3.

1 In a primitive transformation the image of every line is a line, distinct lines

having distinct images, and a 1-1 correspondence is thus established among the
lines of the plane. Intersecting lines go into intersecting lines, and parallel lines
into parallel lines. The property of being the vertices of a parallelogram is
therefore preserved.
We have, of course, also proved certain additional facts about vertical and
nonvertical lines in connection with the particular primitive transformation T.
Sense of a Line. It is customary in analytic geometry to direct vertical lines
upward, that is, to make the upward direction the positive one. There being no
fixed procedure concerning nonvertical lines, let us agree that their positive
directions are toward the right. The sense of an ordered point-pair

P1

to

P2

on the line. We now prove:

3.2 If two pairs of points on the same line or on parallel lines agree in sense, so
do their image pairs under primitive transformations, and if they differ in sense,
so do the image pairs.
Let

P1

P2

and

P3

P4

be the original pairs. Suppose, first, that each pair

is on a vertical line. Then each image pair is also on a vertical line. In this case
the sense of the ordered point-pair
P3

that of the ordered pair

image pairs. Thus, if

P4

y 2 y 1 >0

To check this we note that

P2

P1

P2

is given by the sign of

by the sign of

, the sense of
is above

P1

y4 y3

y 1 y 2

since

y 2 y 1 ,

, and similarly for the

is positive, or upward.
y2 > y1

. Denoting the

image points and their ordinates by primes, we obtain, on using (1) and the fact
that

x 1=x 2=x3 =x 4

y
c( 2 y )+d ( y 2 y 1)
'

'
4

'
1

'
3

c ( y y ) + d ( y 4 y 3)
'
'
y 2 y 1
=
y '4 y'3

y 2 y 1
y 4 y 3

If the senses of

P1

P2

P3

and

P4

are the same, the ratio on the right-

hand side is positive. Then the ratio on the left-hand side is positive, and hence
P1

P2 '

,and

P3 '

of the case in which

,
P1

P4 '

P2

,have the same sense. Similar reasoning disposes

and

P3

P4

have opposite senses.

Suppose now that the original pairs are on a nonvertical line or are on two such
parallel lines. Then the same is true, respectively, of the image pairs. The sense
P1

of

x 4x 3
P1

is given by the sign of

x 2x 1

, that of

, and similarly for the image pairs. Thus if

P2

x 2> x 1
'

P2

is positive. To check this we note that

P3

P4

x 2x 1> 0,
P2

by the sign of
the sense of

is to right of

P1

since

. On using (1) we get

'

x 2x1 x 2x 1
=
'
'
x 4 x 3 x 4 x3

Reasoning as above we again substantiate 3.2

Distance. Not being similarity, T does not multiply all distances by the same
amount, but changes them in some less uniform way. To determine what this is,
let

P1

P2

be two points, with images

and equations (1),

(5)

P
( 1 P 2) =( x1 x2 )2+( y 1 y 2 )2 ,

(6)

P
( 1' P 2 ' ) =( x 1 'x 2 ' )2 +( y 1 ' y 2 ' )2

x
2
(x 1x 2) +[c ( 1x 2 )+ d ( y 1 y 2 )]

P1

P2 '

. By the distance formula

P1

If

P2

are on a vertical line, then

P1 '

P2 '

are on this line (since each

vertical line it its own image), and the four abscissas are equal. Hence (5), (6)
give
P
( 1 P 2) =( y 1 y 2)2

P
P
2
( 1 P 2) ,
2

( 1' P 2 ' ) =d2 ( y 1 y 2)2=d2 .

'

P1 P ' 2=|d|. P1 P2

Thus, all distances on vertical lines are multiplied by the same constant |d| .
If

P1 , P2

are on a nonvertical lines of slope

(5), (6) now give

P
( 1 P 2) =( x 1x 2 )2 ( 1+m2 ) ,

P
2
2
( 1' P 2 ' ) =( x 1x 2 ) [ 1+ ( c +dm ) ] ,

P
P
1+ ( c +dm 2 )
2
( 1 P 2) =
,
( 1+ m2 )
2
( 1' P2 ' )

P1 ' P2 '=

1+ ( c +dm 2 )
P 1 P2
( 1+ m2 )

