Most Common Steels used in Process Piping Industry: A Literature

Introduction:
The most common material used in Hydrocarbon inductries are various grades of steel. This
article will provide a short write up on common Steels.
Carbon Steel (Temperature Range -29 degree centigrade(C) to 427 degree C):
This is the most common and cheapest material used in process plants. Carbon steels are used in
most general refinery applications. It is routinely used for most organic chemicals and neutral or
basic aqueous solutions at moderate temperatures. Carbon steels are extensively used in
temperature range of (-) 29 degee centigrade to 427 degee centigrade
Low Temperature Carbon steel (LTCS-Temp range -45.5 degree C to 427 degree C) can be
used to a low temperature of (- 45.5)degree centigrade.
Killed Carbon Steel are defined as those which are thoroughly deoxidized during melting
process. Deoxidation is accomplished by use of silicon, manganeese and aluminium additions to
combine with dissolved gases, usually oxygen, during steel making. This results in cleaner, better
qualtity steel which has fewer gas pockets and inclusions. Killed carbon steel is specified for
major equipment in the following services to minimise the possibility or extent of hydrogen
blistering and hydrogen embrittlement:

where hydrogen is a major component in the process stream.

where hydrogen sulphied H2S is present with an aqueous phase or where liquid water
containing H2S is present.

Process streams containing any amount of Hydro flouoric acid (HF), boron trifluoride
(BF3) or (BF) compounds; or

Monoethanolamine (MEA) and diethanolamine (DEA) in solutions of greater than 5

weight percent.

Low Alloy Steel (Temperature range -29 degree C to 593 degree C):
Low Alloy Steels contain one or more alloying elements to improve mechanical or corrosion
resisting properties of carbon steel. Nickel increases toughness and improves low temperature
properties & corrosion resistance. Chromium and silicon improve hardness, abrasion resistance,
corrosion resistance and resistance to oxidation. Molybdnum provides strength at elevated
temperatures. Some of the low alloy steels are listed below.

Carbon 1/2% Moly and Manganese 1/2% Moly: These low alloy steels are used for
higher temperature services and most frequently for intermediate temperatures for its
resistance to hydrogen attack. They have the same maximum temperature limitation as killed
steel (ASME Code 1000 deg. F) but the strength above 700 deg.F is substantially greater.

1% chrome 1/2% Moly and 1 1/4% Chrome 1/2% Moly: These alloys are used for
higher reistance to hydrogen attack and sulphur corrosion. They are also used for services
where temperatures are above the rated temperature for C 1/2 Mo steel.

2 1/4 Chrome 1% Moly and 3% chrome 1% Moly: These alloys have the same uses
as 1 1/4% Cr, but have greater resistance to hydrogen attack and higher strength at elevated
temperature.

5% chrome 1/2% Moly: This alloy is used most frequently for protection against
combined sulphur attack at temperatures above 550 deg.F. Its resistance to hydrogen attack is
better than 2 1/4% Cr_ 1% Moly.

9% Chrome 1% Moly: This alloy is generally limited to heater tubes. It has a higher
reistance to high sulphur stocks at elevated temperatures. It also has a maximum allowable
metal temperature in oxidising atmospheres.
Stainless Steel (Temperature range -257 degree C to 538 degree C):
They are heat & corrosion resistant, noncontaminating and easily fabricated into complex shapes.
There are three groups of Stainless steels. 1) Martensitic, 2) Ferritic & 3) Austenitic.

1.

Martensitic stainless steel : Martensitic alloys contain 12-20 percent chromium with
controlled amount of carbon and other additives.Type 410 is a typical member of this group.
These alloys can be hardened by heat treatment, which can increase tensile strength.
Corrosion resistance is inferior to Austenitc Stainless steels and these are generally used in
mild corrosive environments.
2.
Ferritic stainless steel: Ferritic steels contain 15-30 percent chromium with low carbon
content( 0.1percent). The higher chromium content improves its corrosion resistance. A
typical member of this group is Type 430. The strength of these can be increased by cold
working but not by heat treatment. Type 430 is widely used in nitric acid plants. In addition,
it is very resistant to scaling and high temp oxidation upto 800 degree cent.
3.
Austenitic stainless steel: Austenitic steels are the most corrosion resistant of the three
groups. These steels contain 16-26 percent chromium 6-22 percent nickel. Carbon is kept
low(0.08 percent max) to minimize carbide precipitation. Welding may cause chromium
carbide precipitation, which deplete the alloy of some chromium and lowers its corrosion
resistance in some specific environments, notably nitric acid. The carbide precipitation can
be eliminated by heat treatment(solution annealing). To avoid precipitation special steels
stabilized with titanium, niobium, or tantalum have been developed(Types 321,347 & 348).
Another approach to the problem is the use of low carbon stainless steel such as types 304L
& 316L with .03 percent max carbon.
The addition of molybdenum to austenitic alloy(types 316, 316L) provides generally better
corrosion resistance and improved resistance to pitting.
The chromium-nickel steels, particularly the 18-8 alloys, perform best under oxidizing
conditions, since the resistance depends on an oxide film on the surface of the alloy. Reducing
conditions and chloride ions destroy this and bring on rapid attack. Chloride ions tend to cause
pitting and crevice corrosion. When combined with high tensile stresses they can cause stresscorrosion cracking.The detailed list of commonly used steels in hydrocarbon industries is given
in following table:

Common Non Ferrous Materials used in Process Piping Industry

In comparison with metallic materials, the use of plastics is limited to relatively moderate
temperatures and pressures [230degC (450degF) is considered high for plastics]. Plastics are also
less resistant to mechanical abuse and have high expansion rates, low strengths (thermoplastics)
and only fair resistance to solvents. However, they are lightweight, are good thermal and
electrical insulators, are easy to fabricate and install, and have low friction factors. Since plastics
do not corrode in the electrochemical sense, they offer another advantage over metals. The

important thermoplastics used commercially are polyethylene, polyvinyl chloride (PVC),

fluorocarbons (Teflon, Halar, Kel-F, Kynar) and polypropylene. Important thermosetting plastics
are general-purpose polyester glass reinforced, bisphenol-based polyester glass, epoxy glass,
vinyl ester glass, furan and phenolic glass, and asbestos reinforced. While using non-metallic
piping, viz HDPE, PVC, FRP etc, the designer shall take care of the service, pressure &
temperature. Manufacturers recommendation shall be taken into account.
Thermoplastics:
The most chemical-resistant plastic commercially available today is tetrafluoroethylene or TFE
(Teflon). This thermoplastic is practically unaffected by all alkalies and acids except fluorine and
chlorine gas at elevated temperatures and molten metals. It retains its properties up to 260 deg C
(500 deg F). Perfluoroalkoxy, or PFA (Teflon), has the general properties and chemical resistance
of FEP at a temperature approaching 300 deg C (600 deg F). Polyethylene is the lowest cost
plastic commercially available. Mechanical properties are generally poor, particularly above 50
deg C (120 deg F), and pipe must be fully supported. Carbon-filled grades are resistant to
sunlight and weathering. Polypropylene has a chemical resistance about the same as that of
polyethylene, but it can be used at 120 deg C (250 deg F).
Thermosetting plastics:
Among the thermosetting materials are phenolic plastics filled with asbestos, carbon or graphite,
glass, and silica. Relatively low cost, good mechanical properties, and chemical resistance
(except against strong alkalies) make phenolics popular for chemical equipment. Furan plastics
filled with asbestos and glass have much better alkali resistance than phenolic resins. Polyester
resins reinforced with fibreglass, have good strength and good chemical resistance except to
alkalies. Epoxies reinforced with fibreglass have very high strengths and resistance to heat. The
chemical resistance of the epoxy resin is excellent in non-oxidizing and weak acids but not good
against strong acids. Alkaline resistance is excellent in weak solutions.
Rubber and elastomers:
Rubber and elastomers are widely used as lining materials. The ability to bond natural rubber to
itself and to steel makes it ideal for lining tanks. Natural rubber is resistant to dilute mineral
acids, alkalies and salts, but oxidizing media, oils and most organic solvents will attack it. Hard
rubber is made by adding 25 percent or more of sulphur to natural or synthetic rubber and, as
such, is both hard and strong. Chloroprene or neoprene rubber is resistant to attack by ozone,
sunlight, oils, gasoline and aromatic or hydrogenated solvents, but is easily permeated by water,
thus limiting its use as a tank lining. Nitrile rubber is known for resistance to oils and solvents.
Butyl rubbers resistance to dilute mineral acids and alkalies is exceptional. Hypalon has
outstanding resistance to ozone and oxidizing agents except fuming nitric and sulphuric acids.

