Chapter No.3 2013 10 05 14 23 57 037

CHAPTER 3
SOIL INVESTIGATION TESTS METHODOLOGY
Soil Investigation Tests Methodology

Chapter No.3
Department of Geological Engineering BUITEMS Quetta
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CHAPTER 3
Methodology:
3.1) General
The federal government is constructing a fly over at Sariab Phatak Quetta. The
salient features of the fly over are main bridge, Allied bridges, service roads and
drains. Soil investigations are conducted to discover the characteristics of the soil
at the particular location. So we analyzed soil samples and a report is prepared
recommending the type of foundation to be used. The investigation program
included drilling boreholes and collecting soil samples at desired Intervals for
subsequent observation and laboratory testing. The investigation program will
consist of soil boring and sampling at desired intervals for Subsequent observation
and laboratory testing to determine the capacity of pile foundation economically
and safely.
It includes:
Boring
Sampling
Testing
3.2) BORING AND SAMPLING:
3.2.1) Boring:
Drilling or driving a hole into the earth's surface.

The boreholes will be made by the rotary drilling machine. Undisturbed sample
will be taken in the soft and medium clay at 1.0, 1.5, 2.0 and 3.0 m depths and at
1.5 m intervals thereafter using a thin-walled sampler with dimensions conforming
to standard sampling tubes specification (ASTM D 1587).Disturbed samples for
very stiff clay to hard clay layer will be collected during Standard Penetration
Testing at 1.5 m intervals. (ASTM D 1586) The borings shall be drilled vertically
through soil approximately 30 meters deep or stop in firm layer when SPT N-value
is greater than 50 blows/ft. Accuracy of bore hole position will be not more than
2.0 m. in horizontal direction and 0.20 in vertical direction.
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CHAPTER 3
3.3)
Standard penetration test:
The standard penetration test (SPT) is an in-situ dynamic penetration test designed
to provide information on the geotechnical engineering properties of soil The main
purpose of the test is to provide an indication of the relative density of granular
deposits, such as sands and gravels from which it is virtually impossible to obtain
undisturbed sample.
3.3.1) Equipment
and Procedures:
The SPT consists of driving a 2-inch (5-cm) outside diameter (OD) split barrel
sampler (figure 22-1) at the bottom of an open borehole with a 140-pound (63.6kg) hammer dropped 30 inches (75 cm). The N value is the number test is
completed; the sampler is retrieved from the hole. The split barrel is opened, the
soil is classified, and a moisture specimen is obtained. After the test, the borehole
is extended to the next test depth and the process is repeated. SPT soil samples are
disturbed during the driving process and cannot be used as undisturbed specimens
for laboratory testing.
The American Society of Testing and Materials standardized the test in the 1950s.
The procedure required a free falling hammer, but the shape and drop method were
not standardized. Many hammer systems can be used to perform the test, and many
do not really free fall. The predominant hammer system used in the United States
is the safety hammer that is lifted and dropped with the rope and cat head. Donut
hammers are operated by rope and cat head or mechanical tripping. Donut
hammers are not recommended because the hammers are more dangerous to
operate and are less efficient than safety hammers. Automatic hammer systems are
used frequently and are preferred because the hammers are safer and offer close to
true free fall conditions, and the results are more repeatable. The SPT should not
be confused with other thick-wall drive sampling methods such as described in
ASTM Standard D 3550 which covers larger ring-lined split barrel samplers with
up to 3-inch (7.6-cm) OD. These samplers are also known as California or
Dames & Moore samplers. These drive samplers do not meet SPT requirements
because they use bigger barrels, different hammers, and different drop heights to
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CHAPTER 3
advance the sampler. Number of blows to drive the sampler the last 1 foot (30 cm),
expressed in blows per foot after the penetration.
Fig.3.1
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3.3.2)
Information Obtainable by SPT:
The SPT does provide a soil sample. Sampling is not continuous because the
closest recommended test interval is 2.5 feet (75 cm). Typical sampling is at 5-foot
(1.5-m) intervals or at changes in materials. The test recovers a disturbed soil
sample that can be classified on site, or the sample can be sent to the laboratory for
physical properties tests. SPT N values have been correlated to numerous soil
properties. In cohesion less soils (sands), the SPT can be used to predict the
relative density of sands (i.e., very loose, loose, medium, etc.
Sands
(Fairly reliable)
Clays
(Rather reliable)
Number of
blows per
foot
(30 m), N
Relative
density
Number of
blows per
foot
(30
cm),
Consistency
N Below
soft
Very 0-4 Very loose 24 Soft
4-10 Loose 4-8 10-30 Medium 8- 30-50 Dense 15- Over 50 Very
15 Stiff
30 Very stiff
dense Over 30
Medium
Hard
(Fairly reliable)
Clays
(Rather reliable)
Sands
Number of
blows per
foot
(30 m), N
Relative
density
Number of
blows per
Table 3-1.Penetration resistance and soil properties based on the SPT (Peck, et al.)
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The SPT has been widely used to predict the allowable bearing capacity of footings
on sand. There are several empirical methods that are based either on case histories
or on drained modulus of deformation predictions. The application of these
predictions should be tempered by local experience. There are many proposed
methods for estimating bearing capacity. The methods are probably slightly
conservative and should be applied carefully. SPT N values must be corrected for
overburden pressures and the location of the water table. For clays, the SPT is less
reliable for predicting strength and compressibility, especially for weaker clays.
The SPT is commonly used to assess the consistency of clays by grouping clays as
very soft, soft, medium, etc. Predictions of un drained strengths should be used
with extreme caution, especially in weak clays, because the SPT barrel remolds the
clay, and the penetration resistance is more a measure of remolded strength. For
evaluating un drained strength in clays, vane shear, unconfined compression, or
CPTs are better than SPTs. SPT data should not be used to estimate the
compressibility of clays. To evaluate compression behavior of clays, use either
empirical factors based on water content and atterberg limits or obtain undisturbed
samples for laboratory consolidation testing. SPT data routinely have been used for
predicting liquefaction triggered by earthquake loading. If liquefaction is predicted,
the SPT data can be used to estimate the post-earthquake shear strengths. Extensive
case history data have been collected to evaluate liquefaction; however, the data
are subject to drilling disturbance errors and the energy delivered by the hammer
system must be known. If drilling disturbance is evident or suspected, the CPT is
an alternative because the soil can be tested in place. Procedures for evaluating
liquefaction from SPTs are given in Reclamations Design Standards No. 13,
Embankment Dams, Chapter 13, Seismic Design and Analysis. SPT N data can
be used to estimate the shear modulus of clean sands, but the method is
approximate. If the shear modulus is needed, directly measuring the shear wave
velocity is preferred. Liquefaction occurs when water pressure builds up in
granular soils during an earthquake. Soils mostly susceptible to liquefaction are
cohesion less soils, primarily clean sands and gravels (GP, SP, GW, SW,
GPGM, SP-SM) and silty sands and gravels (SM, GM). The term, sands, in the
following discussion refers to all these soils. The water pressure buildup results in
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CHAPTER 3
strength loss and possibly deformation, slippage, and failure. Data collected at
liquefaction sites have been used to assess whether a deposit is liquefiable.
Testing Cohesion less Soils Earthquake induced liquefaction is commonly
associated with sands below the water table. Good drilling technique is critical to
ensuring that the sands are undisturbed prior to the SPT. Unfortunately, loose sand
is one of the most difficult materials to drill. If disturbed sands are present, take
measures to avoid continued disturbance. Perform depth checks to assess the sand
depth at the bottom of the drill hole. These depth checks are made by seeing
exactly where the sampler rests before testing. Depth checks that can be made
during drilling will be discussed below. Do not drill at excessive rates. Signs of
disturbance are excessive slough in the SPT barrel, drill fluid in the sample, and
failure of the sampler to rest at the proper cleanout depth. Slough is the disturbed
material in the drill hole that caves from the sidewalls but can include disturbed
sand that heaves or flows upward into the drill hole. Slough can also consist of
cuttings which settle from the drill fluid before testing. The SPT sampler must rest
at the intended depth. This depth is to the end of the cleanout bit or the end of the
pilot bit in hollow-stem augers. If the sampler rests at an elevation that is 0.4 foot
(12 cm) different from the cleanout depth, disturbance of the soil may be
occurring, and the hole must be recleaned.
There are a number of advantages to the SPT:
The test is widely used, and often local experience
Is well developed.
The test is simple, and many drillers can perform the test.
The SPT equipment is rugged, and the test can be
Performed in a wide range of soil conditions.
There are numerous correlations for predicting
Engineering properties with a good degree of Confidence.
The SPT is the only in place test that collects a soil Sample.
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CHAPTER 3
3.4)
Cone Penetration Test:
Test History:
The CPT was introduced in northern Europe in the 1930s to facilitate the design of
driven pile foundations in soft ground. Early devices were mechanical
penetrometers that incrementally measured the cone tip resistance. In the 1960s,
mechanical cones, known as Begemann friction cones, were developed. This
penetrometer measured both the tip resistance and the side resistance along a
sleeve above the cone tip. At about this same time, the CPT was introduced in
North America. Using technology from the rapidly advancing electronics industry,
an electric cone penetrometer was developed that used electrical transducers to
measure the tip and side resistance. Most of the work today is performed with
electronic cone penetrometers.
(Figure3-2.Mechanical cone penetrometers)
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CHAPTER 3
(Figure 3.3 cone penetrometers apparatus)
3.4.1)
Test Procedure:
The procedures for performing CPTs are standardized in Reclamation procedures

