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TAB
BLE OF CONTENT
LEGAL CAUTION....
C
.......................................................................................................................................................3
DEFINITIIONS..................................................................................................................................................................3
ANVIL.............................................................................................................................................................................................3
BOW ECHO
O....................................................................................................................................................................................3
CONVECTIV
VE OUTLOOK................................................................................................................................................................3
DERECHO.......................................................................................................................................................................................3
DOWNDRAFT.................................................................................................................................................................................3
EXTRA-TRO
OPICAL CYCLO
ONE..........................................................................................................................................................3
GUST FRON
NT.................................................................................................................................................................................3
MESO-SCALLE CONVECTIV
VE SYSTEM..............................................................................................................................................3
MESO-SCALLE INFORMATTION..........................................................................................................................................................4
METEOROLLOGICAL IMPA
ACT STATEMEN
NT (MIS)...........................................................................................................................4
ROLL CLOU
UD.................................................................................................................................................................................4
SEVERE THUNDERSTORM
H
MS............................................................................................................................................................4
SHELF CLO
OUD................................................................................................................................................................................4
SUPER-COO
OL LIQUID WATER
A
.........................................................................................................................................................4
UPDRAFT........................................................................................................................................................................................4
CLOUD TYPES.........
T
.......................................................................................................................................................4
HIGH-LEVEEL CLOUDS.....................................................................................................................................................................5
MID-LEVELL CLOUDS......................................................................................................................................................................5
LOW-LEVEL CLOUDS.....................................................................................................................................................................5
THUNDER
RSTORM ST
TAGES OF DEVELOPM
D
MENT....................................................................................................6
CUMULUS STAGE..........................................................................................................................................................................6
MATURE STAGE............................................................................................................................................................................6
DECAYING STAGE.........................................................................................................................................................................7
THUNDER
RSTORM TY
YPES.............................................................................................................................................7
SINGLE CELL.................................................................................................................................................................................7
THUNDERSSTORM CLUSTEER (MULTI CELL
E )...................................................................................................................................7
SQUALL LINE
I ................................................................................................................................................................................7
SUPERCELLL....................................................................................................................................................................................7
HAZARDS TO AVIAT
TION.............................................................................................................................................7
TORNADOEES..................................................................................................................................................................................7
TURBULEN
NCE................................................................................................................................................................................8
ICING..............................................................................................................................................................................................8
HAIL...............................................................................................................................................................................................8
LOW CEILIN
NG AND VISIB
BILITY.......................................................................................................................................................9
EFFECT ON
N ALTIMETERS................................................................................................................................................................9
LIGHTNING
G....................................................................................................................................................................................9
ENGINE WATER
A
INGESTIION...........................................................................................................................................................9
GROUND
D-BASED WE
EATHER RA
ADAR......................................................................................................................10
STRENGTH OF RADAR RETURN
E
....................................................................................................................................................10
ECHO INTEENSITY (REFLEECTIVITY)...............................................................................................................................................10
INTENSITY OF PRECIPITA
ATION.....................................................................................................................................................10
WSR-88D MODES.......................................................................................................................................................................10
RADAR REFFLECTIVITY.................................................................................................................................................................10
BASE REFLLECTIVITY....................................................................................................................................................................10
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COMPOSITEE REFLECTIVITTY..........................................................................................................................................................10
GROUND RADAR INFORM
MATIONFLIG
GHT PLANNING
G...............................................................................................................11
DATA LINK
K OF GROUND RADAR INFOR
RMATION TO THE
T
COCKPIT.............................................................................................11
AIRBORN
NE WEATHE
ER RADAR.................................................................................................................................11
AIRBORNE WEATHER AVOIDANCE RAD
DAR IS, AS ITS NAME
N
IMPLIES
S, FOR AVOIDIN
NG SEVERE WE
EATHERNOT
T FOR
PENETRATIING IT..........................................................................................................................................................................11
AIRBORNE WEATHER RADAR
A
ECHO AVOIDANCE......................................................................................................................11
INTENSE OR
R EXTREME ECHO
C
AVOIDAN
NCE..................................................................................................................................11
DOS AND
D DONTS OF
F THUNDER
RSTORM AV
VOIDANCE.......................................................................................11
THUNDERSSTORM AVOIDA
ANCE.....................................................................................................................................................11
DOS BEFOR
RE ENTERING A STORM...............................................................................................................................................12
DOS AND DONTS FOR THUNDERSTORM
H
M PENETRATIO
ON.............................................................................................................13

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LEGAL CA
AUTION
The mateerial contained in this training prrogram is based
b
on thhe informattion obtaineed from currrent
state, loccal and com
mpany regullations and it is to be used for trraining purpposes only. At the tim
me of
designingg this proggram contained then current
c
info
ormation. Inn the eventt of conflicct between data
provided herein and that in publications isssued by the authority, the
t authorityy shall take precedencee.
DEFINITIIONS
Anvil
The flat, spreading top
t of a cum
mulonimbuss cloud, ofteen shaped liike an anvil. Thundersttorm anvils may
spread huundreds of miles
m
downw
wind from the
t thunderstorm itselff, and somettimes may spread
s
upwiind.
Bow Ech
ho
Radar echho that is linnear but bennt outward in
i a bow sh
hape.