, then

m=

y 1 y 2
x 1x 2 . Equations

Thus all distances on lines of slope m are multiplied by a constant whose

value depends only on m .
We have therefore proved the theorem:
3.3 A primitive transformation multiplies all distances on the same line or on
parallel lines by the same amount, that is, by the same positive constant.
For example on vertical lines the constant is |d| , as we saw above; on
horizontal lines it is

1+ c 2 , since

m=0

; and on lines inclined at 45 it is

1
[ 1+( c+ d )2 ] .
2

Ratios of distances. Several invariants can be noted as a result of the preceding

discussions. First, it is clear from 3.3 that the ratio of two distances on the same
line or on parallel line is preserved. In particular, then, the equality of two such
distances is preserve. This agrees with the previously noted fact that the vertices
of a parallelogram go into the vertices of a parallelogram.
On applying 3.2 we see that it is also true that the ratio of two directed distances
on the same line or on parallel lines is invariant. In particular, ratio of two
directed distances on the same line or on parallel line is invariant. In particular,
P , P1
P
ratio of division (11, 3, Ex. 2) is preserved. For let
, 2 be distinct

collinear points. Then

r=

P1 P
P P2

P
P
is the ratio in which P divided the point-pair 1 , 2 (or the segment
P1P2

and
r=

P1 P
P P2

'
. The image points P' , P1 , P2 ' , are then also distinct and collinear,


is the ratio in which P divided P1 ' P2 ' . Since the distances involved here
P1 , P

are directed distances,

P1 P

is positive or negative, and r is positive or negative according as

P1 , P
P'

is positive or negative according as the sense of

and

P , P2

agree or disagree in sense. It is understood, of course that

'
, P1 , P2 ' are distinct. Since the ratios of the corresponding undirected

distances are equal, as seen above, we have

|P1 P| |P1 ' P '|

=
,
|P P 2| |P ' P2 '|
or

| || |
P1 P
P ' P'
= 1
P P2
P ' P2 '

Thus the absolute values of r and r ' are the same. The signs of r and
r'

are also the same in view of 3.2. Hence r=r ' .

If, for example, P is the midpoint of P1 P2 , in which case r=1 , then

r ' =1

and P' is the midpoint of P1 ' P2 ' .

3.4 primitive transformations preserve the ratio of any two directed distances,
and also of any two undirected distances, on the same line or on parallel lines.
In particular, they send equal distances into equal distances and preserve ratio of
division, thus sending midpoints into midpoints.
Exercise

1. Find the ratio in which P divides P1 P2 if (a) P2 is midway between

P1

1
P
P
and P ; (b) 1 is midway between P and 2 ; (c) P is 3 of

the way from

P1 P2

2. What can be said about the sign and absolute value of the ratio r in which
P

P PP ;
P P P;
PP P ?
divides P1 P2 if (a) ( 1 2 ) (b) ( 1 2 ) (c) ( 1 2 )

3. If P recedes indefinitely far from P1 , P2 what happens to r in Ex.

2(b)? in Ex. 2(c)?
4. Find the ratio in which P(1,1) divides the point-pair P1 (0,3) ,
P2 (4,5)

5. Subject the points A ( 0,6 ) , B (3,0 ) , C ( 3,6 ) , D(0,0) to the transformation

'

'

x =x , y =2 x+ 4 y

and verify 3.2, 3.3, 3.4.

6. It is shown in analytic geometry, and easily verified, that the formula for the
P ,P
ratio r in which the point P ( x , y ) divides the point-pair 1 2 is
r=

( xx 1 )
( y y1 )
r=
( x 2x ) if the points are on a nonvertical line, and
( y 2 y ) if they are

on a nonhorizontal line. Show that r is invariant for primitive

transformations.
7. Using the formula of Ex. 6, show that there is a unique point P which
divides a point-pair

P 1 , P2

in a specified ratio r , not 0, 1 , or 1 , by

showing that the coordinates (x , y ) of P are

x=

( x1 +rx 2 )
(1+r )

y=

( y 1 +ry 2 )
(1+r )

Also verify that the point with coordinates (x , y ) as given by these formulas is
collinear with the points ( x 1 , y 1) and ( x 2 , y 2) .
8. Prove each of the following for the primitive transformation where
x ' =ax+ by , y ' = y , where

a0;

(a) 3.1; (b) 3.2; (c) 3.3.