USBR 7020 and 7021 and ASTM D-5778 and D-6067. The test is highly
reproducible as opposed to SPTs. Test standards call for a cone tip 35.7 mm in
diameter with a 10-square centimeter(cm2) projected area and an apex angle of 60
degrees. The friction sleeve is 150 cm2. Larger diameter penetrometers of 15-cm2
projected area are sometimes used in very soft soils. Smaller diameter
penetrometers are sometimes used for laboratory studies of soils. The cone is
advanced at a constant rate of 20 mm per second. Since the penetration resistance
depends significantly on the advance rate, the push rate must be checked in the
field. The basic equipment required to advance any cone penetrometer is a
hydraulic jacking system. Trucks or vehicles built for CPT are typically used; but,
in some cases, the hydraulics of rotary drill rigs is used. Semi-portable equipment
has been developed for remote site testing. Rigs can be mounted on trucks, tracked
vehicles, trailers, barges, or diving bells, depending on accessability. The capacity
of cone rigs varies from 100 to 200 kilo Newtons (kN) (11.2 to 22.4 tons). The
upper bound is the maximum allowable thrust on the cone penetration rods.
Electronic cone penetrometers have built in load cells to measure the tip and side
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CHAPTER 3
resistance simultaneously .Bonded strain gauges typically are used in the load cells
because of their simplicity and ruggedness. The load cells commonly have a range
of 90 kN (10 tons). For tip resistance and 9 KN (1 ton) for side resistance. The load
cell capacity can be varied, depending on the strength of the soils to be penetrated.
The load cells are usually connected by an electric cable passing through the drill
rods to a data acquisition system at the surface. Cordless models are also available
that transmit sonically and Memo cones that store the data internally until
retrieved at the surface. Data are recorded digitally, which greatly enhances the use
of CPT results in engineering applications. The data can be sent in daily by e-mail
to the engineer and geologist.
Nearly all electronic cone penetrometers are equipped with a pore pressure
element. This pore pressure sensor is typically located between the tip and the
friction sleeve. The element can record dynamic water pressure as the cone is
being pushed, as well as static water pressures during pauses in testing. The typical
capacity of the water pressure transducer is 2.2 KN (500 lb/in2), and the accuracy
of water pressure head is about 3 cm (0.1 foot). Cones are almost always
equipped with inclinometers. The inclinometers are used to monitor rod bending
during push and are an essential part of protecting the cone from damage. The
inclinometer can be monitored by computer, and pushing can be stopped if bending
is excessive. Cone rods can bend as much as 10 to 20 degrees. If the cone is used
to detect bedrock or hard layers, this error can be significant. The inclinometer is
not directional, so the error from bending can only be estimated.
3.4.2)
Data Obtainable by Cpt:
The CPT is primarily a logging tool and provides some of the most detailed
stratigraphic information of any penetration test. With electronic cones, data are
typically recorded at 5-cm-depth intervals, but data can be recorded at closer
spacings. Layers as thin as 10 mm can be detected using the CPT, but the tip
resistance can be influenced by softer or harder material in the layer below the
cone. Full tip resistance of an equivalent thicker layer may not be achieved. The
penetration resistance of the soil is a function of the drainage conditions during
penetration. In sands that are drained, the penetration resistance is high, but in
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CHAPTER 3
clays that are untrained, the penetration resistance is low. A typical CPT data plot
is shown in figure 3. CPT plots should show all recorded data (i.e., Tip Resistance,
QC, Sleeve Resistance, fs, Pore pressure, u, and for this example, cone inclination
and temperature). CPT data should be plotted to consistent scales. on a given
project so that the plots can be more easily evaluated. The CPT does not obtain a
soil sample. However, the soils may be classified by comparing the tip resistance
to the ratio of tip to sleeve resistance which is known as the friction ratio, Friction
ratio should also be shown on the summary plots. Commonly used relationships to
estimate the soil behavior type. Clay soils have low tip resistance and high
friction ratio, while sands have high tip resistance and low friction ratio. Mixed
soils fall in zones 4 through 7. There are also classification methods that
incorporate the dynamic pore water pressure generation. The CPT cannot exactly
Classify soil according to the Unified Soil Classification System. Experience at
many sites shows that soils give consistent signatures; and even though the soil
behavior type is generally correct, the soil types should be confirmed with a
sample boring. Soil behavior type prediction in the unsaturated zone is less reliable
but often still useful. The summary plot in figure 3 the soil behavior group on the
right side bars. Soil permeability can be estimated from CPT because the tip
resistance is a function of drainage during penetration. The permeability estimate is
generally within an order of magnitude, which is suitable for most groundwater
and seepage studies. Numerous correlations of CPT data to strength and
compressibility of soils have been developed. These correlations are based
primarily on tip resistance but are also supplemented by sleeve friction and
dynamic pore water pressure data. CPTs in clean sands have been performed in
large calibration chambers where the density and confining pressure have been
controlled. Based on the chamber data, the relative density and friction angle of
sand can be estimated using relationships.
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CPT Data sheet:
43
CHAPTER 3
(Chart No.A) Chart for estimating the soil behavior type)
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3.5)
Atterberg Limits:
Albert Atterberg was a Swedish chemist and agricultural scientist. Conducted

