean roughness height Rz (m)

The frictional wear of the plastic generally rises with

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

Fig. 2.8 Trends in the frictional wear rate as a

Frictional wear rate (m/km)

2.5.1 Action of incorporated additives

Mean roughness height Rz (m)

The yardstick for assessing surface roughness is the

Additives such as chalk, PTFE or silicone oil, which

Fig. 2.10 The tribological system

Table 2.1 Guide values for the roughness Rz

Thin, highly oriented

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

PTFE has a lower coefficient of friction in contact

with metal an additional critical factor is oscillating

In both cases the slip modification usually has the

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

2.5.2 External lubrication

If greater demands are placed on oxidation resistance

Plain bearings made from engineering plastics

3. Materials and material