Fluoroelastomers (Viton-A, Kel-F, Kalrez) combine excellent chemical and temperature

resistance.
Medium Alloys:
A group of (mostly) proprietry alloys with somewhat better corrosion resistance than stainless
steels are called medium alloys. A popular member of this group is 20alloy. Made by a number
of companies under various trade names. Durimet 20, Carpenter 20 are a few names. This alloy
was originally developed to fill the need for a material with sulphuric resistance superior to
stainless steels. Other members of this group are Incoloy 825 and Hastelloy G-3 . These alloys
have extensive applications in sulphuric acid systems. Because of their increased nickel and
moly contents they are more tolerant of chloride-ion contamination than standard stainless steels.
The nickel content decreases the risk of stress-corrosion cracking and molybdenum improves
resistance to crevice corrosion and pitting.
High alloys:
The group of materials called high alloys all contain relatively large percentage ofNickel.
Hastelloy B2 contains 61% Nickel & 28% Mo. The alloy has unusually very high resistance to
all concentrations of HCL at all temperatures in the absence of oxidizing agents. Other materials
of this group are Chlorimet 2 & Hastelloy C-276.
Nickel & Nickel alloys :
The metal is widely used for handling alkalies particularly in handling and storing caustic soda.
Neutral alkaline solutions, seawater and mild atmospheric conditions do not affect nickel. A large
number of nickel based alloys are commercially available. One of the best known out of these is
monel 400 with 67% Ni and 30 % Copper. This Ni-Cu alloy is ductile and tough. Its corrosion
resistance is better than its components, being more resistant than nickel in reducing
environments and more resistant than copper in oxidizing environments.
Copper and copper alloys:
Copper and its alloys are widely used in chemical processing, particularly when heat and
thermal conductivity is very important. Main copper alloys are brasses(Cu-Zn), Bronzes( Cu- Sn)
and Cupronickels. Some of the bronzes are very popular in process industry , like Aluminium
and silicon bronzes because they combine good strength with corrosion resistance. Cupronickels
have 10-30% nickel and have become very popular because it has the highest corrosion
resistance of all copper alloys.This finds its application in heat-exchanger tubing and its
resistance to seawater is especially outstanding.

Titanium:
Titanium has become increasingly important as a construction material. It is strong and of
medium weight. Corrosion resistance is very superior in oxidizing and mild reducing media.
Titanium is usually not bothered by impingement attack, crevice corrosion and pitting attack in
sea water. Its general resistance to sea water is excellent.
The detailed list of commonly used non ferrous materials in hydrocarbon industries is given in
following table.

Codes and Standards extensively used in piping industry

The great expansion of piping industry where it is today if mainly for the available codes,
standards and recommended practices. The main concern for designing any process plant is
safety of personnel involved. Design of Piping systems complying these codes, standards or
recommended practices ensures safety along with standardization of required items. Every
piping engineer should possess a basic knowledge of the extensively used codes and standards.
The following write up will try to provide a sum up of common codes and standards which are
extensively used in recent process piping industry.
Codes Vs Standards:

Codes prescribes requirements for design, materials, fabrication, erection, examination,

assembly, test, and inspection of piping systems, whereas standards contain design and
construction rules and requirements for individual piping components such as elbows, tees,
returns, flanges, valves, and other in-line items.

Compliance to code is generally mandated by regulations imposed by regulatory and

enforcement agencies. At times, the insurance carrier for the facility leaves hardly any choice
for the owner but to comply with the requirements of a code or codes to ensure safety of the
workers and the general public. Compliance to standards is normally required by the rules of
the applicable code or the purchasers specification.

Recommended Practice:
Recommended Practices, prepared by professional organisations or professional bodies are
optional set of documents which can be used for good engineering practice.
Even though every country have their own codes and standards but still the American codes and
standards are most widely used. The major codes and standards which are used in day to day
piping application are listed below:
A. ASME CODES:
1.0 ASME B31: CODE FOR PRESSURE PIPING:ASME B31.3 Process Piping:
This code normally provides rules for piping found in petroleum refineries,
chemical,pharmaceutical,textile, paper, semiconductor, and cryogenic plants, and related
processing plants and terminals including piping for fluids like raw, intermediate and finished
chemicals, petroleum products, gas, steam, air and water, fluidized solids, refrigerants, cryogenic
fluids etc. For process piping professionals this code is of atmost importance.
This Code does not provide information on the following:
(a) piping systems designed for internal gage pressures at or above zero but less than 105 kPa (15

psi), provided the fluid handled is nonflammable, nontoxic, and not damaging to human tissues
and its design temperature is from 29C (20F) through 186C (366F).
(b) power boilers and boiler external piping which is required to conform to B31.1.
(c) tubes, tube headers, crossovers, and manifolds of fired heaters, which are internal to the
heater enclosure
(d) pressure vessels, heat exchangers, pumps, compressors, and other fluid handling or
processing equipment, including internal piping and connections for external piping.
(e) piping covered by ASME B31.4, B31.8, or B31.11, although located on the company
property
(f) plumbing, sanitary sewers, and storm sewers.
(g) piping for fire-protection systems
(h) piping covered by applicable governmental regulations
ASME B31.1 Power Piping:
This code provides requirements for piping typically found in electric power generating stations,
in industrial and institutional plants, geothermal heating systems, and central and district heating
and cooling systems. This code is mainly important for Power piping professionals. It does not
apply to piping systems covered by other sections of the Code for Pressure Piping, and other
piping which is specifically excluded from the scope of this code.
ASME B31.4 Pipeline Transportation Systems for Liquids and Slurries:
This code provides requirements for piping transporting liquids between production facilities,
tank farm, natural gas processing plants, plants and terminals and within terminals, pumping,
regulating, metering stations, and other delivery and receiving points.ASME B31.5
Refrigeration Piping and Heat Transfer Components:
This code prescribes requirements for piping for refrigerants, heat transfer components and
secondary coolants for temperatures as low as -320 degree F (-196 degree C)
ASME B31.8 Gas Transmission and Distribution Piping Systems:
This code covers the piping transporting products that are mostly gas (Liquefied Petroleum Gas)
between sources and terminals. This code also covers safety aspects of the operation and
maintenance of those facilities.
ASME B31.9 Building Services Piping
AMSE B31.11 Slurry Transportation Piping Systems.
ASME B31.12 Hydrogen Piping and Pipelines.