Convectiive Outlook
k
A categoorical forecaast issued as
a a narrativve and a grraphic by the
t Nationaal Weather Service (NWS)
Storm Prrediction Ceenter (SPC)), which sppecifies the perceived level
l
of thrreat for con
nvection viaa the
descriptivve wording:: Slight, Mooderate, andd High Risk.
Derecho
g band of seevere
A widesppread, long--lived, straigght-line winndstorm thaat is associated with a ffast-moving
thundersttorms.
Downdraaft
A small--scale coluumn of airr that rapiidly sinks toward thee ground, usually acccompaniedd by
precipitattion as in a shower or thunderstorm
t
m. A microb
burst is the result of a sstrong down
ndraft.
Extra-tropical Cycllone
t as mid-llatitude cycclones. These are defi
fined as syn
noptic scale low
Are moree commonlyy referred to
pressure weather syystems that occur in thhe middle laatitudes of the
t Earth (ooutside the tropics) haaving
neither trropical nor polar charaacteristics. Extra-tropiccal cyclonees are typicaally associaated with frronts
and horizzontal gradiients in tem
mperature annd dewpointt otherwise known as baro-clinicc zones. Exxtratropical cyclones
c
are typical llow pressurre systems that, alongg with highh pressure systems, drive
d
the weathher over muuch of the Earth,
E
produucing anyth
hing from cloudiness
c
aand mild sh
howers to heeavy
gales andd thunderstoorms.
Gust Froont
The leadiing edge off gusty surfa
face winds from
f
thundeerstorm dow
wndrafts; soometimes asssociated with
w a
shelf clouud or roll clloud and maay also be reeferred to as an outflow
w boundary.
Meso-scaale Convective System
m
A complex of multiiple thundeerstorms thaat becomes organized on a scale larger than
n the indiviidual
s
thann extra-troppical cyclon
nes, and noormally perrsists for seeveral hourrs or
thundersttorms but smaller
more.

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Meso-scaale Informaation
An analyysis of meteeorological informatioon pertainin
ng to atmosspheric phenomena haaving horizoontal
scales rannging from a few to sevveral hundred kilometeers (km).
pact Statem
ment (MIS))
Meteorological Imp
marily for ATC
A
traffic m
managers, pilots,
p
and thhose
A non-tecchnical plaiin languagee product inttended prim
involved in planningg aircraft rooutings. Thhe MIS conttains a brief discussionn of meteorrological evvents
that couldd cause a disruption off the safe flow of air trraffic. This discussion will includee specifics such
as what (weather)
(
is causing thee disruptionn, the area and
a altitudess affected, aand movem
ment. The MIS is
time-limiited to not exceed a 48-hour
4
vaalid period. When the forecast iss no longerr descriptivve of
expected conditions, the MIS should
s
be uppdated. Thee MIS may refer to ann online graaphic, especcially
for compplex situatioons, using a specific Web addreess and will provide a brief desscription off the
weather that is included in thhe text MIS. MIS pro
oducts are numbered sequentiallly beginninng at
midnightt local time each day. The
T MIS is disseminate
d
ed and stored as a repllaceable pro
oduct.
Roll Clou
ud
A low, horizontal
h
t
tube-shaped
d cloud asssociated wiith a thundderstorm guust front. Roll
R
cloudss are
relativelyy rare; they are compleetely detachhed from thee thunderstoorm base orr other clou
ud features, thus
differentiiating them from the more
m
familiar shelf clou
uds.
T
rms
Severe Thundersto
Thundersstorms that produce haail one inchh in diametter or largeer, convectiive winds of
o 50 knotss (58
miles perr hour) or grreater, and/oor tornadoes.
Shelf Clooud
A low, horizontal
h
w
wedge-shap
ped cloud associated
a
with
w
a thunnderstorm ggust front. Unlike the roll
cloud, thhe shelf clooud is attaached to thhe base of the parent cloud aboove it whicch is usuallly a
thundersttorm.
Super-coool Liquid Water
W
In the atm
mosphere, liquid
l
waterr can survivve at tempeeratures colder than 0 degrees C; many vigoorous
storms coontain largee amounts off super-cooled liquid water
w
at coldd temperatuures.
Updraft
A small--scale curreent of risingg air. If thee air is suffficiently moist,
m
then tthe moisturre condensees to
become a cumulus cloud
c
or an individual
i
tower of a to
owering cum
mulus or cuumulonimbu
us.
CLOUD TYPES
T
The folloowing cloudd roots andd translationns summariize the com
mponents off the classiffication sysstem:
Cirro-ccurl of hair, high, "Altoo- mid, Sttrato- layerr, and Nim
mbo-rain, prrecipitation
n.

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High-levvel clouds
High-level clouds occcur above about 20,0000 feet/6000
0 meters annd are givenn the prefix "cirro-". Duue to
cold troppospheric teemperatures at these levels, the clouds primaarily are com
mposed of ice
i crystals,, and
often apppear thin, sttreaky, and white. Cirrrus clouds are
a wispy, feathery,
f
andd composed
d entirely of ice
crystals. They often are the firstt sign of an approachin
ng warm froont or an uppper-level jett stream.