studies to identify the specific minerals that give a clayey soil its plastic nature
Stated that depending on the water content, soil may appear in four states: Solid
(no water) semi-solid (brittle, some water) plastic (moldable) liquid (fluid) In each
state the consistency and behavior of a soil is different and thus so are its
engineering properties. The boundary between each state can be defined based on a
change in the soil's behavior. The Atterberg limits refer to arbitrarily defined
boundaries between the liquid and plastic states, and between the plastic and brittle
states of grained soils, expressed as water content, in percentage. The liquid limit is
the water content at which a part of soil placed in a standard cup, cut by a standard
grooving tool, will flow together at the base of the groove when the cup is
subjected to 25 standard shocks. The one-point liquid limit test is usually carried
out and distilled water may be added during soil mixing to achieve a desired
consistency.
Trial No.
No. of blows
12
20
30
40
Container no.
V1
V2
V3
V4
Wet sample wt .+container
69.3
74.6
78.4
75.6
Dry sample wt. +container
57.7
62.3
66.1
64.9
Wt. of container
11.88
11.95
13.76
16.69
(Table-3.2)
3.5-1) Liquid limit:
The liquid limit (LL) is the water content where a soil changes from liquid to
plastic behavior. Determined using a Casagrande cup (lab) or cone penetrometer
(field).The liquid limit defines the boundary between plastic and viscous fluid
states. It is determined using a standard "Liquid Limit Device," which drops a
shallow cupful of soil 1 cm consistently. When a groove cut through the sample
closes 1/2", the number of drops is recorded and a moisture content sample
processed. Repeating the procedure for a total of four drop-count ranges provides
enough data to plot on a semi-log scale. From the plot, the moisture content at 25
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CHAPTER 3
drops defines the Liquid Limit. Apparatus used Liquid