2.0 ASME BOILER AND PRESSURE VESSEL CODE:It contains 11 sections as mentioned below:
Section I Power Boilers
Section II Material Specifications
Section III Rules for Construction of Nuclear Power Plant Components
Section IV Heating Boilers
Section V Nondestructive Examination
Section VI Recommended Rules for Care and Operation of Heating Boilers
Section VII Recommended Rules for Care of Power Boilers
Section VIII Pressure Vessels
Section IX Welding and Brazing Qualifications
Section X Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Pressure Vessels
Section XI Rules for In-Service Inspection of Nuclear Power Plant Components
Out of this 11 sections Section VIII is very important for Process Piping engineers.
B. PIPING COMPONENT STANDARDS: The major piping component standards which are
used frequently are listed below:
ASME B36.10M: Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe
ASME B36.19M: Stainless Steel Pipe
ASME B16.9: Factory-Made Wrought Steel Buttwelding Fittings
ASME B16.5: Pipe Flanges and Flanged Fittings
ASME B16.11: Forged Fittings, Socket Welding and Threaded
ASME B1.1: Unified Inch Screw Threads
ASME B16.20: Metallic Gaskets for Pipe Flanges.
ASME B16.25: Buttwelding Ends
ASME B16.10: Face-to-Face and End-To-End Dimensions of Valves
MSS SP-58: Pipe Hangers and Supports Materials, Design, and Manufacture.
BS 6501, Part 1: Flexible Metal Hose
NFPA 1963: Standard for Fire Hose Connections
Refer ASME code B 31.3 for more of the component standards
C. ASTM STANDARDS:
The American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) is a scientific and technical
organization that develops and publishes voluntary standards on the characteristics and
performance of materials, products, systems, and services. The standards published by theASTM
include test procedures for determining or verifying characteristics, such as chemical
composition, and measuring performance, such as tensile strength and bending properties. The

standards cover refined materials, such as steel, and basic products, such as machinery and
fabricated equipment. The standards are developed by committees drawn from a broad spectrum
of professional, industrial, and commercial interests. Many of the standards are made mandatory
by reference in applicable piping codes.
The major ASTM standards are listed below:
A36: Carbon Structural Steel
A105: Carbon Steel Forgings, for Piping Applications
A106: Seamless Carbon Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
A312: Seamless, Welded, and Heavily Cold Worked Austenitic Stainless Steel Pipe
A335: Seamless Ferritic Alloy Steel Pipe for High-Temperature Service
A358: Electric-Fusion-Welded Austenitic Chromium-Nickel Alloy Stainless Steel Pipe for HighTemperature Service and General Applications
A516: Pressure Vessel Plates, Carbon Steel, for Moderate and Lower-Temperature Service
A671: Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for Atmospheric and Lower Temperatures
A672: Electric-Fusion-Welded Steel Pipe for High-Pressure Service at Moderate Temperatures
Suggested reading for more on ASTM standards: Refer ASME B 31.3 Specification index for
Apeendix A.
D. API STANDARDS:
The American Petroleum Institute (API) publishes specifications, bulletins, recommended
practices, standards, and other publications as an aid to procurement of standardized equipment
and materials.
The major ones are listed below for your reference:
API RP 520: Recommended Practice for Sizing, Selection,and Installation of Pressure-Relieving
Devices in Refineries.
API 610: Centrifugal Pumps for Petroleum, Petrochemical and Natural Gas Industries
API 650: Welded Tanks for Oil Storage
API 661: Air-Cooled Heat Exchangers for General Refinery Service
API 560: Fired Heaters for General Refinery Service
API 617: Axial and Centrifugal Compressors and Expander-compressors for Petroleum,
Chemical and Gas Industry Services
API 618: Reciprocating Compressors for Petroleum, Chemical, and Gas Industry Services
API 612: Petroleum, Petrochemical and Natural Gas Industries-Steam Turbines-Special-purpose
Applications
There are several other codes and standards which are used in piping industry like AMERICAN
WATER WORKS ASSOCIATION, AMERICAN WELDING SOCIETY, AMERICAN

SOCIETY OF SANITARY ENGINEERS, AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CIVIL ENGINEERS,

AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR NONDESTRUCTIVE TESTING, AMERICAN IRON AND
STEEL INSTITUTE, EXPANSION JOINT MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION,
MANUFACTURERS STANDARDIZATION SOCIETY OF THE VALVE AND FITTINGS
INDUSTRY, NATIONAL FIRE PROTECTION ASSOCIATION, TUBULAR EXCHANGER
MANUFACTURERS ASSOCIATION etc.
Also there are non american standards like BRITISH STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS,
DIN STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS, JAPANESE STANDARDS AND
SPECIFICATIONS, ISO STANDARDS AND SPECIFICATIONS etc.

Important questions & answers from ASME B 31.3 which a Piping

stress engineer must know
ASME B 31.3 is the bible of process piping engineering and every piping engineer should
frequently use this code for his knowledge enhancement. But to study a code similar to B 31.3 is
time consuming and also difficult because the contents are not at all interesting. Also every now
and then it will say to refer to some other point of the code which will irritate you. But still every
piping engineer should learn few basic points from it. The following literature will try to point
out 11 basic and useful points from the code about which every piping engineer must be aware.
1. What is the scope of ASME B 31.3? What does it covers and what does not?
Ans: Refer to the ASME B 31.3-Process Piping section from my earlier post.
Link: http://www.whatispiping.com/?p=44
Alternatively refer the below attached figure ( Figure 300.1.1 from code ASME B 31.3)

2. What are the disturbing parameters against which the piping system must be designed?
Ans: The piping system must stand strong (should not fail) against the following major effects:

Design Pressure and Temperature: Each component thickness must be sufficient to

withstand most severe combination of temperature and pressure.

Ambient effects like pressure reduction due to cooling, fluid expansion effect, possibility
of moisture condensation and build up of ice due to atmospheric icing, low ambient
temperature etc.

Dynamic effects like impact force due to external or internal unexpected conditions,
Wind force, Earthquake force, Vibration and discharge (Relief valve) reaction forces, cyclic
effects etc.
Component self weight including insulation, rigid body weights along with the medium it
transport.
Thermal expansion and contraction effects due to resistance from free displacement or
due to thermal gradients (thermal bowing effect) etc.

Movement of pipe supports or connected equipments etc.

3. How to calculate the allowable stress for a carbon steel pipe?

Ans: The material allowable stress for any material other than bolting material, cast iron and
malleable iron are the minimum of the following:
1.
one-third of tensile strength at maximum temperature.
2.
two-thirds of yield strength at maximum temperature.
3.
for austenitic stainless steels and nickel alloys having similar stressstrain behavior, the
lower of two thirds of yield strength and 90% of yield strength at temperature.
4.
100% of the average stress for a creep rate of 0.01% per 1 000 h
5.
67% of the average stress for rupture at the end of 100 000 h
6.
80% of the minimum stress for rupture at the end of 100 000 h
7.
for structural grade materials, the basic allowable stress shall be 0.92 times the lowest
value determined (1) through (6) above.
4. What is the allowable for Sustained, Occasional and Expansion Stress as per ASME B
31.3?
Ans: Calculated sustained stress (SL)< Sh (Basic allowable stress at maximum temperature)
Calculated occasional stress including sustained stress< 1.33 Sh
Calculated expansion stress< SA = f [ 1.25( Sc + Sh) SL]
Here f =stress range factor, Sc =basic allowable stress at minimum metal temperature and
SL=calculated sustained stress. The sustained stress (SL) is calculated using the following code
formulas:

Here,
Ii = sustained in-plane moment index. In the absence of more applicable data, Ii is taken asthe
greater of 0.75ii or 1.00.
Io = sustained out-plane moment index. In the absence of more applicable data, Io is taken as the
greater of 0.75io or 1.00.
Mi = in-plane moment due to sustained loads, e.g.,pressure and weight
Mo = out-plane moment due to sustained loads, e.g.,pressure and weight
Z = sustained section modulus
It = sustained torsional moment index. In the absence of more applicable data, It is taken
as 1.00.
Mt = torsional moment due to sustained loads, e.g.,pressure and weight
Ap = cross-sectional area of the pipe, considering nominal pipe dimensions less allowances;
Fa = longitudinal force due to sustained loads, e.g.,pressure and weight
Ia = sustained longitudinal force index. In the absence of more applicable data, Ia is taken as
1.00.

5. What are steps for calculating the pipe thickness for a 10 inch carbon steel (A 106-Grade
B) pipe carrying a fluid with design pressure 15 bar and design temperatre of 250 degree
centigrade?
Ans: The pipe thickness (t) for internal design pressure (P) is calculated from the following
equation.