Unlike ciirrus, cirrosstratus clouuds form moore of a widespread, veil-like
v
layyer (similar to what strratus
clouds do
d in low levels).
l
Whhen sunlighht or moon
nlight passees through the hexago
onal-shapedd ice
crystals of
o cirrostrattus clouds, the light is dispersed or
o refractedd in such a w
way that a familiar rinng or
halo mayy form. As a warm fronnt approachees, cirrus clo
ouds tend too thicken innto cirrostrattus, which may,
m
in turn, thhicken and lower
l
into altostratus,
a
s
stratus,
and
d even nimbostratus.
Finally, cirrocumulu
c
us clouds are
a layered clouds perm
meated withh small cum
muliform lu
umpiness. They
T
also mayy line up inn streets or rows of cloouds acrosss the sky deenoting loccalized areas of ascentt and
descent.
Mid-leveel clouds
The basees of cloudss in the midddle level of
o the tropo
osphere, givven the preffix "alto-", appear
a
betw
ween
6,500 andd 20,000 feeet. Dependding on the altitude, tim
me of year, and verticaal temperatture structurre of
the troposphere, thesse clouds may
m be compposed of liq
quid water droplets,
d
icee crystals, orr a combinaation
of the tw
wo, includiing super-ccooled dropplets (i.e., liquid dropplets whosee temperatu
ures are beelow
freezing).
The two main
m types of mid-leveel clouds aree;
alltostratus annd
alltocumulus.
Altostratuus clouds are
a "strato" type
t
cloudss (see below
w) that posssess a flat aand uniform
m type texturre in
the mid-llevels. Theyy frequentlyy indicate thhe approach
h of a warm front and m
may thicken
n and lower into
stratus, thhen nimbosstratus resuulting in rain or snow. However, altostratus clouds themselves doo not
produce significant precipitatioon at the surrface, although sprinklles or occassionally ligh
ht showers may
occur froom a thick alto-stratus deck.
d
Altocumuulus cloudss exhibit "ccumulo" typpe characteeristic in mid-levels,
m
ii.e., heap-liike clouds with
convectivve elementss. Like cirrrocumulus, altocumulu
us may aliggn in rows or streets of clouds, with
cloud axees indicatingg localized areas of asccending, mo
oist air, andd clear zonees between rows
r
suggessting
locally deescending, drier
d
air. Alltocumulus clouds with
h some vertiical extent m
may denote the presencce of
elevated instability, especially in the mornning, which
h could beccome bounndary-layer based andd can
be releaseed into deepp convection during thee afternoon or evening.
Low-leveel clouds
Low-leveel clouds are not given a prefix, allthough theiir names aree derived frrom "strato--" or "cumuulo-",
dependinng on their characterist
c
tics. Low cllouds occurr below 65000 feet, and normally consist
c
of liiquid
water drooplets or evven super-coooled dropleets, except during
d
coldd winter storrms when ice crystals (and
snow) coomprise mucch of the cloouds.
The two main
m types of low clouuds include;
sttratus whichh develop hoorizontally and
cuumulus whiich develop vertically.
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Stratus cllouds are unniform and flat, produccing a gray layer of clooud cover w
which may be
b precipitattionfree or may
m cause peeriods of ligght precipitaation or drizzzle. Low stratus
s
deckks are comm
mon in winter in
the manyy areas, esppecially behhind a storm
m system when
w
cold, dismal, grray weatherr can lingerr for
several hours or evenn a day or tw
wo.
Stratocum
mulus clouds are hybbrids of layyered stratu
us and celllular cumuulus, i.e., in
ndividual cloud
c
elements, characteriistic of cuumulo typpe clouds, clumped toogether in a continuo
ous distribuution,
characterristic of strrato- type clouds.
c
Straatocumulus also can bee thought off as a layer of
o cloud cluumps
with thickk and thin areas.
a
Thesee clouds apppear frequeently in the atmospheree, either aheead of or beehind
a frontall system. Nimbostratu
N
us clouds are
a generallly thick, deense stratuss or stratoccumulus cloouds
producingg steady raain or snow
w. In contraast to layerred, horizonntal stratus, cumulus clouds
c
are more
m
cellular (individual)
(
in nature, have flat boottoms and rounded toops, and groow verticallly. In fact, their
t
name deppends on thhe degree off vertical deevelopment.. For instannce, scattered cumulus clouds show
wing
little verttical growthh on an othherwise sunnny day used
d to be term
med "fair w
weather cum
mulus," althoough
normallyy they simplyy are referreed to just ass cumulus or
o flat cumuulus.
A cumuluus cloud thaat exhibits significant
s
v
vertical
development (bbut is not yeet a thunderrstorm) is caalled
toweringg cumulus. If enough atmospheeric instability, moistuure, and lifft are preseent, then strrong
updrafts can develoop in the cuumulus clouud leading to a maturre, deep cuumulonimbu
us cloud, i.e., a
thundersttorm produucing heavyy rain. In addition,
a
clo
oud electriffication occcurs within cumulonim
mbus
clouds duue to many collisions between
b
chaarged waterr droplet, icce-water mixx, and ice crystal
c
particles,
resulting in lightningg and thundder. Cumuluus clouds aree all capablee of producing some seerious storm
ms!