Limit Device with Casagrande grooving tool Mixing bowl
Spatula Squirt bottle Water content cups and microwave
Balance sensitive to 0.01 gm Drying lamp and fan if
material is too wet.
Casagrande cup
(Fig3.4 water content vs. No. of Blows,)

3.5-2) Plastic Limits (PL):
The plastic limit defines the boundary between nonplastic and plastic states. It is determined simply by
rolling a thread of soil and adjusting the moisture
content until it breaks at 1/8 inch diameter.
Apparatus used is large glass plate, Water content
can large enough to hold a water content cup.
Plastic limit apparatus
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3.5-3) Shrinkage limit:
The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where further loss of moisture will
not result in any more volume reduction. The test to determine the shrinkage limit
is ASTM International D4943. The shrinkage limit is much less commonly used
than the liquid and plastic limits. It is the minimum water content at which a soil is
still in saturated condition. The shrinkage limit (SL) is the water content where
further loss of moisture will not result in any more volume reduction
3.5-4) Plasticity index:
The plasticity index (PI) is a measure of the plasticity of a soil. The plasticity index
is the size of the range of water contents where the soil exhibits plastic properties.
The PI is the difference between the liquid limit and the plastic limit (PI = LL-PL).
Soils with a high PI tend to be clay, those with a lower PI tend to be silt, and those
with a PI of 0 (non-plastic) tend to have little or no silt or clay.
PI and their meanings
0 - Nonplastic
(1-5)- Slightly plastic
(5-10) - Low plasticity
(10-20) - Medium plasticity
(20-40) - High plasticity
>40 Very high plasticity
3.6)
Chemical tests on soil: Taking a Soil Sample:
A soil sample may be taken at any time of year, although spring and fall sampling
are usually the most convenient. The results of a test are no better than the sample
sent to the laboratory. The sample must be representative of the yard or garden
being considered. Gardeners who try to shortcut the sampling procedure will not
receive a reliable reading.
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CHAPTER 3
3.6-1) SULPHATE CONTENT DETERMINATION:
General description and specifications this apparatus is

used to determine the sulphate content of ground water
and aqueous soil extracts. It consists of an ion
exchange column 400 mm long and 10 mm dia., a
swan-neck outlet and a 1500 ml round bottom flask to
give a constant head. The apparatus is supplied
assembled on a stand.
(Sulphate test strips. Pack of 100)
3.6-2) CHLORIDE CONTENT:
This test method provides a measurement of water soluble chloride salts present in
an aggregate. It is based on the Volhard method. Pack of 50 strips. Chloride ions
are one of the major inorganic anions in water and wastewater. The kit is supplied
complete with 30 and 100 ml calibrated vessels, reagents, graduated syringe with
pipette tip and instructions.
3 . 6 - 3) S oi l S al i ni ty Measu re men ts :
Problems due to soil salinity and sodicity in soil are commonly evaluated by
laboratory testing. The following laboratory measurements are typically used to
determine the extent of these problems:
Electrical Conductivity (EC):
Measures the ability of the soil solution to conduct electricity and is expressed in
decisiemens per meter (dS/m, which is equivalent to mmhos/cm). Because pure
water is a poor conductor of electricity, increases in soluble salts result in
proportional increases in the solution EC. The standard procedure for salinity
testing is to measure EC of a solution extracted from a soil wetted to a "saturation
paste." According to U.S. Salinity Laboratory Staff (1954), a saline soil has an EC
of the saturated paste extract of more than 4 dS/m, a value that corresponds to
approximately 40 mmol salts per liter. Crops vary in their tolerance to salinity and
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CHAPTER 3
some may be adversely affected at ECs less than 4 dS/m. Salt tolerances are known
for common crops. For example, peach is sensitive, whereas cotton is more salt
tolerant (Maas, 1990). Beets and asparagus are very tolerant of salinity.
Total Soluble Salts (TSS):
Refers to the total amount of soluble salts in a soil-saturated paste extract
expressed in parts per million or milligrams per liter (ppm or mg/L).A linear
relationship exists between TSS and EC within a certain range that can be useful to
closely estimate soluble salts in a soil solution or extract. The ratio of TSS to EC of
various salt solutions ranges from 550 to 700 ppm per dS/m. Sodium chloride, the
most common salt, has a TSS of 640 ppm per dS/m. So if EC is known, TSS can
be estimated using the formula below:
TSS
= EC
or 640
3.6-4) PH of Soil:
The standard method of measuring soil pH is with a suspension of part air-dry soil
by weight to 5 parts liquid by volume. The recommended liquid is 0.01M CaCl2
(calcium chloride). Results in this case are reported as pH (CaCl2). Distilled water
is sometimes used in place of calcium chloride, in which case results are reported
as pH (water). Soil tested in CaCl2 solution gives pH values about 0.50.8 lower
than the same soil tested in water. Interpreting soil pH the pH (CaCl2) of many
vegetable-growing soils can vary down the profile and between sites, from strongly
acid (less than 5) through to strongly alkaline (greater than 8). Values of pH
between 5 and 8 are very common.A low pH (less than 5) is detrimental to plant
growth, not because of the acidity itself, but because of imbalances in nutrient
levels. Phosphate is poorly available, and aluminum and/or manganese may be
present in toxic concentrations. Lime is needed to raise the pH. A pH greater than 8
indicates possible high levels of exchangeable sodium or magnesium, and therefore
a tendency for the clay to disperse (producing poor soil structure). Phosphate, iron,
zinc and manganese are poorly available. A desirable pH (CaCl2) range for
construction is 5.5 to 7.5.
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CHAPTER 3
S.NO. BH.NO. SAMPLE
DEPTH
(METER)
TOTAL
CHLORIDE SULPHATE PH
SALT
CONTENT CONTENT
CONTENT
(%)
(%)
BH-1
SPT-1
4.5
0.079
0.034
0.0220
6.8
BH-2
DS-3
3.0
0.067
0.029
0.0190
6.5
Table: 3.3
3.7)
Particle Size Analysis:
Particle size analysis, particle size measurement, or simply particle sizing is the
collective name of the technical procedures, or laboratory techniques which
determines the size range, and/or the average, or mean size of the particles in a
powder sample. Particle size analysis will be performed by means of sieving
(ASTM D 422). For oven-dry materials, sieving is carried out for particles that are
being retained on a 0.063 mm sieve. In sieve analysis, the mass of soil retained on
each sieve is determined and expressed as a percentage of the total mass of the
sample. The particle size is plotted on a logarithmic scale so that two soils having
the same degree of uniformity are represented by curves of the distribution plot. In
Hydrometer analysis is based on the principle of sedimentation of soil grains in
water. When a soil specimen is dispersed in water, the particles settle at different
velocities, depending on their shape, size, and weight. For simplicity, it is assumed
that soil particles are spheres and the velocity of soil particles can be express by
Stokes law.
3.7-1) Sieve Analysis Test (Dried sample):
The Standard grain size analysis test determines the relative proportions of
different grain sizes as they are distributed among certain size ranges. The grain
size analysis is widely used in classification of soils. The data obtained from grain
size distribution curves is used in the design of filters for earth dams and to
determine suitability of soil for road construction, air field, Bridges etc.
Information obtained from grain size analysis can be used to predict soil water
movement although permeability tests are more generally used.
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CHAPTER 3
Apparatus Required:
Stack of Sieves including pan and cover
Balance (with accuracy to 0.01 g)
Rubber pestle and Mortar ( for crushing the soil if lumped or
conglomerated)
Mechanical sieve shaker
Oven
The balance to be used should be sensitive to the extent of 0.1% of total weight
of sample taken.
(SieveAnalysisApparatus)
Test Procedure:
Take a representative oven dried sample of soil that weighs about 500 g.
this is normally used for soil samples the greatest particle size of which is
4.75 mm)
If soil particles are lumped or conglomerated crush the lumped and not the
particles using the pestle and mortar.
Determine the mass of sample accurately. Wt (g)
Prepare a stack of sieves. Sieves having larger opening sizes (i.e. lower
numbers) are placed above the ones having smaller opening sizes (i.e.
higher numbers). The very last sieve is #200 and a pan is placed under it to
collect the portion of soil passing #200 sieves. Here is a full set of sieves.
(#s 4 and 200 should always be included)
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Make sure sieves are clean; if many soil particles are stuck in the openings
try to poke them out using brush.
Weigh all sieves and the pan separately. (Fill in column 3)
Pour the soil from step 3 into the stack of sieves from the top and place the
cover, put the stack in the sieve shaker and fix the clamps, adjust the time
on 10 to 15 minutes and get the shaker going.
Stop the sieve shaker and measure the mass of each sieve + retained soil.
(Fill in column 4).
Data:
Original soil + Container = 500gm
Oven Dried Soil + Container = 496gm
Weight of container =215gm.
Before wash weight of a soil + Container = 415gm.
After wash weight of soil + container = 397gm.
Total weight of a soil = 285gm.
Dry soil = 281gm.
Wt.Soil+Cont
Wt.
Wt.Retained
Wt.passing
(gm)
Retained
3/8
3.9
3.9
1.9
98.1
218.9
4.1
96
223
11.3
19.
9.65
90.35
16
234.3
23
42
21.15
78.89
30
257.3
41.7
84
42
58
50
299
66.6
150
75.3
24.7
100
365.6
28.9
178.9
89.75
10.25
200
394
15.2
193.1
92
Sieve No.
C.wt
Table No.3.4
52
CHAPTER 3
( . . )
. 100
The table shows the upper limit and the lower limit of the aggregate as specified in standards
Interpretation and Reporting the Results:
Table no.3.5
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Draw graph of log sieve size vs. % finer. The graph is known as grading curve.
Corresponding to 10%, 30% and 60% finer, obtain diameters from graph these are
D10, D30, D60, using these obtain Cc and Cu which further represent how well the
soil is graded i.e. whether the soil is well-graded, gap-graded or poorly graded.
According to clause 6201 of Federal Ministry of Works and Housing (F.M.W & H)
Specification Requirement, for a sample to be used as both sub grade/fill and base,
the percentage by weight passing the No.200 sieve (75m) shall be less than but
not greater than 35%. And if the percentage passing sieve No. 200 for a Lateritic
base course is greater than 35%, no need for further tests and material
3.7-2) Wet Sieve Analysis:
1. After the material in the pan or tray passing the No. 4 (4.75mm) sieve has
been weighed and the weight recorded on the Work Sheet, obtain a
representative portion weighing 500 (+/-25) grams by use of a sand
splitter. Use this portion of the sample for the wet sieve analysis. Use the
remaining split portion to obtain material for the plasticity test. (AASHTO
T 90).
2. Place the material passing the No. 4 (4.75mm) sieve obtained under Section
1005.4.A in a wide mouth 2 quart glass or 2000 ml Erlenmeyer plastic flask
or other suitable container and cover it with water. If using a dispersing
agent agitate and allow to soak for 30 minutes.
3. Before the sieves are used, clean them thoroughly and examine them to
make certain there are no breaks in the sieve cloth.
4. After soaking for 30 minutes, place a rubber stopper or lid on the container
and vigorously shake the portion for test to bring the fine material into
suspension. Decant the wash water immediately over nested No. 16
(1.18mm) and No. 200 (75m) sieves. When decanting, exercise care to
prevent spilling the wash water and particles not in suspension.
5. Pour the excess water from the jar or plastic container through the nested
sieves and wash with a spray of water. A spray head or bar on the sink will
54
CHAPTER 3
facilitate this operation. Continue washing until the water coming through
the sieves is clear. After washing, dry
the material in an oven at 2309o F to a
constant weight. When dry, weigh the
material retained on each sieve to the
nearest 0.1 gram and record these
weights on the Work Sheet. Calculate
the
percentages as described in
Section 1005.5.C.
Wet sieve analysis apparatus
3.7-3) Hydrometer Analysis:
1) Take the fine soil from the bottom pan of the sieve set, place it into a
beaker,
and
add
125
mL
of
the
dispersing
agent
(sodium
hexametaphosphate (40 g/L)) solution. Stir the mixture until the soil is
thoroughly wet. Let the soil soak for at least ten minutes.
2) While the soil is soaking, add 125mL of dispersing agent into the control
cylinder and fill it with distilled water to the mark. Take the reading at the
top of the meniscus formed by the hydrometer stem and the control
solution. A reading less than zero is recorded as a negative (-) correction
and a reading between zero and sixty are recorded as a positive (+)
correction. This reading is called the zero correction. The meniscus
correction is the difference between the top of the meniscus and the level of
the solution in the control jar (Usually about +1). Shake the control
cylinder in such a way that the contents are mixed thoroughly. Insert the
hydrometer an thermometer into the control cylinder and note the zero
correction and temperature respectively.
3) Transfer the soil slurry into a mixer by adding more distilled water, if
4) Necessary, until mixing cup is at least half full. Then mix the solution for a
period of two minutes.
55
CHAPTER 3
5) Immediately transfer the soil slurry into the empty sedimentation cylinder.
Add distilled water up to the mark.
6) Cover the open end of the cylinder with a stopper and secure it with the
palm of your hand. Then turn the cylinder upside down and back upright
for a period of one minute. (The cylinder should be inverted approximately
30 times during the minute.)
7) Set the cylinder down and record the time. Remove the stopper from the
cylinder. After an elapsed time of one minute and forty seconds, very
slowly and carefully insert the hydrometer for the first reading. (Note: It
should take about ten seconds to insert or remove the
8) Hydrometer to minimize any disturbance, and the release of the hydrometer
should be made as close to the reading depth as possible to avoid excessive
bobbing).
9) The reading is taken by observing the top of the meniscus formed by the
suspension and the hydrometer stem. The hydrometer is removed slowly
and placed back into the control cylinder. Very gently spin it in control
cylinder to remove any particles that may have adhered.
10) Take hydrometer readings after elapsed time of 2 and 5, 8, 15, 30, 60
Figure3.5 (Engineering Properties of Soils Based on Laboratory Testing hydrometer Analysis)
56
CHAPTER 3
Test Date = June, 15, 2013

Tested By = Geo fall 2009, Group C
Hydrometer Number (if known) =152 H
Specific Gravity of Solids = 2.56
Dispersing Agent = Sodium Hexametaphosphate
Weight of Soil Sample = 50. 0gm
Zero Correction = +6 Meniscus Correction = +1
Values of Effective Depth Based on Hydrometer and Sedimentation Cylinder of Specific Sizes
Table No.3.6
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CHAPTER 3
3.8)
Unit Weight and Water Content Determination:
As a routine laboratory test, unit weights of soils will be determined based on the
mass of soil in a standard volume steel cylinder with cutting edge. The unit weight
refers to the unit weight of the soil at the sampled water content. The dry unit
weight is determined from the mass and the water content of the specimen. Water
content (ASTM D 2216) is determined by oven-drying a moist/wet soil at a
constant temperature of 105 C for 18 - 24 hours. The difference in mass before
and after drying is used as the mass of water in the specimen, while the mass of
remaining material is used as the mass of solid particles. The ratio between the
mass of water and the mass of solid particles is the water content of the soil
material.
Test Procedure:
Extrude the soil sample from the cylinder using the extruder.
Cut a representative soil specimen from the extruded sample.
Determine and record the length (L), diameter (D) and mass (Mt) of the soil
specimen.
Determine and record the moisture content of the soil (w).
Figure 3.6(Straightedge, Balance, Moisture can, Drying oven, Vernier caliper)
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CHAPTER 3
(3.9)
DIRECT SHEAR TEST:
To determine shear strength parameters of the given soil sample by Direct Shear
Test.
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
a) Special:
Shear test frame housing the motor, loading yoke, etc.
Shear box of internal dimension 60 mm x 60 mm x 25 mm.
Water jacket for shear box.
Metallic Grid plates.
Base plate
Porous stones
Loading pad.
Proving ring of capacity 200 Kgf.
Slotted weights to impart appropriate normal stress on soil sample.
b) General:
Balance of capacity 1 Kg and sensitivity 0.1 gms.
Scale.
Dial Gauge of sensitivity 0.01 mm
THEORY:
Shear strength of a soil is the maximum resistance to shearing stress at failure on
the failure plane.
Shear strength is composed of:
Internal friction which is the resistance due to friction between individual
particles at their contact points and interlocking of particles. This
interlocking strength is indicated through parameter .
59
CHAPTER 3
Cohesion which resistances due to inter-particle force which tend hold the
particles together in a soil mass. The indicative parameter is called
Cohesion intercept (c).
Coulomb has represented the shear strength of soil by the equation:
, = +
Where,
= Shear strength of soil = shear stress at failure.
C= Cohesion intercepts.
= Total normal stress on the failure plane
= Angle of internal friction or shearing resistance
The parameters c and are not constant for a given type of soil but depends in its
degree of saturation, drainage conditions and the condition of laboratory testing. In
direct shear test, the sample is sheared along the horizontal plane. This indicates
that the failure plane is horizontal. The normal stress, on this plane is the external
vertical load divided by the corrected area of the soil sample. The shear stress at
failure is the external lateral load divided by the corrected of soil sample.
Purpose:
This test is performed to determine the consolidated-drained shear strength of a
sandy to silty soil. The shear strength is one of the most important engineering
properties of a soil, because it is required whenever a structure is dependent on the
soils shearing resistance. The shear strength is needed for engineering situations
such as determining the stability of slopes or cuts, finding the bearing capacity for
foundations, and calculating the pressure exerted by a soil on a retaining wall.
Standard Reference:
ASTM D 3080 - Standard Test Method for Direct Shear Test of Soils Under
Consolidated Drained Conditions.
60
CHAPTER 3
The graphical representation of the above equation gives a straight line called
Failure envelope.
(Figure no 3.7 (Direct shear box apparatus)
61
CHAPTER 3
APPLICATION:
The purpose of direct shear test is to get the ultimate shear resistance, peak shear
resistance, cohesion, angle of shearing resistance and stress-strain characteristics of
the soils. Shear parameters are used in the design of earthen dams and
embankments. These are used in calculating the bearing capacity of soil-foundation
systems, these parameter help in estimating the earth pressures behind the retaining
walls. The values of these parameters are also used in checking the stability to
natural slopes, cuts and fills.
PROCEDURE:
Prepare a soil specimen of size 60 mm * 60mm* 25 mm either from
undisturbed soil sample or from compacted or remoulded sample. Soil
specimen may also be directly prepared in the box by compaction.
Fix the upper part of the box to the lower box by fixing screws. Attach the
base plate to the lower part.
Place the porous stone in the box.
Transfer the soil specimen prepared into the box.
Place the upper grid, porous stone and loading pad in the order on soil
specimen.
Place the box inside the container and mount it on loading frame.
Bring the upper half of the box in contact with the proving ring assembly.
Contact is observed by the slight movement of proving ring dial gauge
needle.
Mount the loading yoke on the ball placed on the loading pad.
Put the weight on the loading yoke to apply a given value of normal stress
intensity. Add the weight of the yoke also in the estimation of normal stress
intensity.
Remove the fixing screws from the box and raise slightly the upper box
with the help of the spacing screws. Remove the spacing screws also.
Adjust the entire dial gauge to read zero.
Shear load is applied at constant rate of strain.
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CHAPTER 3
Record the readings of proving ring and dial readings at a fixed interval.
Continue the observations till the specimen fails.
Repeat the test on the identical specimen under increasing normal stress
and record the corresponding reading.
3.10) PILE
LOAD TESTS:
The estimation of pile load capacity and Settlement under a load is based on the
results of field investigations, laboratory Testing and the empirical and semi
empirical methods. These estimated values should then be confirmed by field pile
load tests. Pile load tests, in practice, are normally executed in two alternative
ways.
1) Test Pile:
Preliminary pile design is first carried out on the basis of site Investigations,
laboratory soil testing, and office study. Pile load tests are then carried out to refine
and finalize the design. For these conditions, the Test piles are generally tested to
failure.
2) Test on a Working Pile:
In areas where previous experience is available, pile design is carried out based on
the site investigations, laboratory soil testing, and office study. Pile load tests are
then carried out on randomly selected actual piles to check the pile design
capacities. In these situations, the piles are generally tested to two times the design
capacity.
The equipment and test procedures for these two alternatives are essentially
similar. The main difference is the level of final loading. Therefore, the details of
tests presented below are applicable for both of the tests listed above. This chapter
presents the details of pile load test for axial compression, pullout, and lateral and
dynamic loads.
Load Application Arrangements:
A typical example of axial compression load application arrangement consists of
two anchor piles located on either side of a test pile. In order to minimize the
interference between test and anchor piles, a minimum distance of five times the
pile diameter is maintained between the piles. A reaction beam is placed on top of
the anchor piles and the test pile is loaded by utilizing a hydraulic jack placed
63
CHAPTER 3
centrally on top of the test pile. This results in applying compressive load on the
test pile and the tensile load on the anchor piles. A slightly different loading
arrangement is an alternate loading arrangement such as a timber crib and weights
can also be used in lieu of the anchor pile and reaction beam system.
Instruments for Measuring the Movements:
The two main types of movement measurements in a pile load test are pile butt
axial movement measurement and incremental strain measurements along the pile
length. Pile butt axial movement measurements are required in all pile load tests.
The incremental strain measurements are used to determine the distribution of load
Transfer from the pile to the soil and are generally considered as an optional
measurement feature.
3.10.1) Pile Butt Axial Movement:
The most common types of instruments used to measure pile butt or head axial
movement are the dial gauges, the wire, mirror and scale arrangement, and the
surveyors level system.
3.10.2) DIAL GAUGES:
In the dial gauge measuring system, two parallel reference beams, one on each side
of the test pile, are independently supported on firm supports. These supports are
located at least 8 ft (2.5 m) away from the test beam. Reference beams should be
stiff to support the instruments and should be of such rigidity that excessive
vibrations in readings do not occur. It is recommended that reference beams should
be of timber so that temperature variations do not affect the readings. If steel
beams are used then it should be ensured that one end of each beam is free to move
horizontally to accommodate beam length changes with temperature variations. A
minimum of two dial gauges, approximately equal distance and on opposite sides
of the test pile, should be mounted on the reference beams Recommends that the
two dial gauges must be located on a diameter of the pile cross section and placed
at equal radial distances. In this manner, the two dial readings can be averaged to
obtain the deflection of the center of the pile. Dial gauges should have at least a
2in. (50mm) travel. Longer gauge stems should be provided where larger
movement is anticipated. All gauges should also have a precision of at least 0.01
in. (0.25 mm). Figure 9.3(a) presents this measuring arrangement schematically.
64
CHAPTER 3
(Pile load test apparatus)
3.10.3) THE WIRE, MIRROR, AND SCALE ARRANGEMENT:
The wire, mirror, and scale system consists of two parallel wires, one on each side
of the test pile and supported on both ends as far as practicable from anchor piles.
Wires should be tightly anchored at the supports so that tension is maintained
throughout the test. Piano wires or equivalent type are generally recommended.
Each wire passes across the face of the test pile and is located at about 1 in. (25
mm) away from the face. A mirror and a scale are mounted on the face of the pile
opposite to the wire. The pile butt axial movements can be recorded from the
readings of the scale directly by lining up the wire and its image in the mirror.
Davisson (1970) recommends the use of two dial gauges and two wire-scale mirror
systems at right angles to each other.
3.10.4) SURVEYORS LEVEL SYSTEM A:
Surveyors level is generally used for measuring the axial movement as a check
rather than as a primary means of movement measurement. The system consists of
a surveyors level stationed at least 10 pile butt diameters from both the test and
the reaction piles. Level Shots are then taken on a reference scale fixed to the side
of the test pile as these readings are referenced to a permanent bench mark located
outside the load test area.
65
CHAPTER 3
3.10.5) TELLTALE MEASURING SYSTEMS:
Telltales or strain rods normally consist of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) tubings