Here, D=Outside diameter of pipe, obtain the diameter from pipe manufacturer standard.
S=stress value at design temperature from code Table A-1
E=quality factor from code Table A-1A or A-1B
W=weld joint strength reduction factor from code
Y=coefficient from code Table 304.1.1
Using the above formula calculate the pressure design thickness, t.
Now add the sum of the mechanical allowances (thread or groove depth) plus corrosion and
erosion allowances if any with t to get minimum required thickness, tm.
Next add the mill tolerance with this value to get calculated pipe thickness. For seamless pipe the
mill tolerance is 12.5% under tolerance. So calculated pipe thickness will be tm/(10.125)=tm/0.875.
Now accept the available pipe thickness (based on next nearest higher pipe schedule) just higher
than the calculated value from manufacturer standard thickness tables.
6. How many types of fluid services are available for process piping?
Ans: In process piping industry following fluid services are available..

Category D Fluid Service: nonflammable, nontoxic, and not damaging to human tissues,
the design pressure does not exceed 150 psig, the design temperature is from -20 degree F to
366 degree F.

Category M Fluid Service: a fluid service in which the potential for personnel exposure
is judged to be significant and in which a single exposure to a very small quantity of a toxic
fluid, caused by leakage, can produce serious irreversible harm to persons on breathing or
bodily contact, even when prompt restorative measures are taken.

Elavated Temperature Fluid service: a fluid service in which the piping metal
temperature is sustained equal to or greater than Tcr (Tcr=temperature 25C (50F) below the
temperature identifying the start of time-dependent properties).

Normal Fluid Service: a fluid service pertaining to most piping covered by this Code,
i.e., not subject to the rules for Category D, Category M, Elevated Temperature, High
Pressure, or High Purity Fluid Service.

High Pressure Fluid Service: a fluid service for which the owner specifies the use of
Chapter IX for piping design and construction. High pressure is considered herein to be

pressure in excess of that allowed by the ASME B16.5 Class 2500 rating for the specified
design temperature and material group.

High Purity Fluid Service: a fluid service that requires alternative methods of
fabrication, inspection, examination, and testing not covered elsewhere in the Code, with the
intent to produce a controlled level of cleanness. The term thus applies to piping systems
defined for other purposes as high purity, ultra high purity, hygienic, or aseptic.
7. What do you mean by the term SIF?
Ans: The stress intensification factor or SIF is an intensifier of bending or torsional stress local to
a piping component such as tees, elbows and has a value great than or equal to 1.0. Its value
depends on component geometry. Code B 31.3 Appendix D (shown in below figure) provides
formulas to calculate the SIF values.

8. When do you feel that a piping system is not required formal stress analysis?
Ans: Formal pipe stress analysis will not be required if any of the following 3 mentioned criteria
are satisfied:
1.
if the system duplicates, or replaces without significant change, a system operating with a
successful service record (operating successfully for more than 10 years without major
failure).
2.

if the system can readily be judged adequate by comparison with previously analyzed
systems.

3.

if the system is of uniform size, has no more than two points of fixation, no intermediate
restraints, and falls within the limitations of empirical equation mentioned below:

Here,
D = outside diameter of pipe, mm (in.)
Ea = reference modulus of elasticity at 21C (70F),MPa (ksi)
K1 = 208 000 SA/Ea, (mm/m)2 = 30 SA/Ea, (in./ft)2
L = developed length of piping between anchors,m (ft)
SA = allowable displacement stress range
U = anchor distance, straight line between anchors,m (ft)
y = resultant of total displacement strains, mm (in.), to be absorbed by the piping system
9. How will you calculate the displacement (Expansion) stress range for a piping system?
Ans: Expansion stress range (SE) for a complex piping system is normally calculated using
softwares like Caesar II or AutoPipe. However, the same can be calculated using the following
code equations:

here
Ap = cross-sectional area of pipe
Fa = range of axial forces due to displacement strains between any two conditions being
evaluated
ia = axial stress intensification factor. In the absence of more applicable data, ia p 1.0 for elbows,
pipe bends, and miter bends (single, closely spaced, and widely spaced), and ia =io (or i when
listed) in Appendix D for other components;
it = torsional stress intensification factor. In the absence of more applicable data, it=1.0;
Mt = torsional moment
Sa = axial stress range due to displacement strains= iaXFa/Ap

Sb = resultant bending stress

St = torsional stress= itXMt/2Z
Z = section modulus of pipe
ii = in-plane stress intensification factor from Appendix D
io = out-plane stress intensification factor from Appendix D
Mi = in-plane bending moment
Mo = out-plane bending moment
Sb = resultant bending stress
10. What do you mean by the term Cold Spring?
Ans: Cold spring is the intentional initial deformation applied to a piping system during
assembly to produce a desired initial displacement and stress. Cold spring is beneficial in that it
serves to balance the magnitude of stress under initial and extreme displacement conditions.
When cold spring is properly applied there is less likelihood of overstrain during initial
operation; hence, it is recommended especially for piping materials of limited ductility. There is
also less deviation from as installed dimensions during initial operation, so that hangers will not
be displaced as far from their original settings.
However now a days most of the EPC organizations does not prefer the use of Cold Spring while
analysis any system.
11. How to decide whether Reinforcement is required for a piping branch connection or
not?
Ans: When a branch connection is made in any parent pipe the pipe connection is weakened by
the opening that is made in it. So it is required that the wall thickness after the opening must be
sufficiently in excess of the required thickness to sustain the pressure. This requirement is
checked by calculating the required reinforcement area (A1) and available reinforcement area
(A2+A3+A4) and if available area is more than the required area then no reinforcement is
required. Otherwise additional reinforcement need to be added. The equations for calculating the
required and available area are listed below for your information from the code. Please refer the
code for notations used:

Piping insulation: Important Considerations for Piping Engineer

Why Insulation?:
An insulation system serves three principal purposes:

the significant reduction in heat transfer of thermal energy to and from the surface of the
piping system (Heat Conservation).

the prevention of moisture formation and collection on the surface of the piping system
due to condensation (Cold Insulation).

the prevention of potentially injurious personnel contact with the surface of the exposed
piping system (Personal Protection).

sometimes Steam traced/Electric traced insulation, Regeneration insulation, jacketting etc

are used as per process / liscensor requirement.

Fire proofing, fire protection and acoustic insulation (to absorb vibration) is provided
based on project specification/ ITB requirement.
Insulation Material:

Low temperature insulation is frequently made of expanded cellular plastic or foam

rubber material.

Moderate temperature insulations are made from grass fibre products.

High temperature insulation is made of preformed cementations or refractory materials or

blankets made from ceramic fibres.

Insulation and accessory materials has to be 100% asbestos free.

Normally mineral fibre, cellular glass, ceramic fibre, glass fibre, polyisocyanurate,
polyurethane foam etc are used as insulation material.
Few important points related to insulation (May vary from project to project):

Hot insulation or Heat conservation insulation is used when normal operating

temperature exceeds 65 degree centigrade unless heat loss is desirable. (Control process
temperature)

Personnel protection is used in accessible areas if temperature exceeds 65 degree

centigrade.

Steam traced, electric traced, jacketting etc are used for process temperature control.

Insulation thickness is determined based on pipe size, normal operating temperature,

temperature controlling requirement (extent of heat loss/gain) etc. At a minimum 25 mm
thickness is used.

If insulation thickness is more than 75 mm then insulation is provided in two or more

layers (multi layer).

Insulation shall not be applied untill hydrostatic/ pneumatic testing.

Insulation upto 12 inch NPS pipe shall be held with ss 304 tie wire and for >12 inch NPS
ss 304 bands are used.

All flanges will be insulated other than hydrogen service or high health hazard material
services.

All valves other than control valves and relief valves shall be insulated.