THUND
DERSTOR
RM STAGE
ES OF DEV
VELOPME
ENT
Cumuluss Stage
Thundersstorms deveelop when thhe atmosphhere has warrm, moist aiir which risses into a bu
uoyant plum
me or
in a series of convvective updrrafts. As thhe air begin
ns to condense it form
ms a cumu
ulus cloud. The
interactioons betweenn the rising warm, moiist and coolling air resuult in the deevelopment of a processs of
rising annd falling air.
a As the warm air within
w
the cloud
c
contiinues to risse, it eventu
ually cools and
condensees. The conddensation releases heaat into the cloud,
c
warm
ming the air. This, in tu
urn, causes it to
rise. Thee cloud edgges, during this stage, are usually
y sharp andd distinct, inndicating th
hat the clouud is
composedd primarilyy of water droplets.
d
Thhe process continues
c
annd works too form a tow
wering cum
mulus
cloud. Thhe convectiive cloud coontinues to grow upwaard, eventuaally growinng above the freezing level
l
where suuper-cooled water dropllets and ice crystals exist. Precipittation beginns to form once the air rises
r
above thee freezing leevel. The faalling precippitation and
d cool air froom the enviironment staart the initiaation
of cool doowndrafts, which
w
leadss to the secoond stage.
S
Mature Stage
The matuure stage is characterizzed by the presence
p
off both updraafts and downdrafts within
w
the clloud.
The dow
wndrafts are caused by the downw
ward drag of
o falling raain. The dow
wndraft is strengthened
s
d by
evaporatiive cooling,, as the rainn is falling with
w the dow
wndraft, entters drier airr below thee cloud basee and
evaporatees. This coold descendding air inn the down
ndraft will often reacch the grou
und beforee the
precipitattion. As thee mature-staage thunderrstorm deveelops, the cuumulus clouud continuees to increasse in
size, heigght and widdth. Cloud too ground ligghtning usu
ually begins when the pprecipitation
n first falls from
f
the cloudd base. Durring this maature stage,, the top off the resultiing cumulonimbus clo
oud will staart to
flatten ouut, forming an anvil shaape often att the top of the
t troposphhere.
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Decayingg Stage
The decaaying stage is characteerized by downdrafts throughout
t
the entire ccloud. Decaay often beegins
when thee super-coolled cloud droplets
d
freeeze and the cloud conttain ice crystals. Ice crrystals typiccally
first appeear in the anvil,
a
whichh becomes more
m
prono
ounced in thhis stage. Thhe ice crysttal laiden cloud
c
appears filmy, or diffuse,
d
witth indistincct cloud ed
dges. The cloud
c
beginns to collap
pse becausee no
additionaal latent heaat is releaseed after the cloud dropllets freeze, and becausse the shado
ow of the cloud
c
and rain cooled dow
wndrafts redduce the tem
mperature beelow the clooud. The deecay of a th
hunderstorm
m can
also be innitiated wheen the precippitation witthin the storrm becomess too heavy for the updrafts to suppport,
when thee source of moisture
m
is cut
c off, or when
w
lifting
g ceases
THUN
NDERSTO
ORM TYPE
ES
Thundersstorms packk just abouut every weather
w
hazzard knownn to aviatioon. Pilots may encouunter
thundersttorms of different
d
sizze and typees. Thunderrstorms maay be isolaated from other
o
cloudds or
embedded within othher cloud deecks. Thundderstorm typ
pes may be classified aas:
Single Cell
mmon) thunnderstorm cell
c often deevelops on warm
w
and hhumid summ
mer days. These
T
A single cell (or com
m
winds.
w
cells mayy be severe and produce hail and microburst
Thunderrstorm Cluster (Multii Cell)
Thundersstorms oftenn develop inn clusters with
w numero
ous cells. Thhese can coover large areas.
a
Indiviidual
cells withhin the clustter may movve in one diirection whiile the wholle system m
moves in ano
other.
Squall Line
L
A squall line is a narrrow band of
o active thuunderstormss. Often it develops
d
onn or ahead of a cold front in
moist, unnstable air, but
b it may develop
d
in unstable
u
air far removeed from any front. The line may bee too
long to detour easilyy around andd too wide and
a severe to
t penetratee.
Supercelll
A superccell is a single long-livved thunderrstorm whicch is responnsible for nnearly all off the signifiicant
tornadoess produced in the Uniteed States annd for most of the hailsttones largerr than golf ball-size.
b
HAZAR
RDS TO AV
VIATION
All thundderstorms have
h
condittions that are
a a hazard
d to aviatioon. These hhazards occu
ur in numeerous
combinattions. Whille not everry thundersstorm contaains all hazzards, it iss not possiible to visuually
determine which hazzards a thunnderstorm coontains.
Tornadooes
The mostt violent thuunderstormss draw air innto their clo
oud bases with
w great force. If the in
ncoming airr has
any initiaal rotating motion,
m
it offten forms an
a extremelly concentraated vortex from the su
urface well into
the cloudd. Meteorologists havee estimated that wind in
i such a vortex
v
can eexceed 200 knots; presssure
inside thee vortex is quite
q
low. The
T strong winds
w
gatheer dust and debris,
d
and the low preessure generrates
a funnel--shaped clouud extendinng downwarrd from the cumulonim
mbus base. IIf the cloud
d does not reach
the surfacce, it is a ffunnel cloudd; if it toucches a land surface, it is
i a tornaddo; and if itt touches water,
w
it is a waterspout.
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Tornadoees occur with

w
both isolated and squall linee thunderstoorms. Forecast reportss for tornadoes
indicate that atmospheric connditions are favorable for violennt turbulencce. An airccraft enterinng a
tornado vortex
v
is almost certaain to suffeer loss of control
c
and structural damage. Since the voortex
extends well
w into thhe cloud, anny pilot inaadvertently caught on instrumentts in a thun
nderstorm could
c
encounter a hidden vortex.
v
Families of tornadoes have beeen observedd as append
dages of thee main clouud extendin
ng several miles
m
outward from the area of ligghtning and precipitaation. Thus, any clouud connecteed to a seevere
thundersttorm may coontain hidden vortexess.
nce
Turbulen
Potentiallly hazardouus turbulennce is present in all thunderstorrms, and a severe thu
understorm can
destroy an
a aircraft. Strongest turbulence
t
a downdrrafts.
within the cloud occuurs betweenn updrafts and
Outside the
t cloud, shear
s
turbuulence is enncountered several
s
thouusand feet above and up to 20 miles
m
laterally from a seveere storm. Additionally
A
y, clear air turbulence
t
m be enccountered 20
may
0 or more miles
m
from the anvil cloudd edge.
It is almoost impossibble to hold a constant altitude
a
in a thunderstoorm, and maaneuvering in an attemppt to
do so greeatly increaases stress on the airccraft. Stressses are leasst if the airccraft is held in a consstant
attitude.
A low-level turbulennt area is associated with
w the gust front. Often, a roll ccloud or shelf

cloudd on
the leadinng edge of the
t storm marks
m
the topp of the extrreme turbullence zone. Gust frontss often movve far
ahead (upp to 15 milees) of assocciated precippitation. The gust frontt causes a raapid and som
metimes drastic
change inn surface wiind ahead of an approaaching storm
m.
The dow
wnward movving columnn of air in a typical th
hunderstorm
m is large. T
The resultan
nt outflow may
produce wind shearr, and in some
s
cases the most severe typpe of wind shear, the microbursst. A
microburrst is a smalll-scale, inttense downddraft that when
w
reachinng the surfaace, spreadss outward in all
directions from the downdraft
d
c
center.
Virgga, streaks of
o precipitattion falling from a thun
nderstorm cloud
c
but not reeaching the ground, maay precede a microbursst.
Icing
w
with relatively larrge droplet sizes and when
w
Updrafts in a thundeerstorm suppport abundaant liquid water
carried above
a
the frreezing leveel, the wateer may beco
ome super-cooled. As the upward
d current of
o air
cools to a temperatuure of about -15C, the remaining
r
water
w
vaporr sublimatess as ice crysstals. Abovee this
level, at lower
l
tempeeratures, thee amount off super-coolled water deecreases.
Super-cooled water freezes on impact withh an aircrafft. Clear icinng can occuur at any alttitude abovee the
freezing level
l
but at high levelss, icing from
m smaller drroplets mayy be rime or mixed rimee and clear. The
abundancce of large, super-cooleed water drroplets makees clear icinng very rapid between 0C and -15C,
and encouunters can be
b frequent in a clusterr of cells. Th
hunderstorm
m icing can be extremely hazardouus.
Hail
Hail com
mpetes withh turbulencee as the greeatest thund
derstorm haazard to airrcraft. Supeer-cooled drops
d
above thee freezing level begin to
t freeze. Once
O
a drop has frozen, other dropps latch on and freeze to
t it,
so the haailstone groows-sometim
mes into a huge icebaall. Large hail
h occurs w
with severee thunderstoorms
Copyrights 20
007 by Flyco Bilg
gisayar Programc
cl ve Eitim Hizmetleri Ltd. tii.
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All
N part of this docum
ment may be reproduc
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ns
without writte
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with stroong updraftss that havee built to grreat heightss. Eventuallly, the haillstones fall, possibly some
s
distance from the storm coree. Hail maay be enco
ountered inn clear airr several miles
m
from the
thundersttorm.
As hailsttones fall thhrough air with
w temperratures abov
ve 0C, theyy begin to m
melt and prrecipitation may
reach thee ground ass either haill or rain. Rain
R
at the surface
s
doees not meann the absencce of hail aloft.
a
Pilots shoould anticippate possiblle hail withh any thund
derstorm, esspecially beeneath the anvil
a
of a large
l
cumuloniimbus. Haillstones largeer than one--half inch in
n diameter can
c significcantly damag
ge an aircraaft in
a few secconds.
Low Ceiling and Viisibility
Generallyy, visibilityy is near zeero within a thundersttorm cloudd. Ceiling aand visibilitty also mayy be
restrictedd in precipittation and dust
d betweeen the cloud
d base and the
t ground. The restricctions createe the
same prooblem as alll ceiling annd visibility restrictionss, but the hazards
h
are increased when
w
associiated
with the other thundderstorm haazards of turrbulence, haail, and lighhtning that make preciision instrum
ment
flying virrtually impoossible.
Effect on
n Altimeterrs
Pressure usually fallls rapidly with
w the approach of a thunderstorm
t
m. Pressuree then usuallly rises shaarply
with the onset
o
of thee first gust, and
a arrival of the cold downdraft and heavy rrain, falling
g back to norrmal
as the thuunderstorm passes. Thhis cycle of pressure ch
hange may occur in 155 minutes. If
I the pilot does
not receivve a correctted altimeter setting, thhe altimeter may be more than 1000 feet in erro
or.
Lightnin
ng
A lightniing strike caan puncturee the skin off an aircraftt and can daamage comm
municationss and electrronic
navigatioonal equipm
ment. Lightnning has beeen suspecteed of ignitiing fuel vappors causing
g an explossion;
however,, serious acccidents duee to lightninng strikes arre extremelyy rare. Nearrby lightnin
ng can blindd the
pilot, renndering the pilot momeentarily unaable to naviigate either by instrum
ment or by visual
v
refereence.
Nearby lightning
l
caan also induuce permannent errors in the maggnetic comppass. Lightn
ning discharrges,
even distant ones, can disruppt radio coommunicatio
ons on low
w and meddium frequeencies. Thoough
s
relattionship to other
o
storm parameterss, severe stoorms,
lightningg intensity annd frequenccy have no simple
as a rule, have a highh frequencyy of lightninng.
Engine Water
W
Ingeestion
Turbine engines
e
havve a limit on
o the amouunt of wateer they can ingest. Upddrafts are present
p
in many
m
thundersttorms, partiicularly thosse in the deeveloping sttages. If thee updraft veelocity in th
he thundersttorm
approachhes or exceeeds the veloocity of thee falling raindrops, veery high conncentrations of water may
occur. It is possiblee that these concentrations can bee in excess of the quaantity of waater that turrbine
engines are
a designeed to ingest. Thereforre, severe th
hunderstorm
ms may coontain areass of high water
w
concentraation whichh could result in flameoout and/or sttructural faiilure of one or more en
ngines.
At the present
p
timee, there is no known operationaal procedurre that can completely
y eliminatee the
possibilitty of enginee damage/flaameout durring massivee water ingeestion. Althhough the ex
xact mechannism
of these water-induc
w
ced engine stalls
s
has noot been deteermined, it is
i felt that thhrust chang
ges may havve an
adverse effect
e
on enggine stall margins
m
in thhe presence of massive water ingesstion.

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007 by Flyco Bilg
gisayar Programc
cl ve Eitim Hizmetleri Ltd. tii.
A rights reserved. No
All
N part of this docum
ment may be reproduc
ced or copied in any form or by any mean
ns
without writte
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Avoidancce of severee storm systtems is the only measu

ure assured to
t be effecttive in preveenting expoosure
to this typpe of multipple engine damage/flam
d
meout. During an unavvoidable enccounter witth severe stoorms
with extrreme preciipitation, thhe best knoown recom
mmendation is to folloow the sev
vere turbulence
penetratioon procedurre containedd in the appproved Airplane Flight Manual (AF
FM) with sp
pecial emphhasis
on avoidiing thrust chhanges unleess excessivve airspeed variations
v
o
occur.
G
GROUND-B
BASED WE
EATHER RADAR
R
Strength
h of Radar Return
R
Weather radar deteccts dropletss of precipitation. The strength of
o the radar return (ech
ho) dependds on
drop sizee and concenntration. Thhe greater thhe concentrration and/oor size of drrops, the strronger the echo.
e
Drop sizee determinees echo intennsity to a much
m
greaterr extent thaan does dropp concentration. Hailstones
usually are
a covered with a film
m of water annd, thereforre, act as huuge water drroplets givin
ng the stronngest
of all echhoes.
Echo Inttensity (Refflectivity)
The coloors on radarr images reppresent diffferent echo intensities (also calledd reflectivitty) measureed in
decibels of Z (dBZ)) (equivalennt reflectiviity). The dB
BZ values increase
i
baased on the strength off the
t atmosphhere. Each image inclludes a collor scale th
hat represennts a
return siggnal from targets in the
correlatioon between intensity vaalue and coolor on the radar
r
imagee. Figure 4, WSR-88D Weather Radar
R
Echo Intensity Legeend, depictss these corrrelations fo
or the WSR
R-88D. Thee scale rang
ges from -330 to
greater thhan 75 dBZ
Z. The scalle also inclludes ND correlated
c
too black thaat indicates no data was
measuredd.
Intensityy of Precipiitation
Reflectivvity is corrrelated to intensity of
o precipitaation. Whenn the dBZ
Z value reaaches 15, light
precipitattion is pressent. The hiigher the reeflectivity value,
v
the higher
h
the rainfall rate.. Reflectivity is
also correelated with intensity teerminology (phraseology) for air traffic contrrol (ATC) purposes.
p
T
Table
1, WSR-888D Weathher Radar Prrecipitation Intensity Teerminologyy, defines thhis correlatio
on.
WSR-88D Modes
M
and P
Precipitation
n Mode. Wiithin
There aree two main operating sttates of the WSR-88D:: Clear Air Mode
these twoo operating states theree is volumee coverage pattern
p
(VC
CP) forecastters utilize to help anaalyze
the atmosphere arouund the raddar. These different
d
VC
CPs have varying num
mbers of eleevation tilts and
rotation speeds of the
t radar ittself. Each VCP thereefore can provide a diifferent perrspective off the
atmospheere.
R
Radar Reflectivity
The radarr presents coverage in two
t basic reeflectivity im
mages.
Base Refflectivity
Taken frrom the low
west () elevation
e
sccan, base reeflectivity is
i excellentt for survey
ying the reegion
around thhe radar to look
l
for preecipitation. Base reflecctivity imagge is the firsst image available duriing a
volume scan.
s
Composiite Reflectiivity
Utilizes all
a elevationn scans duriing each vollume scan to
t create thee image. It iis composed
d of the greatest
echo inteensity (refleectivity) froom any eleevation anglle seen from
m the radaar. It is useed to reveall the
Copyrights 20
007 by Flyco Bilg
gisayar Programc
cl ve Eitim Hizmetleri Ltd. tii.
A rights reserved. No
All
N part of this docum
ment may be reproduc
ced or copied in any form or by any mean
ns
without writte
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highest reflectivity
r
i all echoees. Compossite reflectiv
in
vity image is one of thhe last radaar image views,
necessitaated by the need
n
for all elevation sccans to be completed
c
b
before
this im
mage can bee produced..
Ground Radar Infoormation
Flight Planning
b
echhoes.
Thundersstorms buildd and dissippate rapidly. Therefore,, do not atteempt to plann a course between
The best use of grouund radar innformation is
i to isolate general areeas and covverage of ech
hoes in order to
avoid thee whole thunnderstorm area.
a
nk of Groun
nd Radar Information
I
n to the Co
ockpit
Data Lin
Unlike airborne
a
weather avoiddance radarr, weather data
d
linked from a groound weath
her surveillance
radar sysstem is not real-time innformation. The radar data displaays recent rrather than current
c
weaather
conditionns. As the cuurrent locattion of a thuunderstorm cell may be different tthan the bro
oadcast weaather
product, do not attem
mpt to find a hole in a thundersto
orm solely using
u
data-linked weath
her. Pilots must
m
avoid inddividual storrms by visuual sighting or by airborrne weatherr radar.
AIRBOR
RNE WEAT
THER RAD
DAR
Airbornee weather avoidance
a
radar is, as
a its name implies, foor avoidingg severe weeathernott for
penetratting it
Whether to fly into an
a area of raadar echoess depends on
n echo intennsity, spacinng between the echoes,, and
the capabbilities of thhe pilot andd the aircraaft. The abiility of airbborne weathher radar to detect weaather
phenomeena is limiited in both directioon and ran
nge. Additiionally, weeather radaar detects only
precipitattion drops; it does not detect turbuulence. Therrefore, the radar
r
displaay provides no assurancce of
avoiding turbulence.. The radar display alsoo does not provide
p
assuurance of avvoiding insttrument weaather
conditionns from clouuds and fog. A phenom
menon, calleed attenuatiion, may eexist when a cell absorbbs or
reflects all
a of the radio signalls sent by the
t radar sy
ystem. Atteenuation maay prevent the radar from
f
detectingg additionall cells that might lie behind the first cell. This is oft
ften referred
d to as a radar
r
shadow.. For aircraft equippped with aiirborne weaather radarr, pilots shoould be fam
miliar withh the
operatingg techniquess and limitaations of thee specific sy
ystem.
Airbornee Weather Radar Ech
ho Avoidan
nce
Remember that whille hail alwaays gives a radar
r
echo, it may fall several milles from thee nearest vissible
cloud, annd hazardouus turbulencee may extennd to as mucch as 20 miiles from thee echo edgee.
Intense or
o Extremee Echo Avooidance
Avoid heeavy or extrreme level echoes
e
by at
a least 20 miles
m
(i.e., such
s
echoess should be separated by
b at
least 40 miles befoore flying between
b
theem). Pilots may reducce the distance for av
voiding weeaker
echoes.
DOS AND DONTS OF
D
O THUND
DERSTOR
RM AVOID
DANCE
Thunderrstorm Avooidance
Never reegard any thunderstorm
t
m lightly, even
e
when radar obseervers repoort the echo
oes are of light
intensity..
Avoidingg thundersttorms is the best policcy
The folloowing are soome dos andd donts of thunderstor
t
m avoidancce:
Dont lannd or takeooff in the faace of an appproaching thunderstorrm. A suddden gust fro
ont of low-llevel
turbulencce could cauuse loss of control.
c
Copyrights 20
007 by Flyco Bilg
gisayar Programc
cl ve Eitim Hizmetleri Ltd. tii.
A rights reserved. No
All
N part of this docum
ment may be reproduc
ced or copied in any form or by any mean
ns
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Dont atttempt to flyy under a thhunderstorm

m even if yo
ou can see through to the other siide. Turbulence
and windd shear undeer the storm
m could be hazardous.
Dont atttempt to flyy under thee anvil of a thundersto
orm. There is a potentiial for seveere and extrreme
clear air turbulence.
t
Dont flyy without airborne
a
raddar into a cloud
c
masss containingg scattered embedded thunderstoorms.
Scatteredd thunderstoorms not em
mbedded usuually can bee visually cirrcumnavigaated.
Dont truust the visuaal appearancce to be a reeliable indiccator of the turbulence inside a thu
understorm.
Dont asssume that ATC
A
will offfer radar navigation gu
uidance or deviations
d
arround thund
derstorms.
Dont usee data-linkeed weather next generaation weath
her radar (N
NEXRAD) m
mosaic imag
gery as the sole
means foor negotiatinng a path thrrough a thunnderstorm area
a (tacticaal maneuverring).
Do remem
mber that thhe data-linkked NEXRA
AD mosaic imagery
i
shoows where tthe weatherr was, not where
w
the weathher is. The weather coonditions may
m be 15 to 20 minu
utes older tthan the ag
ge indicated
d on
the displlay.
Do listenn to chatterr on the ATC
A
frequenncy for Pilot Weatherr Reports (P
PIREP) and
d other airrcraft
requestinng to deviatee or divert.
Do ask ATC
A
for radaar navigatioon guidancee or to appro
ove deviatioons around tthunderstorm
ms, if needeed.
Do use data-linked
d
weather NEXRAD
N
m
mosaic
imag
gery (e.g., Flight
F
Inforrmation Serrvice-Broaddcast
(FIS-B)) for route seelection to avoid
a
thunderstorms en
ntirely (strattegic maneuuvering).
Do advisse ATC, whhen switchedd to anotherr controllerr, that you are
a deviatingg for thund
derstorms beefore
acceptingg to rejoin thhe original route.
r
Do ensurre that after an authorizzed weatherr deviation, before acceepting to rejjoin the orig
ginal route, that
the route of flight is clear of thuunderstormss.
Do avoidd by at least 20 miles any thunderstorm iden
ntified as seevere or givving an inteense radar echo.
e
This is esspecially truue under thee anvil of a large cumullonimbus.
Do circum
mnavigate the
t entire arrea if the areea has 6/10 thunderstorrm coveragee.
Do remem
mber that viivid and freequent lightnning indicattes the probbability of a severe thun
nderstorm.
Do regardd as extrem
mely hazardoous any thunnderstorm with
w tops 355,000 feet oor higher wh
hether the toop is
visually sighted
s
or determined
d
b radar.
by
Do give a PIREP forr the flight conditions.
c
Do diverrt and wait out the thhunderstorm
ms on the ground
g
if unable
u
to naavigate around an areea of
thundersttorms.
Dos Befoore Enterin
ng a Storm
If unable to avoid peenetrating a thunderstorrm, the follo
owing are some
s
dos bef
efore enterin
ng the storm
m:
Tighten the
t safety beelt, put on thhe shoulderr harness (iff installed), and secure all loose ob
bjects.
Plan and hold the coourse to takee the aircrafft through th
he storm in a minimum
m time.
c
icingg, establish a penetratio
on altitude below the ffreezing lev
vel or abovee the
To avoidd the most critical
level of -15C.
Verify thhat pitot heaat is on and turn on carrburetor heaat or jet enggine anti-icee. Icing can be rapid att any
altitude and
a cause allmost instanntaneous power failure and/or loss of airspeedd indication.
Establishh power settings for turbbulence pennetration airrspeed recom
mmended inn the aircrafft manual.
Turn up cockpit
c
lighhts to highesst intensity to
t lessen tem
mporary bliindness from
m lightning.
If using automatic
a
pilot, disengage Altitudde Hold Mod
de and Speeed Hold Moode. The au
utomatic altiitude
and speedd controls will
w increasee maneuverss of the airccraft thus increasing strructural streess.
If using airborne raddar, tilt thee antenna upp and down
n occasionaally. This w
will permit the
t detectioon of
other thunderstorm activity
a
at altitudes
a
other than the one being flown.
f
Copyrights 20
007 by Flyco Bilg
gisayar Programc
cl ve Eitim Hizmetleri Ltd. tii.
A rights reserved. No
All
N part of this docum
ment may be reproduc
ced or copied in any form or by any mean
ns
without writte
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Dos and Donts forr Thundersttorm Penettration

Followinng are some dos and donnts during the thunderrstorm peneetration:
Do keep your eyes on the fligght instrum
ments. Look
king outsidee the cockppit can incrrease dangeer of
temporarry blindnesss from lightnning.
Dont chaange powerr settings; maintain
m
setttings for thee recommennded turbuleence penetraation airspeeed.
Do mainttain constannt attitude. Allow
A
the alltitude and airspeed
a
to fluctuate.
Dont turrn back oncce in the thuunderstorm. A straight course throough the stoorm most lik
kely will geet the
aircraft out
o of the haazards most quickly. Inn addition, tu
urning maneeuvers increease stress on
o the aircraaft.
End of thhe course.

Copyrights 20
007 by Flyco Bilg
gisayar Programc
cl ve Eitim Hizmetleri Ltd. tii.
A rights reserved. No
All
N part of this docum
ment may be reproduc
ced or copied in any form or by any mean
ns
without writte
en permission of Flycco Bilgisayar Program
mcl ve Eitim Hizm
metleri Ltd. ti.