extended to steel end plates embedded inside a concrete pile or welded on the steel
pile at various locations along the pile length. Inside the PVC tubing, a stainless
steel rod is installed extending from the end plate to the top of the pile. Both the
PVC tube and the steel rod extend to the top of pile. The steel rod must be allowed
to move freely in the tube. The movement of the top of each telltale or strain rod
relative to the top of the test pile is measured with a dial gauge having 0.001 in.
(0.025mm) sensitivity.
Normally, telltale readings are referenced to the top of the pile. By noting the
location of the specific telltale rod anchor plate and by measuring the relative
movement of the individual rod, elastic shortening of pile at that location can be
obtained. With this information the load in the pile at the midpoint between two
telltale anchor plates separated by a distance L can be obtained by the following
relationship:
Where
Qua = load in the pile midway between two anchor plates
A = cross section area of the pile
L = distance along the pile between the two telltale anchor plates
E = modulus of elasticity of the pile material
. AL = difference in movement between two telltale rods
3.10.6) STRAIN GAUGE MEASURING SYSTEMS:
Electric strain gauges or vibrating wire strain gauges can be mounted along the pile
length at various locations before the pile is installed. In cast-in-place drilled piles,
these gauges can be tied up with the reinforcing bars and wires can be brought up
through a PVC casing. In driven piles, the strain gauges and the wire should be
properly protected.
66

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CHAPTER 3

SOIL INVESTIGATION TESTS METHODOLOGY

Soil Investigation Tests Methodology

Department of Geological Engineering BUITEMS Quetta

SOIL INVESTIGATION TESTS METHODOLOGY

Drilling or driving a hole into the earth's surface.

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Standard penetration test:

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SOIL INVESTIGATION TESTS METHODOLOGY

Information Obtainable by SPT:

Very 0-4 Very loose 24 Soft

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Cone Penetration Test:

(Figure3-2.Mechanical cone penetrometers)

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(Figure 3.3 cone penetrometers apparatus)

The procedures for performing CPTs are standardized in Reclamation procedures

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Data Obtainable by Cpt:

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CPT Data sheet:

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(Chart No.A) Chart for estimating the soil behavior type)

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Albert Atterberg was a Swedish chemist and agricultural scientist. Conducted

Wet sample wt .+container

Dry sample wt. +container

3.5-1) Liquid limit:

SOIL INVESTIGATION TESTS METHODOLOGY

drops defines the Liquid Limit. Apparatus used Liquid

(Fig3.4 water content vs. No. of Blows,)

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Plastic limit apparatus

SOIL INVESTIGATION TESTS METHODOLOGY

3.5-3) Shrinkage limit:

Chemical tests on soil: Taking a Soil Sample:

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3.6-1) SULPHATE CONTENT DETERMINATION:

General description and specifications this apparatus is

3.6-2) CHLORIDE CONTENT:

SOIL INVESTIGATION TESTS METHODOLOGY

SOIL INVESTIGATION TESTS METHODOLOGY

S.NO. BH.NO. SAMPLE

Particle Size Analysis:

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