Piping Elbows and Bends: A useful detailed literature for piping

engineers
Piping Elbows and Bends are very important pipe fitting which are used very frequently for
changing direction in piping system. Piping Elbow and Piping bend are not the same, even
though sometimes these two terms are interchangeably used.A BEND is simply a generic term in
piping for an offset a change in direction of the piping. It signifies that there is a bend i.e,
a change in direction of the piping (usually for some specific reason) but it lacks specific,
engineering definition as to direction and degree. Bends are usually made by using a bending
machine (hot bending and cold bending) on site and suited for a specific need. Use of bends are
economic as it reduces number of expensive fittings.An ELBOW, on the other hand, is a
specific, standard, engineered bend pre-fabricated as a spool piece (based on ASME B 16.9) and
designed to either be screwed, flanged, or welded to the piping it is associated with. An elbow
can be 45 degree or 90 degree. There can also be custom-designed elbows, although most are
catagorized as either short radius or long radius.
In short All bends are elbows but all elbows are not bend
Whenever the term elbow is used, it must also carry the qualifiers of type (45 or 90 degree) and
radius (short or long) besides the nominal size.
Elbows can change direction to any angle as per requirement. An elbow angle can be defined as
the angle by which the flow direction deviates from its original flowing direction (See Fig.1
below).Even though An elbow angle can be anything greater than 0 but less or equal to 90But
still a change in direction greater than 90 at a single point is not desirable. Normally, a 45 and a
90 elbow combinedly used while making piping layouts for such situations.

Fig.1 A typical elbow with elbow angle (phi)

Elbow angle can be easily calculated using simple geometrical technique of mathematics. Lets
give an example for you. Refer to Fig.2. Pipe direction is changing at point A with the help of an
elbow and again the direction is changing at the point G using another elbow.

In order to find out the elbow angle at A, it is necessary to consider a plane which contains the
arms of the elbow. If there had been no change in direction at point A, the pipe would have
moved along line AD but pipe is moving along line AG. Plane AFGD contains lines AD and AG
and elbow angle (phi) is marked which denotes the angle by which the flow is deviating from its
original direction.

Fig.2 Example figure for elbow angle calculation

Considering right angle triangle AGD, tan(phi) = ( x2 + z2)/y
Similarly elbow angle at G is given by : tan (phi1)= (y2 +z2)/x
Elbow Radius:
Elbows or bends are available in various radii for a smooth change in direction which are
expressed in terms of pipe nominal size expressed in inches. Elbows or bends are available in
three radii,
a. Long radius elbows (Radius = 1.5D): used most frequently where there is a need to keep the
frictional fluid pressure loss down to a minimum, there is ample space and volume to allow for a
wider turn and generate less pressure drop.
b. Long radius elbows (Radius > 1.5D): Used sometimes for specific applications for
transporting high viscous fluids likes slurry, low polymer etc. For radius more than 1.5D pipe
bends are usually used and these can be made to any radius.However, 3D & 5D pipe bends are
most commonly used
b. Short radius elbows (Radius = 1.0D): to be used only in locations where space does not permit
use of long radies elbow and there is a need to reduce the cost of elbows. In jacketed piping the
short radius elbow is used for the core pipe.
Here D is nominal pipe size in inches.
There are three major parameters which dictates the radius selection for elbow. Space
availability, cost and pressure drop.
Pipe bends are preferred where pressure drop is of a major consideration.
Use of short radius elbows should be avoided as far as possible due to abrupt change in direction
causing high pressure drop.
Minimum thickness requirement:

Whether an elbow or bend is used the minimum thickness requirement from code must be met.
Code ASME B 31.3 provides equation for calculating minimum thickness required (t) in finished
form for a given internal design pressure (P) as shown below:

Fig.3: Code equation for minimum thickness requirement calculation

Here,
R1 = bend radius of welding elbow or pipe bend
D = outside diameter of pipe
W = weld joint strength reduction factor
Y = coefficient from Code Table 304.1.1
S = stress value for material from Table A-1 at maximum temperature
E = quality factor from Table A-1A or A-1B
Add any corrosion, erosion, mechanical allowances with this calculated value to get the
thickness required.
End Connections:
For connecting elbow/bend to pipe the following type of end connections are available

Butt welded: Used alongwith large bore (>=2 inch) piping

Socket welded: Used alongwith pipe size

Screwed:

Flanged:
Butt welded Elbows:

Pipe is connected to butt welded elbow as shown in Fig. 4 by having a butt-welding joint.

Butt welded fittings are supplied with bevel ends suitable for welding to pipe. It is
important to indicate the connected pipe thickness /schedule while ordering. All edge
preparations for butt welding should conform to ASME B16.25.

Dimensions of butt welded elbows are as per ASME B16.9. This standard is applicable
for carbon steel & alloy steel butt weld fittings of NPS 1/2 through 48.

Fig.4: A typical Butt-Welded Elbow

Dimensions of stainless steel butt welded fittings are as per MSS-SP-43. Physical
dimensions for fittings are identical under ASME B16.9 and MSS-SP-43. It is implied that the
scope of ASME B16.9 deals primarily with the wall thicknesses which are common to carbon
and low alloy steel piping, whereas MSS-SP-43 deals specifically with schedule 5S & 10S in
stainless steel piping.

Dimensions for short radius elbows are as per ASME B16.28 in case of carbon steel &
low alloy steel and MSS-SP-59 for stainless steel.

Butt welded fittings are usually used for sizes 2 & above. However, for smaller sizes up
to 1-1/2 on critical lines where use of socket welded joints is prohibited, pipe bends are
normally used. These bends are usually of 5D radius and made at site by cold bending of pipe.
Alternatively, butt welded elbows can be used in lieu of pipe bends but usually smaller dia
lines are field routed and it is not possible to have the requirement known at initial stage of
the project for procurement purpose. So pipe bends are preferred. However, pipe bends do
occupy more space and particularly in pharmaceutical plants where major portion of piping is
of small dia. and layout is congested, butt welded elbows are preferred.

Butt welded joints can be radiographed and hence preferred for all critical services.

Material standards as applicable to butt welded fittings are as follows:

ASTM A234:

This specification covers wrought carbon steel & alloy steel fittings of seamless and welded
construction. Unless seamless or welded construction is specified in order, either may be
furnished at the option of the supplier. All welded construction fittings as per this standard are
supplied with 100% radiography. Under ASTM A234, several grades are available depending
upon chemical composition. Selection would depend upon pipe material connected to these
fittings.
Some of the grades available under this specification and corresponding connected pipe material
specification are listed below:

ASTM A403:
This specification covers two general classes, WP & CR, of wrought austenitic stainless steel
fittings of seamless and welded construction.
Class WP fittings are manufactured to the requirements of ASME B16.9 & ASME B16.28 and
are subdivided into three subclasses as follows:
WP SManufactured from seamless product by a seamless method of manufacture.
WP W These fittings contain welds and all welds made by the fitting manufacturer including
starting pipe weld if the pipe was welded with the addition of filler material are radiographed.
However no radiography is done for the starting pipe weld if the pipe was welded without the
addition of filler material.
WP-WX These fittings contain welds and all welds whether made by the fitting manufacturer or
by the starting material manufacturer are radiographed.
Class CR fittings are manufactured to the requirements of MSS-SP-43 and do not require nondestructive examination.
Under ASTM A403 several grades are available depending upon chemical composition.
Selection would depend upon pipe material connected to these fittings. Some of the grades
available under this specification and corresponding connected pipe material specification are
listed below:

ASTM A420:
This specification covers wrought carbon steel and alloy steel fittings of seamless &
welded construction intended for use at low temperatures. It covers four grades WPL6,
WPL9, WPL3 & WPL8 depending upon chemical composition. Fittings WPL6 are impact
tested at temp 50 C, WPL9 at -75 C, WPL3 at -100 C and WPL8 at -195 C temperature.

The allowable pressure ratings for fittings may be calculated as for straight seamless pipe
in accordance with the rules established in the applicable section of ASME B31.3.

The pipe wall thickness and material type shall be that with which the fittings have been
ordered to be used, their identity on the fittings is in lieu of pressure rating markings.

Reducers used in Piping Industry: A short literature

Pipelines are not of uniform size and there is requirement of reducing or expanding the lines
depending on process requirement or availability of material. Here comes the importance of a
special pipe fitting called Reducers.
Reducers are most extensively used in piping industry to reduce or expand the straight part of run
pipe. Basically, reducers are available in two styles:

Concentric reducers and

Eccentric reducers.

Concentric Reducers:
As shown in Fig. 1. In this type of reducers area reduction is concentric and center line of the
pipe on bigger end and smaller end remains same. These styles are normally used for vertical
lines.

Fig.1: Concentric Reducers

Eccentric Reducers:
As shown in Fig. 2 , in this style of reducer there is an offset in between the center lines of bigger
end and center line of smaller end. This offset or eccentricity will maintain a flat side either on
top or on bottom side.

Fig.2: Eccentric Reducer

This offset or eccentricity can easily be found out by the following equation:
Eccentricity=(Bigger end ID-Smaller end ID)/2
While using this type of reducer the user has the option of orienting the flat side. Usually for
horizontal lines, eccentric reducers are oriented with either the flat side up or down and the same
with deviation is mentioned in isometric.
Normally eccentric reducers with flat side down are preferred for following cases on horizontal
lines:
On Sleepers and Piperacks
On lines requiring gravity flow
On pump suction line which handle slurry.
Eccentric reducers with flat side up are used for all pump suction lines (excluding pumps
handling slurry) on horizontal lines. This way one can avoid air getting trapped inside the
pipeline during initial venting through pump casing and will help in avoiding Cavitation.
Depending on end connections of this fitting with straight pipe, reducers are grouped as follows:
Butt Welding reducers: The applicable pressure rating, dimensional and material standards for
butt welding reducers are same as those applicable to butt welding elbows.
Socket welding reducers: As shown in Fig.3. such reducers are available in concentric type
only & in the form of a coupling with one end socket to fit larger diameter pipe and other end
socket to fit smaller diameter pipe. Standards are same as those applicable to socket welding
elbows.

Fig.3: Socket Welded Reducers

Screwed reducers: Available only in concentric type and are in the form of coupling having one
end to fit bigger pipe and other end to fit smaller pipe. ASME B16.11 is applicable
dimensional standard. Material standards including pressure ratings are same as of screwed
elbows.
Flanged reducers: Their pressure rating, use, material and dimensional standards are same as
those applicable
to flanged elbows. Regardless of reduction their face to face dimensions are governed by the
larger pipe size.

Functions of Gaskets for leak proof Flanged joints

Gasket is one of the basic elements for flanged joints in piping system of process plants.
A gasket can be defined as a material or combination of materials clamped between two
separable mechanical members of a mechanical joint (flanged joint) which produces the weakest
link of the joint. Gaskets are used to create a static seal between two stationary members of a
mechanical assembly (the flanged joint). The gasket material flows (interpose a semi-plastic
material between the flange facings) into the imperfections between the mating surfaces by an
external force (bolt tightening force) and maintain a tight seal (seals the minute surface
irregularities to prevent leakage of the fluid) under operating conditions. The amount of flow
(seal) of the gasket material that is required to produce a tight seal is dependent upon the
roughness of the surface. The gasket must be able to maintain this seal under all the operating
conditions of the system including extreme upsets of temperature and pressure. Therefore, it is
important to ensure proper design and selection of the gaskets to prevent flange-leakage
problems and avoid costly shutdowns of the process plants. The following article will try to
explain the main points related to gaskets.

Working philosophy of a gasket to prevent leakage:

Refer the above figure which shows the three major forces acting on the gasket. Normally the
gasket is seated by tightening the bolts on the flanges before the application of the internal
pressure. Upon the application of the internal pressure in the joint, an end force (Hydrostatic end
force) tends to separate the flanges and to decrease the unit stress (Residual stress) on the
gasket. Leakage will occur under pressure if the hydrostatic end force is sufficiently great and the
difference between hydrostatic end force and the bolt-load reduces the gasket load below a
critical value. To explain it in more clear language we can say that there are three principal
forces acting on any gasketed joint. They are:

Bolt Load which applies the initial compressive load that flows the gasket material into
surface imperfections to form a seal.

The hydrostatic end force, that tends to separate flanges when the system is pressurized.

Internal pressure acting on the portion of the gasket exposed to internal pressure, tending
to blow the gasket out of the joint and/or to bypass the gasket under operating conditions.
Even though there are other shock forces that may be created due to sudden changes in
temperature and pressure. Creep relaxation is another factor that may come into the picture. The
initial compression force applied to a joint must serve several purposes.

It must be sufficient to initially seat the gasket and flow the gasket into the imperfections
on the gasket seating surfaces regardless of operating conditions.

Initial compression force must be great enough to compensate for the total hydrostatic
end force that would be present during operating conditions.
It must be sufficient to maintain a residual load on the gasket/flange interface.

Now from a practical standpoint, residual load on the gasket must be X times internal pressure
if a tight joint is required to be maintained. This unknown quantity X is what is specified as the
m factor in the ASME Pressure Vessel Code and will vary depending upon the type of gasket
being used. Actually the m value is the ratio of residual unit stress (bolt load minus hydrostatic

end force) on gasket to internal pressure of the system. The larger the value of m, the more
assurance the designer has of obtaining a tight joint.
Gasket Types:
Gaskets can be grouped into three main categories as follows:

Non-metallic Gaskets: Usually composite sheet materials are used with flat face flanges
and low pressure class applications. Non-metallic gaskets are manufactured non-asbestos
material or Compressed Asbestos Fibre (CAF). Non-asbestos types include arimid fibre, glass
fibre, elastomer, Teflon (PTFE) and flexible graphite gaskets. Full face gasket types are
suitable for use with flat-face (FF) flanges and flat-ring gasket types are suitable for use with
raised face (RF) flanges.

Semi-metallic Gaskets: Semi-metallic gaskets are composites of metal and non-metallic

materials. The metal is intended to offer the strength and resiliency while the non-metallic
portion of a gasket provides conformability and sealability. Commonly used semi-metallic
gaskets are spiral wound, metal jacketed, Cam profile and a variety of metal-reinforced
graphite gaskets. Semi metallic gaskets are designed for the widest range of operating
conditions of temperature and pressure. Semi-metallic gaskets are used on raised face, maleand female and tongue and groove flanges.

Metallic Gaskets: Metallic gaskets are fabricated from one or a combination of metal to
the desired shape and size. Common metallic gaskets are ring-joint gaskets and lens rings.
They are suitable for high-pressure and temperature applications and require high bolt load to
seal.
Common gasket configurations:
Aside from the choice of gasket material, the structure or configuration of the gasket is also
significant. Following are descriptions of four major types.

Graphite foil: The physical and chemical properties of graphite foil make it suitable as a
sealing material for relatively arduous operating condition. In an oxidizing environment,
graphite foil can be used in the temperature range of 200 to +500C, and in a reducing
atmosphere, it can be used at temperatures between 200 and 2,000C. Because graphite foil
has no binder materials, it has excellent chemical resistance, and is not affected by most of the
commercially used common chemicals. It also has very good stress-relaxation properties.

Spiral-wound: As the name implies, the spiral-wound gasket is made by winding a

preformed-metal strip and a filler on the periphery of a metal winding mandrel. All spiralwound gaskets are furnished with a centering ring. In addition to controlling compression,
these rings serve to locate the gasket centrally within the bolt circle. Inner rings are used
where the material (such as a gasket with PTFE filler) has a tendency for inward buckling.
The ring also prevents the buildup of solids between the inside diameter of the gasket and the
bore of pipe. Under vacuum condition, the ring protects against damage that would occur if a
pieces of a broken component were drawn into the the system. Spiral-wound gaskets can
operate at temperatures from 250 to 1,000C, and pressures from vacuum to 350 bar. Spiral-

wound gaskets up to 1-in. diameter and up to class number 600 require a uniform bolt stress
of 25,000 psi to compress the gasket. Larger sizes and classes require 30,000 psi to compress
the gasket.

Ring-joint: Ring-joint gaskets are commonly used in grooved flanges for high-pressurepiping systems and vessels. Their applicable pressure range is from 1,000 to 15,000 psi. These
gaskets are designed to give very high gasket pressure with moderate bolt load. These joints
are not generally pressure-actuated. The hardness must be less than that of the flange material
so that proper flow of material occurs without damaging flange surfaces. The most widely
used ring-joint gaskets are of the oval and octagonal type. Oval-type gaskets contact the
flange face at the curved surface and provide a highly reliable seal. However, the curved
shape makes it more difficult to achieve accurate dimensioning and surface finishing. Oval
gaskets also have the disadvantage that they can only be used once, so they may not be the
best choice for sealing flanges that have to be opened routinely. On the other hand, because
they are constructed of only straight faces, octagonal-type gaskets are usually less expensive,
they can be dimensioned more accurately, and are easier to surface finish than the oval-type
gasket. However, a greater torque load is required to flow the gasket material into
imperfections that may reside on the flange faces. Octagonal gaskets can be used more than
once.

Corrugated-metal: This type of gasket is available in a wide range of metals, including

brass, copper, coppernickel alloys, steel, monel, and aluminium. Corrugated metal gaskets can
be manufactured to just about any shape and size required. The thickness of the metal is
normally 0.25 or 0.3 mm, with corrugations having a pitch of 1.6, 3.2, and 6.4 mm. The
sealing mechanism is based on point contact between the peaks of the corrugations and the
mating flanges
Gasket Standards:
Following standards are normally adopted for specifying gaskets.

ASME B16.21 Non-metallic flat gaskets for pipe flanges.

ASME B16.20 Metallic Gaskets for steel pipe flanges, Ring Joint, Spiral Wound and
Jacketed

IS2712 Specification for compressed Asbestos fibre jointing.

BS 3381 Sprial Wound Gaskets to suit BS 1560 Flanges

Selection of Gaskets:

The gasket material selected should be one which is not adversely affected physically or
chemically by the service conditions.

The two types of gaskets most commonly known are ring gaskets and full face gaskets.
The latter as the name implies, covers the entire flange face and are pierced by the bolt holes.
They are intended for use with flat face flanges. Ring gaskets extend to the inside of the

flange bolt holes and consequently are self centering. They are usually used with raised face
or lap joint flanges but may also be used with flat-faced flanges.

Flat-ring gaskets are widely used wherever service condition permits because of the ease
with which they may be cut from flat sheet and installed. They are commonly fabricated from
such materials as rubber, paper, cloth, asbestos, plastics, copper, lead, aluminum, nickel,
monel, and soft iron. The gaskets are usually made in thickness from 1/64 to 1/8 in. Paper,
cloth and rubber gaskets are not recommended for use above 120 C. Asbestos-composition
gaskets may be used up to 350 C or slightly higher, ferrous and nickel-alloy metal gaskets
may be used up to the maximum temperature rating of the flanges.

Upon initial compression a gasket will flow both axially and radially. The axial flow is
required to fill depressions in the flange facing and prevent leakage. Radial flow serves no
useful purpose unless the gasket is confined. Where a flange joint is heated, a greater gasket
pressure is produced due to the difference between the flange body and the bolts. This greater
pressure coupled with the usual softening of the gasket material at elevated temperatures
causes additional axial and radial gasket flow. To compensate for this, the flange bolts are
usually re-tightened a second or third time after the joint is heated to the normal operating
temperature. A thick gasket will flow radially to a far greater extent than a thin gasket. Some
thin gaskets show practically no radial flow at extremely high unit pressures. Consequently,
for high temperatures a thin gasket has the advantage of maintaining a permanent thickness
while a thick gasket will continue to flow radially and may leak, in time, due to the resulting
reduced gasket pressure. However in attempting utmost utilization of thin gasket advantage,
one may find that gasket selected has insufficient thickness to seal the irregularities, in the
commercial flange faces. The spiral wound asbestos-metallic gasket combines the advantages
of both the thick and thin gasket. Although a relatively thick gasket (most common types are
0.175 thick) its spirally laminated construction confines the asbestos filler between axially
flexible metal layers. This eliminates the radial flow characteristics of a thick gasket and
provides the resiliency to adjust to vary service conditions. Spiral wound gaskets are available
with different filler materials such as Teflon, grafoil etc. to suit fluid compatibility. Spiral
wound gaskets used with raised face flanges usually have an inner metal ring and an outer
centering ring.

Laminated gaskets are fabricated with a metal jacket and a soft filler, usually of asbestos.
Such gaskets can be used up to temperatures of about 400 C to 450 C and require less bolt
load to seat and keep tight than solid metal flat ring gaskets.

Serrated metal gaskets are fabricated of solid metal and have concentric grooves
machined into the faces. This greatly reduces the contact area on initially tightening thereby
reducing the bolt load. As the gasket is deformed, the contact surface area increases. Serrated
gaskets are useful where soft gaskets or laminated gaskets are unsatisfactory and bolt load is

excessive with a flat-ring metal gasket. Smooth-finished flange faces should be used with
serrated gaskets.

Corrugated gaskets with asbestos filling are similar to laminated gaskets except that the
surface is rigid with concentric rings as with the case of serrated gaskets. Corrugated gaskets
require less seating force than laminated or serrated gaskets and are extensively used in lowpressure liquid and gas service. Corrugated metal gaskets without asbestos may be used to
higher temperature than those with asbestos filling.

Two standard types of ring-joint gaskets are available for high-pressure service. One type
has an oval cross section, and the other has an octagonal cross section. These rings are
fabricated of solid metal, usually soft iron, soft steel, monel, 4-6% chrome, and stainless
steels. The alloy-steel rings should be heat treated to soften them.

It is recommended that ring joint gasket be used for class 150 flanged joints. When the
ring joint or spiral wound gasket is selected, it is recommended that line flanges be of the
welding neck type.

Parameters affecting Gasket performance:

The performance of the gasket is affected by a number of factors. All of these factors must be
taken into consideration when selecting a gasket:

The Flange Load: All gasket materials must have sufficient flange pressure to compress
the gasket enough to insure that a tight, unbroken seal occurs. The flange pressure, or
minimum seating stress, necessary to accomplish this is known as the y factor. This flange
pressure must be applied uniformly across the entire seating area to achieve perfect sealing.
However, in actual service, the distribution around the gasket is not uniform. The greatest
force is exerted on the area directly surrounding the bolts. The lowest force occurs mid-way
between two bolts. This factor must be taken into account by the flange designer.

The Internal Pressure: In service, as soon as pressure is applied to the vessel, the initial
gasket compression is reduced by the internal pressure acting against the gasket (blowout
pressure) and the flanges (hydrostatic end force). To account for this, an additional preload
must be placed on the gasket material. An m or maintenance factor has been established by
ASME to account for this preload. The m factor defines how many times the residual load
(original load minus the internal pressure) must exceed the internal pressure. In this
calculation, the normal pressure and the test pressure should be taken into account.

Temperature: The effects of both ambient and process temperature on the gasket
material, the flanges and the bolts must be taken into account. These effects include bolt
elongation, creep relaxation of the gasket material or thermal degradation. This can result in a
reduction of the flange load. The higher he operating temperature, the more care needs to be
taken with the asket material selection. As the system is pressurized and heated, the joint
deforms. Different coefficients of expansion between the bolts, the flanges and the pipe can
result in forces which can affect the gasket. The relative stiffness of the bolted joint

determines whether there is a net gain or loss in the bolt load. Generally, flexible joints lose
bolt load.
Fluid: The media being sealed, usually a liquid or a gas with a gas being harder to seal
than a liquid. The effect of temperature on many fluids causes them to become more
aggressive. Therefore, a fluid that can be sealed at ambient temperature, may adversely affect
the gasket at a higher temperature. The gasket material must be resistant to corrosive attack
from the fluid. It should chemically resist the system fluid to prevent serious impairment of its
physical properties.
Surface Finish of the Gasket: The surface finish of a gasket which consists of
grooves or channels pressed or machined onto the outer surface governs the thickness and
compressibility required by the gasket material to form a physical barrier in the clearance gap
between the flanges. A finish that is too fine or shallow is undesirable, especially on hard
gasket materials, because the smooth surface may lack the required grip, which will allow
extrusion to occur. On the other hand, a finish that is too deep will yield a gasket that requires
a higher bolt load, which may make it difficult to form a tight seal, especially when large
flange surfaces are involved. Fine machining marks applied to the flange face, tangent to the
direction of applied fluid pressure can also be helpful. Flange faces with non-slip grooves that
are approximately 0.125 mm deep are recommended for gaskets more than 0.5 mm thick; and
for thinner gaskets, grooves 0.065 mm deep are recommended. Under no circumstances
should the flange-sealing surface be machined with tool marks extending radially across the
gasket-sealing surface; such marks could allow leakage.
Gasket Thickness: For a given material, it is a general rule that a thinner gasket is able
to handle a higher compressive stresses than thicker one. However, thinner materials require a
higher surface finish quality. As a rule of thumb, the gasket should be at least four times
thicker than the maximum surface roughness of the flange faces. The gasket must be thick
enough to occupy the shape of the flange faces and still compress under the bolt load. In
situations where vibration is unavoidable, a thicker gasket than the minimum required should
be employed.
Gasket Width: In order to reduce the bolt load required to produce a particular gasket
pressure, it is advisable not to have the gasket wider than is necessary. For a given gasket
stress, a raised face flange with a narrow gasket will require less pre-load, and thus less flange
strength than a full-face gasket. In general, high-pressure gaskets tend to be narrow.
Stress Relaxation: This factor is a measure of the materials resiliency over a period of
time, and is normally expressed as a percentage loss per unit of time. All gasket material will
lose some resiliency over time, due to the flow or thinning of the material caused by the
applied pressure. After some initial relaxation, the residual stress should remain constant for
the gasket.

Gasket Outer Diameter: For two gaskets made of the same material and having the
same width, the one with a larger outer diameter will withstand a higher pressure. Therefore,
it is advisable to use a gasket with an external diameter that is as large as possible.

Heat Tracing of Piping Systems

Heat Tracing of Piping Systems
Heat Tracing is a generalized term relating to the application of radiant heat input to piping systems from
tubing attached to the outside of the pipe.
When Heat tracing is used to ensure that the system functions from a process standpoint regardless of
climate conditions it is known asProcess Control Tracing
Again when Heat tracing is used to prevent freeze up due to climatic conditions only it is known
asWinterization Tracing.
General Requirements
General

Steam tracing supply lines shall be taken from the top of the supply header to assure dry quality
steam.

Identify the locations for steam tracing supply manifolds and condensate manifolds early in
design to reserve space in plant layout. This applies to non-steam supply and return manifolds (hot oil,
glycol, etc.).
Allow for increase in insulation sizing to allow for tracers.

Instrument Application

This specification is to be used by Piping for heat tracing of all in-line instruments. Piping will
also provide steam supply and condensate collection manifolds for all other instruments. The break
between Piping Traced Instruments and Control Systems traced instruments will match the drawing
break between the two departments.
System Description
Using various media such as steam, hot water, glycol, or hot oil heat tracing is installed to protect the
piping, equipment, and instruments against temperatures that would cause congealing or freezing of the
process fluids, interfere with operation, or cause damage to the equipment.
Design Requirements

The daily average low temperature of the coldest month shall be used to select the low ambient
design temperature that then determines the degree of winterizing protection required.

No winterizing is required for water service except where a sustained temperature below minus 1
degree C is often recorded for 24 hours or longer.

Compressors, blowers, and other mechanical equipment shall be specified for operation at low
ambient design temperature.
Methods of Heat Conservation

Where feasible, insulation shall be used for heat conservation.

Heat tracing, plus insulation, is the alternative method for heat conservation.
Heat transfer cement may be utilized when a process line requires a high heat input and common
methods of heat tracing are inadequate.

Steam jacketing is utilized in specific cases where steam tracing with heat transfer cement is
inadequate.

Electric tracing is utilized when precise temperature control is required or where steam tracing is
not practical. Thermostat setting for electric tracing should not be higher than fluid operating
temperature.
Methods for Winterization

Winterizing by circulation shall be provided where a sufficient power source is available to keep
the fluid circulating.

Utility water and utility air lines in intermittent service shall be winterized by draining.

Winterizing by steam tracing is the preferred method when winterizing by circulation and
draining is impracticable.

Winterizing by electric tracing is utilized when a precise temperature control is required or where
steam tracing is not practical. Thermostat setting for electric tracing should not be higher than fluid
operating temperature.

Minimum tracing steam pressure shall be 1 Bar; maximum required is 10.3 Bar. At minimum
pressure, condensate shall be routed to the plant sewer system. If condensate is collected, the
minimum usable pressure shall be 1.7 Bar.
Tracer Description
Tracer Size and Length

Required tracer size shall be determined by piping heat loss and tracer steam pressure found in
the Heat Loss Chart (Fig. 1)

Minimum tracer size shall be 3/8 of an inch OD tubing; maximum size shall be 1 inch OD tubing.
For economy, where Heat Loss Chart indicates the requirements for multiple tracers, a single tracer
with heat transfer cement shall be considered.

When using heat transfer cement, tracers of 3/8 of an inch and 1/2 of an inch OD tubing are
recommended. If more tracer area is required, multiple tracers of 3/8 of an inch and 1/2 of an inch
shall be used.

Maximum tracer length shall be based on tracer size and steam pressure as follows:

o Steam pressure 1 Bar through 1.7 Bar

60m for 3/8 of an inch and 1/2 of an inch tracers

100m for 3/4 of an inch and 1 inch tracers

o Steam pressure 3.5 Bar through 13.8 Bar

60m for 3/8 of an inch and 1/2 of an inch tracers

120m for 3/4 of an inch and 1 inch tracers

o Tracer lengths for tracing with heat transfer cement shall be based on recommendation of
manufacturer.
For stainless steel lines, the tracer material shall be low carbon steel. Stainless steel instrument leads shall
be traced with copper tubing.

Each tracer shall have its own trap. Tracer traps shall discharge to sewer. If condensate must be
collected, minimum usable pressure is 1.7 Bar.

Compression type fittings shall be installed outside of the insulation OD.

Socket type fittings may be installed inside of the insulation.

The steam tracers shall be pressure tested before the insulation is applied. Under emergency
conditions, the insulation may be applied but the fittings shall be left exposed until the testing is
complete.
Tracer Pocket Depth

Pocket depth is the distance the tracer rises in the direction of flow from a low point to a high
point. The total pocket depth is the sum of all risers of the tracer.

Maximum tracer total pocket depth shall be equal to 40 percent of tracing steam gage pressure
expressed in meters.
Example: Tracing steam 10.3 bar 30 m x 0.40 = 12 m feet total pocket depth

Products

Steam tracing tubing materials shall be in accordance with material specifications.

Tracers shall be OD tubing. Soft annealed copper tubing shall be used where the temperature of
the product line or tracing steam does not exceed 204 C. Above this temperature, dead soft annealed
hydraulic quality, low carbon, seamless steel tubing shall be used where the temperature of the product
line or tracing steam does not exceed 399 C.

For aluminum pipe lines, carbon steel tracer material shall not be used.

For aluminum pipe lines and all lines above 399 C the tracer material shall be stainless steel.

For conditions where the tracer could overheat lines containing acid, caustic, amine, phenolic
water, or other chemicals, insulation spacer blocks shall be installed between tracer and pipe.

Fig.1: Typical Heat Loss Chart