'
'
9. Prove that x =x , y =2 x+ 4 y leaves the line 2 x +3 y=0 pointwise fixed.

Generalize this by showing that every primitive transformation leaves a certain

line pointwise fixed.
10. How do points move under the special primitive transformation
'

'

x =x , y =ky ,

where k >0 ? (this transformation is called one-dimensional

strain by analogy with the behavior of the cross section of elastic objects when
the latter are subjected to certain forces. More generally, a one-dimensional
strain is defined as follows. Let g be any line, and k any positive constant.
Each point of g goes into itself, and any other point P of the plane goes
into the point P on the same side of g as P such that line PP is
perpendicular to g , and OP =k OP , where O is the intersection of g
and line PP .)
11. Prove that the primitive transformation T given by (1) preserves distance
in just one direction when c=0 , and in just two direction when c 0 . More
generally, show that distance is multiplied by the same constant in at most two
directions. (As in 3, assume that T is not a similarity.)

4. A key affine transformation (continuation). For convenient reference we

restate the equations of primitive transformation T :
(1)

x ' =x
y' =cx+ dy

(2)

x=x '
(cx '+ y ' )
y=
d

d 0,

The between-relation. The invariance of the ratio of division

r=

P1 P
P P2

has

important consequences. When P is between P1 and P2 , P P2 and

P1 P

have the same sign, so that r >0 . For no other position of P is this

true. Hence, if
between

T ( P1 , P 2) =P1 ' , P2 '

P 1 ' , P2 '

each point between

P1 , P2

goes into a point

. Thus T preserves the between-relation.

Conversely, each point P between P1 ' , P2 ' is the image of a point between
P 1 , P2

1
. For let T (P)=P . Then T ( P ')=P . Inspection of (2), which is

1
1
the explicit from T , shows that T
is primitive transformation of the
1
same type as T . Hence T
preserves the between-relation, too, so that

is between

segment P1 P2

P 1 , P2

. We may now conclude that T maps the complete

onto the complete segment P1 ' P2 ' . Using these results, the

student should know that ray

P1 ' , P2 '

is the image of ray

P1 , P2

It is now follows that the image of an angle is an angle, the image of a triangle
is a triangle (vertices going into vertices, sides into sides, interior into interior),
and more generally, that an n -sided polygon always goes into an n -sided
polygon. Also, on using 3.2 and 3.4 we see that two segments which are on the
same line or on parallel lines, and which agree in length and direction, must go
into two segments which posses these same properties. In other words, the
image of a pair of equal vectors is a pair of equal vector.
4.1 Primitive transformations preserve the between-relation, and hence the
properties of being a segment, ray, angle, half-plane, n-sided polygon, or pair of
equal vectors.
Area. It is shown in analytic geometry that the area A of triangle with
vertices

P1 , P2 , P3

is given by the formula

| |

x
1 1
A= x2
2
x3

y1 1
y2 1
y3 1

and that A is positive or negative according as the order of the vertices

P 1 , P2 , P3

is counterclockwise or clockwise. If

T ( P1 , P 2 , P3 )=P1 ' , P 2 ' , P3 '

then

P 'P 'P '

for the area, A ' , of triangle 1 2 3 we have

| |

x'1
1
A '= x'2
2 '
x3

y'1 1
y'2 1 .
y'3 1

Using (1) we get

x cx 1 +dy 1 1
1 1
A= x2 c x 2 +dy 2 1 .
2
x 3 cx 3 + dy 3 1

Consequently (see Appendix, 2.5)

| || | | | | |

x cx1 1
x dy 1 1
x1 x1 1
x1
1 1
1 1
1
1
A = x 2 cx 2 1 + x 2 dy 2 1 = c x 2 x 2 1 + d x 2
2
2
2
2
x 3 cx 3 1
x 3 dy 3 1
x3 x3 1
x3
'

y1 1
y2 1 .
y3 1

Since the next to last of these determinants has two identical columns, its value
is 0. Hence

(3)

| |

x1
1
A = d x2
2
x3
'

y1 1
y 2 1 =dA
y3 1

Since d is the value of the determinant of T , we have proved: