Module 01 A Notes

JAR 66 CATEGORY A
MODULE 1
MATHEMATICS
CONTENTS
1
2
INTRODUCTION.............................................................................1-1
ARITHMETIC..................................................................................2-1
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
ALGEBRA.......................................................................................3-1
3.1
3.2
Number Systems.......................................................................2-1
Arithmetical Terms and Signs..................................................2-2
2.2.1
Directed Numbers (Signed Numbers)............................2-5
Common Fractions....................................................................2-7
2.3.1
Reducing Fractions........................................................2-8
2.3.2
Lowest Common Denominator......................................2-8
2.3.3
Mixed Numbers..............................................................2-10
Decimals.....................................................................................2-13
2.4.1
Adding Decimals............................................................2-13
2.4.2
Subtracting Decimals.....................................................2-14
2.4.3
Multiplying Decimals......................................................2-14
2.4.4
Dividing Decimals..........................................................2-15
2.4.5
Converting Decimals to Fractions..................................2-16
2.4.6
Rounding Decimals........................................................2-16
Factors.......................................................................................2-17
Prime Numbers..........................................................................2-17
Percentage.................................................................................2-17
Ratio and Proportion.................................................................2-18
Averages....................................................................................2-19
Powers and Roots.....................................................................2-20
Weights and Measures..............................................................2-21
Equations...................................................................................3-1
3.1.1
Algebraic Rules..............................................................3-1
3.1.2
Solving For A Variable....................................................3-3
Use Of Brackets (Parenthesis).................................................3-4
3.2.1
Order Of Operation........................................................3-4
3.2.2
Complex Equations........................................................3-6
GEOMETRY....................................................................................4-1
4.2
4.1.1
Calculating Area.............................................................4-1
4.1.2
Calculating Volume........................................................4-5
CHARTS AND GRAPHS.............................................................4-9
4.2.1
Cartesian Coordinate System........................................4-10
4.2.2
Straight Line Graphs......................................................4-11
4.2.3
Curved Line Graphs.......................................................4-13
4.2.4
Graphs of Sine and Cosine Waves................................4-15
4.2.5
Nomograms...................................................................4-16
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INTRODUCTION
Mathematics is the basic language of science and technology. It is an exact

language that has a vocabulary and meaning for every term. Since mathematics
follows definite rules and behaves in the same way every time, scientists and
engineers use it as their basic tool.
Long before any metal is cut for a new aircraft design, there are literally millions
of mathematical computations made. Aviation maintenance technicians perform
their duties with the aid of many different tools. Like the wrench or screwdriver,
mathematics is an essential tool in the maintenance, repair and fabrication of
replacement parts.
With this in mind, you can see why you must be competent in mathematics to an
acceptable level. These notes cover the complete mathematics syllabus required
to comply with JAR-66 A licence level.
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ARITHMETIC
Arithmetic is the basic language of all mathematics and uses real, non-negative
numbers. These are sometimes known as counting numbers. Only four
operations are used, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. Whilst
these operations are well known to you, a review of the terms and operations
used will make learning the more difficult mathematical concepts easier.
2.1 Number Systems
Numbers are a large part of everyone's life, and you are constantly bombarded
with figures. Yet little attention is paid to the basic structure of the of the
numbering system. In daily life, most people typically use a base ten or decimal
system, however another numbering system that is used in computer calculations
is the base two or binary system.
The Decimal System
The decimal system is based on ten whole numbers, often called integers, from
zero to nine. Above the number nine, the digits are reused in various
combinations to represent larger numbers. This is accomplished by arranging the
numbers in columns based on a multiple of ten. With the use of a minus (-) sign,
numbers smaller than zero are indicated.
To describe quantities that fall between whole numbers, fractions are used.
Common or Vulgar fractions are used when the space between two integers is
divided into equal segments, such as quarters. When the space between integers
is divided into ten segments, decimal fractions are typically used.
The Binary System
Because the only option in an electrical circuit is ON or OFF, a number system

based on just two digits is used to create electronic calculations. The base two
or binary system simply utilises the digits zero and one. For example, when a
circuit is ON a 'one' is represented, and when a circuit is OFF, a zero is
indicated. By converting these ON or OFF messages to represent numbers found
in the decimal system, a computer can perform complex tasks.
To build a binary system number that corresponds to the decimal system, begin
with one switch. When this switch is in the OFF position, a zero is represented.
When it is in the ON position, a 1 is indicated. These are the only possibilities for
a single switch, therefore additional switches must be added to represent larger
quantities.
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For example, a second switch represents the quantity 2. When the first switch is
OFF and the second switch in ON, the quantity 2 is indicated. When both the first
and the second switches are ON, the 1 and 2 are added to indicate the quantity
3. This procedure of adding switches continues with each switch value doubling
as you progress. The first 8 values in the binary system are 1, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32, 64
and 128.
Table 1
Binary Numbers
Decimal
Number
Binary Numbers
128
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
64
0
0
0
0
0
0
Binary
Output
32
0
0
0
0
0
0
16
0
0
0
0
0
0
8
0
0
0
0
0
0
4
0
0
0
1
1
1
2
0
1
1
0
0
1
1
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
10
11
100
101
110
2.2 Arithmetical Terms and Signs

While integers are useful in communicating a given quantity, you must be able to
manipulate them to discover their full power. There are four fundamental
arithmetical operations with which you must be familiar. They are addition,
subtraction, multiplication and division.
Addition
The process of finding the total of two or more numbers is called addition. This
operation is indicated by the plus (+) symbol. When numbers are combined by
addition, the result is called the sum.
When adding whole numbers whose total is more than nine, it is necessary to
arrange the numbers in columns so that the last digit of each number is in the
same column. The units column contains the values zero to nine, the tens
column contains multiples of ten, up to ninety and the hundreds column consists
of multiples of hundred.
Example:
Hundreds Tens Units
2
4
7
7
4
6
8
8
3
2
3
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To check addition problems, add the figures again in the same manner, or in
reverse order from bottom to top. It makes no difference in what sequence the
numbers are combined.
Subtraction
The process of finding the difference between two numbers in known as

subtraction and is indicated by the minus (-) sign. Subtraction is accomplished by
taking the quantity of one number from another number. The number that is
subtracted is known as the subtrahend, and the number from which the quantity
is taken is known as the minuend.
To find the difference of two numbers, arrange them in the same manner as used
for addition. With the minuend on top and the subtrahend on the bottom, align the
vertical columns so the last digits are in the same column. Beginning at the right,
subtract the subtrahend from the minuend, repeat this for each column.
Example:
Hundreds Tens Units
7
4
3
6
3
2
4
6
8
(-)
Multiplication
Multiplication is a special form of repetitive addition. When a given number is

added to itself a specified number of times, the process is called multiplication.
The sum of 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 20 is expressed by multiplication as 4 x 5 = 20.
The numbers 4 and 5 are called factors and the answer, 20, represents the
product. The number multiplied (4) is called the multiplicand, and the multiplier
represents the number of times the multiplicand is added to itself.
Multiplication is typically indicated by a (x) but can sometimes be represented by
a dot (.) or in some equations, by no sign at all.
One important fact to remember when multiplying is that the order in which the
numbers are multiplied does not change the product.
Example:
3
4
12
(x)
4
3
12
(x)
Like addition and subtraction, when multiplying large numbers it is important they
be aligned vertically. Regardless of the number of digits in the multiplicand or
multiplier, the multiplicand should be written on top and the multiplier beneath it.
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When multiplying numbers greater than nine, multiply each digit in the
multiplicand by each digit in the multiplier. Once all multiplicands are used as a
multiplier, the products of each multiplication operation are added to arrive at a
total product.
Example:
532
24
2128
10640
12768
(x)
Multiplicand
Multiplier
First partial product
Second partial product
Division
Just as subtraction is the reverse of addition, division is the reverse of

multiplication. Division is a means of finding out how many times a number is
contained in another number. The number divided is called the dividend, the
number you are dividing by is the divisor and the result is the quotient.
With some division problems, the quotient may include a remainder. A remainder
represents that portion of the dividend that cannot be divided by the divisor.
Division is indicated by the use of the division sign () with the dividend to the left
and the divisor to the right of the sign, or with the dividend inside the sign and the
divisor to the left. Division is also indicated in fractional form. For example, in the
fraction 3/4, the 3 is the dividend and the 4 is the divisor. When division is carried
out, the quotient is 0.75.
The process of dividing large quantities, is performed by breaking the problem
down into a series of operations, which results in a single or series of digits,
which form the final quotient. This is best illustrated by this example.
Example:
52
8)416
40
16
16
0
(-)
(-)
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To check a division problem for accuracy, multiply the quotient by the divisor and
add the remainder (if any). If the operation is carried out properly, the result
equals the dividend.
2.2.1
Directed Numbers (Signed Numbers)
If zero is used as a starting point, all numbers larger than zero, have a positive
value, and all those smaller than zero have a negative value. This can be
illustrated by constructing a number line (refer Fig. 1)
-5
-4
-3
-2
-1
+1
+2
+3
+4
+5
Number Line
Fig. 1
1. The sum of positive numbers is positive
2. The sum of negative numbers is negative
Adding Directed Numbers
When adding two or more numbers with the same sign, ignore the sign and find
the sum of the values and then place the common sign in front of the answer. In
other words, adding two or more positive numbers always results in a positive
sum, whereas adding two or more negative numbers results in a negative sum.
When adding a positive and a negative number, find the difference between the
two numbers and apply the sign (+ or -) of the larger number. So adding a
negative number is the same as subtracting a positive number. The result of
adding or subtracting signed numbers is called the algebraic sum of those
numbers.
Example
Add 25 +(-15)
25
+ (- 15)
10
25
- 15
10
Subtracting Directed Numbers
When subtracting numbers with different signs, change the operation sign to a
plus and change the sign of the subtrahend. Once this is done, proceed as you
do in addition. For example, +3 - - 4 is the same as +3 + + 4.
It makes no difference if the subtrahend is larger than the minuend, since the
operation is done as though the two quantities are added.
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Example:
Subtract 48 from - 216.
Step 1:
Set up the subtraction problem

- 216 - 48
Step 2:
Change the operation sign to a plus sign and change the

sign of the subtrahend and add.
- 216 + - 48 = - 264
Multiplying Directed Numbers
Multiplication of directed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as

multiplication of any other number, but after multiplying the product must be given
a sign. There are three rules to follow when determining a products sign.
1. The product of two positive numbers is always positive.
2. The product of two negative numbers is always positive.
3. The product of a positive and a negative number is always negative.
Example:
6x2
(- 6) x (- 2)
=
=
12
12
6 x (-2)
(- 6) x 2
=
=
- 12
- 12
Dividing Directed Numbers
Like multiplying signed numbers, division of directed numbers is accomplished in

the same manner as dividing any other number. The sign of the quotient is
determined using rules identical to those used in multiplication.
1. The quotient of two positive numbers is always positive.
2. The quotient of two negative numbers is always positive.
3. The quotient of a positive and a negative number is always negative
Examples:
12 3
12 (-3)
-4
(-12) (-3)
(- 12) 3
-4
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2.3 Common Fractions

A common fraction represents a portion or part of a quantity. For example, if a
number is divided into four equal parts, each part is one quarter () of the
number. A fraction consists of two numbers, one above and one below a line, or
fraction bar. The fraction bar indicates a division of the top number (numerator) by
the bottom number (denominator).
When a fractions numerator is smaller than the denominator, the fraction is called
a proper fraction. A proper fraction is always less than one (<1). If the numerator
is larger than the denominator, the fraction is called an improper fraction. In this
situation, the fraction is greater than one (>1). If the numerator and denominator
are identical, the fraction is equal to one or unity.
A mixed number is the combination of a whole number (integer) and a proper
fraction. Mixed numbers can be expressed as 1 or 29 and are typically used
in place of improper fractions.
The numerator and denominator of a fraction can be changed without changing
the fractions value. One way this is done is by multiplying the numerator and
denominator by the same number.
Example:
3
8
3
3
9
24
A fractions value also remains the same, if both numerator, and denominator are
divided by the same number. This type of operation allows you to simplify, or
reduce, large fractions to their smallest terms.
Example 1:
Example 2:
3
8
3
4
1
2
21875
100000
25
25
875
4000
875
4000
25
25
35
160
35
160
5
5
7
32
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2.3.1
Reducing Fractions
It is generally considered good practice to reduce fractions to their lowest terms.

The simplest reductions occur when the denominator is divisible by the
numerator. If the denominator is not evenly divisible by the numerator, you must
find a number by which both the numerator and denominator are divided. Here
are a few tips to help in the selection of divisors:
If both numbers are even, divide by 2
If both numbers end in 0 or 5, divide by 5
If both numbers end in 0, divide by 10
Example:
Step 1.
Reduce 15/45 to its lowest terms.

Divide both the numerator and denominator by 5
15
45
Step 2.
5
5
3
9
Reduce further by dividing both terms by 3

3
9
3
3
1
3
When neither the numerator nor the denominator can be divided evenly, the
fraction has been reduced to its lowest terms.
2.3.2
Lowest Common Denominator
You cannot add or subtract common fractions without first converting all of the
denominators into identical units. This process is known as finding the lowest
common denominator (LCD). For example, the quickest way to find the lowest
common denominator for 1/3 and 1/2 is to multiply the two denominators (3 x 2 =
6). To determine the numerators, multiply the numerator by the same number
used to obtain the LCD.
Example:
1
3
2
2
2
6
1
2
3
3
3
6
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Adding Common Fractions
As mentioned earlier, you cannot add common fractions without first determining
the least common denominator. However, once this is done, you only need to add
the numerators to arrive at a sum. This answer is then reduced to its lowest
terms.
Example:
Step 1.
Add
2
6
1
3
4
12
4
12
Add the numerators and reduce to the lowest terms, if possible.

1
12
Rewrite using the least common denominator

1
12
Step 2.
1
12
4
12
4
12
9
12
or
3
4
Subtracting Common Fractions
Subtracting fractions also requires a LCD to be determined. Once this is

accomplished, subtract the numerators, express the difference over the LCD and
reduce the answer to its lowest terms.
Example:
Step 1.
Subtract
from
1
3
Rewrite using the lowest common denominator

8
24
Step 2.
2
8
6
24
Subtract the numerators and reduce to lowest terms.

8
24
6
24
2
24
1
12
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2.3.3
Mixed Numbers
Mixed numbers contain both whole numbers and proper fractions. Before adding
or subtracting mixed numbers, you must convert them to improper fractions. To
convert a mixed number to an improper fraction, multiply the whole number by
the denominator and add the product to the numerator. The sum of these two
numbers becomes the numerator.
Example:
Convert 3 to an improper fraction.

3
(3 x 4) + 3
4
15
4
Adding Mixed Numbers
When adding mixed numbers, either to other mixed numbers or to proper

fractions, you must convert the mixed numbers to improper fractions. Once
accomplished, determine the LCD and add in the same manner as with proper
fractions.
When adding improper fractions, the sum is usually another improper fraction.
When faced with an improper fraction in an answer, you should convert it back to
a mixed number. To do this, divide the numerator by the denominator to
determine the whole number. If there is a remainder, leave it in fractional form.
Example:
Step 1.
Add the following,
2 3
+3+5
Convert each to an improper fraction.

2
Step 2.
(2 x 3) + 2
3
8
3
(3 x 4) + 1
4
13
4
(5 x 2) + 1
2
11
2
2 3
Find the LCD and add.

32
12
39
12
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12
137
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Step 3.
Convert the improper fraction to a mixed number.

137
=
12
11
5
12
Subtracting Mixed Numbers
To subtract a mixed number from another mixed number or proper fraction, begin
by converting the mixed number to an improper fraction. Once converted, find the
LCD and perform the subtraction. To complete the problem, convert the resulting
improper fraction into a mixed number.
Example:
Step 1.
Step 2.
Subtract 2
2 3
1 6
2 3
(5 x 3) + 2
3
=
17
3
(2 x 6) + 1
6
=
6
13
Find the LCD and subtract.

_
13
6
21
6
Convert to a mixed number.

21
6
from 5
Convert to improper fractions.
34
6
Step 3.
1 6
3 6
or
Multiplying Fractions
Multiplication of fractions is performed by, multiplying the numerators of each

fraction to form the product numerator, then multiplying the individual
denominators to form the product denominator. The resulting fraction is then
reduced to its lowest terms.
Example:
Step 1.
Multiply the following,
32
16
Multiply the numerators and the denominators.

8
32
5
8
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16
160
4096
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Step 2.
Reduce to lowest terms.

160
4096
32
32
5
128
Simplify Fractions for Multiplication
It was mentioned earlier that the value of a fraction does not change when you
perform the same operation (multiplication or division) on both the numerator and
denominator. You can use this principle to simplify the multiplication of fractions.
Example:
32
16
is equivalent to:
8 x 5 x 4
32 x 8 x 16
Notice that there is an 8 in the numerator and denominator. Since these are
equivalent values, they can be removed from the equation. Furthermore, the 16 in
the denominator is divisible by the 4 in the numerator. Therefore, when both are
divided by 4, the 4 in the numerator reduces to 1 and the 16 reduces to 4. This
simplifies the multiplication to the following:
1
32
5
1
1
4
5
128
The final fraction would then be simplified (if possible).
Dividing Fractions
Division of common fractions is accomplished by inverting, the divisor and then

multiplying. However, it is important that you invert the divisor only and not the
dividend. Once the divisor is inverted, multiply the numerators to obtain a new
numerator, multiply the denominators to obtain a new denominator and reduce
the quotient to its lowest terms.
Example:
Step 1.
Divide
by
Invert the divisor and multiply.

2
3
1
4
becomes 2
3
4
1
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Step 2.
Multiply and simplify the product.

2
3
4
1
8
3
2.4 Decimals
Working with fractions is typically time consuming and complex. One way you can
eliminate fractions in complex equations is by replacing them with decimal
fractions or decimals. A common fraction is converted to a decimal fraction by
dividing the numerator by the denominator. For example, is converted to a
decimal by dividing the 3 by the 4.
The decimal equivalent of is 0.75. Improper fractions are converted to decimals
in the same manner. However, whole numbers appear to the left of the decimal
point. In a decimal, each digit represents a multiple of ten. The first digit
represents tenths, the second hundredths and the third thousandths.
Example:
0.5
0.05
0.005
is read as five tenths

is read as five hundredths
is read as five thousandths
When writing decimals, the number of zeros to the right of the decimal does not
affect the value as long as no other number except zero appears. So numerically,
2.5, 2.50 and 2.500 are the same.
2.4.1
Adding Decimals
The addition of decimals is done in the same manner as the addition of whole
numbers, so care must be taken to correctly align the decimal points vertically.
Example:
Step 1.
Add the following: 25.78 + 5.4 + 0.237

Rewrite with the decimal points aligned, then add.
25.78
5.4
0.237
31.417
(+)
Once everything is added, the decimal point is placed directly below the other
decimal points.
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2.4.2
Subtracting Decimals
Like adding, subtracting decimals is done in the same manner as with whole
numbers. Again, it is important that you keep the decimal points aligned.
Example:
If you have 325.25 kilograms of ballast on an aircraft and you

remove 30.75 kilograms, how much ballast remains?
325.25
30.75
294.50 kilograms
2.4.3
Multiplying Decimals
When multiplying decimals ignore the decimal points and multiply the resulting
whole numbers. Once the product is calculated, count the number of digits to the
right of the decimal point in both the multiplier and the multiplicand. This number
represents the number of places from the right, that the decimal point is placed in
the product.
Example:
26.757
0.32
53514
802710
856224
3 decimal places
2 decimal places
Count 5 decimal places from the right in the answer, this gives: 8.56224
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2.4.4
Dividing Decimals
When dividing decimals, the operation is carried out in the same manner as
division of whole numbers. To ensure accurate placement of the decimal point in
the quotient, two rules apply:
When the divisor is a whole number, the decimal point in the quotient aligns
vertically with the decimal in the dividend when doing long division.
When the divisor is a decimal fraction, it should first be converted to a whole
number by moving the decimal point to the right. However, when the decimal in
the divisor is moved, the decimal in the dividend must also move in the same
direction and the same number of spaces.
Example:
Step 1.
Divide 37.26 by 2.7

Move the decimal in the divisor to the right to convert it to
a whole number.
27 37.26
Step 2.
Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number of

places to the right.
27 372.6
Step 3.
Divide.
13.8
27 372.6
27
102
81
216
216
0
Answer
13.8
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2.4.5
Converting Decimals to Fractions
Although decimals are typically easier to work with, there are times when the use
of a fraction is more practical. For example, when measuring something, most
scales are in fractional increments. For this reason it is important that you know
how to convert a decimal number into a fraction. For the decimal 0.125 we write
125/1000 and say one hundred and twenty five thousandths. This fraction is
then reduced to its lowest terms, which in this case is 1/8.
Example:
Step 1.
Convert 0.625 to a common fraction.

Rewrite as a fraction.
0.625
Step 2.
Reduce to lowest terms.

625
1000
2.4.6
625
1000
25
25
25
40
5
8
Rounding Decimals
As decimal numbers can often be carried out an unreasonable number of places,

they are usually limited to a workable size. This process of retaining a certain
number of digits and discarding the rest is known as rounding. In other words, the
retained number is an approximation of the calculated number.
Rounding is accomplished by viewing the digit immediately to the right of the last
retained digit. If this number is 5 or greater, increase the last retained digit to the
next highest value. When the number to the right of the last retained digit is less
than 5, leave the last retained digit unchanged.
For example, when rounding 3.167 to 2 decimal places, the final 7 determines
what is done to the 6, which is the last retained digit. Since the 7 is greater than
5, the 6 becomes 7 and the final rounded number becomes 3.17.
When rounding to significant figures instead of decimal places, the number of
figures given are counted from the left. For example, 3.17 to two significant
figures becomes 3.2 and 0.456 to two significant figures, becomes 0.46. Note
also that in this case zeros do not count as significant figures.
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2.5 Factors
We know for example that 2 x 6 = 12, so we say that 2 and 6 are factors of 12.
The numbers 1, 3, 4 and 12 are also factors of 12 because these numbers can be
made into a multiplication, which produces the sum of 12.
This may seem obvious, but it will sometimes be useful to factorise, i.e.
determine the factors of a given number, or more commonly, find the factors of an
algebraic expression.
Example:
Find the possible factors of 60. (In other words, find the integers,
which divide into 60).
They are:
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30 and 60.
2.6 Prime Numbers

A prime number is a number whose only factors are 1 and itself.
Example:
List the prime numbers between 1 and 30.
They are:
1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23 and 29.
It is sometimes useful to express the factors of a given number in terms of prime

numbers.
Using the factors of 60 again, taking 4 and 15 as 2 factors. 4 x 15 = 60, but 4 has
factors of 2 and 2, and 15 has factors of 5 and 3. Hence the number 60 can be
expressed as 2 x 2 x 3 x 5 which are all factors of 60. Note that we have now
factorised the number 60 in terms of prime numbers.
2.7 Percentage
Percentages are special fractions whose denominator is 100. The decimal
fraction 0.33 is the same as 33/100 and is equivalent to 33 percent or 33%. You
can convert common fractions to percentages by first converting them to decimal
fractions and then multiplying by 100. For example, 5/8 expressed as a decimal is
0.625, and is converted to a percentage by moving the decimal point two places
to the right, the same as multiplying by 100. This becomes 62.5%.
To find the percentage of a number, multiply the number by the decimal
equivalent of the percentage. For example, to find 10% of 200, begin by
converting 10% to its decimal equivalent, which is 0.1, which is achieved by
dividing the percentage figure by 100. Now multiply 200 by 0.1 to arrive at the
value of 20.
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If you want to find what percentage one number is of another, you must divide the
first number by the second and multiply the quotient by 100. For instance, an
engine produces 85hp of a possible 125hp. What percentage of the total
horsepower available is being developed? To solve this, divide the 85 by 125 and
multiply the quotient by 100.
Example: 85
125
0.68
100 =
68% power.
Another way that percentages are used to determine a number when only a
portion of the number is known. For example, if 4180 rpm is 38% of the maximum
speed, what is the maximum speed? To determine this, you must divide the
known quantity, 4180 rpm, by the decimal equivalent of the percentage.
Example: 4180
0.38
11,000 rpm maximum
A common mistake made on this type of problem is multiplying by the percentage

instead of dividing. One way of avoiding making this error is to look at the
problem and determine what exactly is being asked. In the problem above, if
4180 rpm is 38% of the maximum then the maximum must be greater than 4180.
The only way to get an answer that meets this criterion is to divide by 0.38.
2.8 Ratio and Proportion
A ratio provides a means of comparing one number to another. For example, if an
engine turns at 4000 rpm and the propeller turns at 2400 rpm, the ratio of the two
speeds is 4000 to 2400, or 5 to 3 when reduced to the lowest terms. This
relationship can also be expressed as 5/3 or 5:3.
Ratios are often used in aviation, such as when considering the compression
ratio of an engine. This is the ratio of cylinder displacement, when the piston is at
the bottom of its stroke, compared with the displacement when it is at the top. For
example, if the volume of the cylinder at the bottom of the stroke is 240 cm 3 and
at the top it becomes 30 cm 3 then the compression ratio is 240:30 or, reduced to
its lowest terms 8:1.
Another typical ratio is that of different gear sizes. For example, the ratio of a
drive gear with 15 teeth to a driven gear with 45 teeth is 15:45 or 1:3 when
reduced. This means that for every one tooth of the drive gear there are three
teeth on the driven gear. However, when working with gears, the ratio of teeth is
opposite the ratio of revolutions.
In other words, since the drive gear has one third as many teeth as the driven
gear, the drive gear must complete three revolutions to turn the driven gear once.
This results in a revolution ratio of 3:1, which is the opposite of the ratio of teeth.
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A proportion is a statement of equality between two or more ratios and represents

a convenient way to solve problems involving ratios. For example, if an engine
has a reduction gear ratio between the crankshaft and the propeller of 3:2 and the
engine is turning at 2700 rpm, what is the rotational speed of the propeller?
In this problem let Vp represent the unknown value, which in this case is the
speed of the propeller. Next, set up a proportional statement using the fractional
form, 3/2 = 2700/ Vp. To solve this equation, cross multiply to arrive at the
equation 3 Vp = 2 x 2700 or 5400 rpm. To solve for V p divide 5400 by 3. Thus, the
propeller speed is 1800 rpm.
3
2
Engine Speed
Propeller Speed
3
2
2700
Vp
3 x Vp
2700 x 2
Vp
5400
3
Vp
1800 rpm
This same proportion may also be expressed as 3:2 = 2700: V p. The first and the
last terms of the proportion are called the extremes. The second and third terms
are called the means. In any proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to
the product of the means. In this example, multiply the extremes to get 3 V p and
multiply the means to get 2 x 2700 or 5400 rpm.
2.9 Averages
Many times you will need to find an average, (or mean) of two or more numbers.
This is simply carried out by adding up the numbers for which the average is
required and dividing the total by the number of figures being averaged.
Example:
+ 16
Step 1.
Find the average of the following numbers:

Add the numbers together.
24 + 6 + 74 + 16
Step 2.
24 + 6 + 74
120
Divide the total by the number of figures (4).

120 4
30.
This is the average or mean.
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2.10 Powers and Roots

When a number is multiplied by itself, it is said to be, raised to a given power. As
an example 6 x 6 = 36, therefore 6 2 = 36. The number of times the base number
is multiplied by itself is expressed as an exponent and is written to the right and
slightly above the base number. A positive exponent indicates how many times a
number is multiplied by itself.
3 2 is read 3 squared or 3 to the second power. Its value is found by multiplying
3 by itself.
3x3 = 9
2 3 is read 2 cubed or 2 to the third power. Its value is found by multiplying 2 by
itself 3 times.
2
A negative exponent implies division or fraction of a number. It indicates the

inverse or reciprocal of the number with its exponent made positive.
Example:
2 -3 is read 2 to the negative third power. The inverse or reciprocal of 2 -3 with its
exponent made positive is:
1
23
1
=
2x2x2
1
8
Any number, except zero, that is raised to the zero power equals 1. When a
number is written without an exponent, the exponent value is assumed to be 1.
Furthermore, if the exponent does not have a positive or negative sign preceding
it, the exponent is assumed to be positive.
The root of a number is that value which, when multiplied by itself a certain
number of times, produces that number. For example, 4 is a root of 16 because
when multiplied by itself the product is 16. However, 4 is also a root of 64
because 4 x 4 x 4 = 64. The symbol used to indicate a root is the radical sign ( x)
placed over the number. If only the radical sign appears over a number, it
indicates you are to extract the square root of the number under the sign. The
square root of a number is the root of that number, which when multiplied by
itself, equals that number. When asked to extract a root other than a square root,
an index number is placed outside the radical sign. For example, the cube root of
64 is expressed as:
3
64
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2.11 Weights and Measures

A wide number of different weights and measures are used during the
maintenance of aircraft. The ones that come to mind first are probably fuel
capacities, tyre pressures, temperatures and speeds.
The purpose of these notes is to make you aware of the different systems used
and some of the more simple conversions to transpose from one system to
another.
The commonest system in use in aviation today is the Systeme Internationale
(SI). This system is based on multiples of 10 and has been accepted widely, with
the exceptions of the USA. It consists of a standard set of units for length (metre),
mass (kilogram), time (second), temperature (Kelvin), current (ampere) and
luminous intensity (candela). There are several other units which, whilst not being
part of the basic SI ones above, are in common use and still use the metric
system for calculations.
An older system that is used mainly in the USA is the Imperial System, which
uses a mixture of old units such as feet and inches for length, pounds for weight,
gallons for capacity and Fahrenheit for temperature.
You will occasionally meet a mixture of systems, which will require conversion
from one to another. A good example is the amount of fuel put into an aircrafts
tanks. This can be measured in gallons (Imperial or American), pounds (Imperial),
kilograms (SI) or litres (Metric).
Changing units of one quantity to units of another requires a conversion factor
which, when applied to the first units, will give the answer in the other units. For
example, the conversion factor for changing Imperial gallons to litres is to multiply
by 4.546
Example 1:
Convert 25 gallons to litres.
25 x 4.546 = 113.65 litres.
Example 2:
Convert 1500 miles to kilometres, using the conversion factor of 1.6094
1500 x 1.6094 = 2413.9 kilometres.
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ALGEBRA
Algebra is a form of arithmetic that uses letters or symbols to represent numbers

in equations and formulas. For example, if an aeroplane cruises at 200 knots
(kts), how long will it take to fly 600 nautical miles (nm), where 1 knot represents
a speed of 1 nautical mile per hour? To solve this problem, an equation is set up
with the unknown variable of time represented by the letter t. The equation is
200 kts x t = 600 nm. Through algebra, you can calculate the time (t) required of
3 hours.
3.1 Algebraic Equations
One way to express a mathematics problem is to write it out in words. Such as
What is 24 divided by 3? This is written in an algebraic sentence in the form 24
3 = y. In this example, y represents the unknown quantity or variable, we are
trying to obtain. The expression 24 - 3 = y is called an equation. The purpose of
the equation is to identify two equal quantities.
For example, if asked to determine what quantity, when added to 23 results in 48,
the first step is to set up an equation. The equation used to solve this problem is
23 + y = 48. To find the value of y, subtract 23 from both sides of the equation.
The equation now reads x = 48 - 23. Once simplified, the equation reads y = 25.
3.1.1
Algebraic Rules
There are some basic rules you must use to simplify and solve algebraic
equations, such as fractions. When working with fractions, the numerator and
denominator can be changed without changing the fractions value as long as you
do the same operation to both. This is often useful in reducing or combining
fractions.
This same principle is also used to simplify fractions and cancel out units such as
litres and kilometres.
For example
60 km/h
h =
30 km
Since hour is in each element, it cancels out, and as the 60 in the numerator is
divisible by the 2 in the denominator, both figures are reduced.
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In another example, determine the number of revolutions (n), that a gear

completes in half a minute, when the gear turns at 100 revolutions per minute
(rpm).
Step 1.
Convert the word problem to an equation.

100 rpm
Step 2.
min
Cancel the like terms and reduce where appropriate.

100 rpm
Therefore
min
50 rpm
50 revolutions.
It is important to keep all the units in an equation the same. If this is not done, it
may be difficult to determine the appropriate label for the answer.
Another important rule you must follow when solving algebraic equations is to
never perform an operation to one side of an equation without performing the
identical operation on the other side. In other words, you can add, subtract,
multiply or divide on one side of an equation as long as you do the same thing to
the other side.
So when solving the equation y + 16 = 30, 16 is subtracted from both sides of the
equation.
Example:
16
30
Subtract 16 from both sides to solve for y

y
16
16
30
14
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3.1.2
Solving For A Variable
Most of the algebra carried out in everyday life requires you to solve for a
variable. For example, suppose you want to determine your cars fuel
consumption. With a full tank, you drive 700 kilometres (km), then added 35 litres
(l) of fuel. What was the fuel consumption in kilometres per litre (km/l)?
To begin, build an equation and let y = km/l.
y
km driven
litres used
700
35
20 km/l
Now suppose you are planning a journey, and want to know how far you drive
could without stopping for fuel. The manual says the fuel tank has a capacity of
50 litres. Using the same formula used to calculate the km/l the problem reads:
20 km/l
km driven
50 l
y km
50 l
Multiply both sides by 50 litres.

20 km/l
50 l
50 l
Both the 50s cancel out on the right hand side of the equation and the label
litres cancels out on the left. Carry out the multiplication to find y.
20 km
50
1000 km
y kilometres
kilometres that can be driven
The range of the car is 1000 kilometres.
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3.2 Use Of Brackets (Parenthesis)

In algebra, brackets indicate an operation that must be carried out before any
other operation. For example, in the expression 10 x (8 + 7), the 8 and the 7 must
be added first.
When using brackets, the absence of an operation sign between the number and
the bracket indicates multiplication.
For example, 8(3 - 2) is the same as 8 x (3 - 2). Furthermore if a negative sign (-)
precedes the brackets, it is the same as multiplying each of the quantities within
the brackets by - 1.
Example:
- (6 + 4 - 8)
3.2.1
-6-4+8=-2
Order Of Operation
When solving complex equations, the only way you can arrive at the correct
answer is if you follow the correct order of operations. For example, when solving
the equation 4 x 3 + 2 x 5, it is possible to arrive at several different answers by
carrying out the mathematical operations in different orders.
You could, for example, multiply before you add, add before you multiply or work
the equation from left to right. Only ONE of these results in the correct answer.
The proper order for performing mathematical operations is as follows:
Brackets:
Indices:
Division:
Multiplication:
Addition:
Subtraction:
Operations contained in brackets are always carried out first.

Then carry out operations with exponents.
The operations of division are then performed from left to right.
Followed by multiplication operations from left to right.
Then sum the additions together again.
Finally the operations involving subtraction.
A memory aid used to remember the correct order of mathematical operations is
BIDMAS
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Example: Apply the correct order of operation to solving this equation.

y
(12 + 6) (2)2 + 9 (14)

16
Carry out the operations in parenthesis contained in the numerator.

y
(18) (4) + 9 (14)

16
Now multiply from left to right.

y
72 + 126
16
Add the terms in the numerator.

y
198
16
Calculate the square root and simplify.

y
198
4
Finally complete the division which gives the final answer of,
y
49.5
In the previous example, you will notice that you finished up with a fraction. This
division was not carried out after the multiplication but at the end. When an
equation is presented in the form of a fraction, complete all operations in the
numerator and denominator before you reduce the fraction.
The same is true for operations within a square root sign. The operations must be
carried out within the square root sign, in the correct order before extracting the
root.
If you perform mathematical operations in the correct order, calculations typically
go smoother and you obtain the right answer. The importance of correct order
becomes clear when you begin performing more complex equations.
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3.2.2
Complex Equations
The algebraic rules presented in this section are useful for answering test
questions. They also allow you to use the complex formulas frequently found in
the study of electricity and weight and balance calculations. Work out the
following equation.
y
2.246 2 + (- 0.47) 2
Brackets are calculated first.

y
5.0445 + 0.2209
Add the elements within the square root sign.

y
5.2654
Extract the root.

y
2.2946
While it may seem complex, a problem of this type is fairly simple to solve when
you observe the basic rules of signed numbers and follow the correct order of
operations.
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GEOMETRY
Geometry is the measurement of dimensions, area and volumes of geometric

shapes and is useful in aspect certain aspects of aircraft maintenance. Geometry
is used in the calculation of area and volume, to find items such as the capacity of
a fuel tank or the surface area of a wing.
4.1.1
Calculating Area
The area of a surface is two-dimensional and is expressed in square units. An

area that is square and measures one metre on each side is called a square
metre. This same relationship holds true for other units of measure. The area of a
figure is equal to the number of square units the figure contains.
The Rectangle
A rectangle is a four-sided plane figure, having opposite sides of equal length,

and four angles of 90 (refer Fig. 2). The area (A) of a rectangle is found by
multiplying its length (L) by its width (W), A = L x W.
L
Rectangle
Fig. 2
Before the calculation can be carried out, both measurements must use the
same units of measure. A sheet of aluminium is 4 metres long by 1500 millimetres
wide, before calculating the area both length and width must be converted to the
same units. In this case we will convert both dimensions to metres.
A
LxW
4 x 1.5
6 m2
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The Square
A square is a symmetrical plane figure in which all four sides are of equal length.
The same formula used for a rectangle is used to find the area of a square.
However, since all sides of a square are of equal length, the formula is
sometimes expressed as the square of the sides.
L2
or
W2
The Triangle
The triangle is a three-sided figure consisting of three angles whose combined

total equals 180 (degrees). Three basic types of triangles you should be familiar
with are the scalene triangle, consisting of three unequal angles and sides, the
equilateral triangle, which has equal sides and equal angles, and the isosceles
triangle which has two equal angles (refer Fig. 3).
Triangles are further classified by the measurement of one angle. For example, a
right-angled triangle has one angle measuring 90. In an obtuse triangle, one
angle is greater than 90 while in an acute triangle all angles are less than 90.
There are several terms associated with triangles. For instance, the base of a
triangle is the side the triangle rests or stands on. Depending on a triangles
orientation, any side may be the base. The vertex is a common end point, or the
point where the sides of the triangle meet. The altitude of the triangle is the height
of the vertex above the base.
If a triangle is set in a rectangle and the triangles base and height are equal to
two of the rectangles sides, the area of the triangle is exactly half that of the
rectangle. So the formula for calculating the area of a triangle is one half of the
base times the height.
A
bh
Example: Find the area of a triangle whose base is 6 metres and height 15
metres.
Step 1.
Insert the given values into the formula.

A
Step 2.
x 6 x 15
Perform the multiplication.

A
45 m2
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45
30
Acute
Isosceles
Scalene
90
40
90
60
45
70
70
60
110
Equilateral
60
Obtuse
60
60
60
Types of Triangle
Fig. 3
The Parallelogram
The parallelogram like the rectangle, has opposite sides that are parallel and
equal in length (refer Fig. 4). A parallelogram that has all sides equal in length is
known as a rhombus. The corner angles of a parallelogram are some
measurement other than 90. The area of a parallelogram is calculated by
multiplying the length by the height (A = L x H). The height is measured
perpendicular to the length, in the same way the altitude of a triangle is
determined.
L
A= LxH
Parallelogram
Fig. 4
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The Trapezium
The trapezium is a four-sided figure that has one set of parallel sides (refer Fig.5).
The area of the parallelogram is found by multiplying the lengths of the parallel
sides (b1 + b2), by the height (H), and can be expressed with the formula:
A = (b1 + b2) x H
b2
b1
Trapezium
Fig. 5
The Circle
A circle (refer Fig. 6) is a closed figure bounded by a single curved line. Every
point on the line forming a circle is an equal distance from the centre. The
distance from the centre to the line forming the circle is called the radius (R), and
the distance around the circle is known as the circumference.
The diameter (D) of a circle is represented by a line that touches two points on
the circumference and passes through the circles centre. The circumference has
a definite relationship with the diameter.
This relationship is represented by the Greek letter Pi (), and is equal to 3.1416
to four decimal places. The ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle is
always and regardless of the size of the circle, is constant.
The circumference of a circle is found by multiplying by the diameter. The area
is calculated by multiplying by the square of the radius.
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Circumference
R
D
Circle
Fig.6
A circle has a diameter of 100 millimetres (mm), determine the circumference (C)
and area (A).
C
4.1.2
r2
3.1416 x 100
3.1416 x 50 2
314.16 mm
3.1416 x 2500
7854 mm 2
Calculating Volume
Solids are objects that have three dimensions, length, width and height. Having
the ability to calculate volume enables you to determine the capacity of a fuel
tank or reservoir, calculate the capacity of a cargo area or work out the volume of
a cylinder.
Volumes are calculated in cubic units such as cubic metres. Volumes are easily
converted to other terms, such as litres. For example, a cubic metre contains
1000 litres of liquid and a cubic foot contains 6.229 gallons of liquid.
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Volume of a Rectangular Prism
The volume of a rectangular solid is found by multiplying the length (L), width (W)
and height (H) (refer Fig. 7). When calculating volume, it is important that all
measurements are in like terms.
L
Volume Calculation of a Rectangular Prism
Fig. 7
If the length is 25 mm, width 20 mm and height 15 mm, what is the volume?
V
LxWxH
25 x 20 x 15
7500 mm 3
Volume of a Cube
A cube is a solid with all sides equal, so finding its the volume is the same as that
of a rectangular prism, except that all three sides can be referred to as the length
(L). Therefore Volume =L x L x L or (L 3)
If one side of a cube is 3 metres, determine its volume?
V
LxLxL
3x3x3
27 m 3
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Volume of a Cylinder
A cylinder is a solid with circular ends and parallel sides (refer Fig 9). Its volume
is found by multiplying the area of one end by the height of the cylinder. The
formula is expressed as: V = r 2 H.
Volume Calculation of a Cylinder

Fig. 9
This formula can be used to calculate piston displacement, which is defined as
the volume of air displaced by a piston as it moves from Bottom Dead Centre,
(BDC), to Top Dead Centre, (TDC).
For example, one cylinder of a four-cylinder aircraft engine has a bore or
diameter of 10 cm and the piston has a stroke of 15 cm. What is the displacement
of the cylinder?
Bore
Stroke
=
=
10 cm
15 cm
r2H
3.1416 x 5 x 5 x 15
1178.1 cm 3 or 1.178 litres
To find the total capacity of the engine, multiply this capacity by the number of
cylinders, so 1178.1 x 4 = 4712.4 cm3.
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Volume of a Sphere
A sphere is any round body having a surface on which all points are an equal
distance from the centre (refer Fig. 10). A sphere has the greatest volume for its
surface area and its shape is commonly used to form accumulators, which may
be found in hydraulic systems.
The volume of a sphere is determined by multiplying the cube of the radius by a
factor of 4/3 , or 4.1887 to four decimal places. The formula is: V = 4/3 r3.
Volume of a Sphere
Fig. 10
To find the volume of a sphere that has a radius of 2 m, cube the radius and
multiply the resultant by 4/3 .
Example:
V
4/3 r 3
4/3 x x 2 x 2 x 2
4/3 x x 8
33.51 m 3
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4.2 CHARTS AND GRAPHS

Charts and Graphs are pictorial representations of data. They enable you to
visualise certain relationships, complete complex calculations, predict trends, and
show the rate and magnitude of changes.
Information is presented graphically in many different forms. Graphs are often
found in the form of bar charts, pictographs, broken line graphs (or continuous
curve graphs) (refer Fig 11). The circular or pie chart (refer Fig 11) and the
nomogram (refer Fig. 18) are others that are used in Aircraft Maintenance
Manuals (AMM).
98
99
00
Bar Graph
Pictograph
Continuous Curved-Line Graph
Broken Line Graph
Pie Chart
Types of Charts and Graphs

Fig. 11
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4.2.1
Cartesian Coordinate System
Many of the graphs that you will meet conform to a standard layout of two
variables displayed on adjacent axes, normally vertical and horizontal. It is
divided into four quadrants and has the two axes, labelled x and y which intersect
at the zero point.
This method is known as the Cartesian Coordinate System (refer Fig. 12) and
was introduced by the French mathematician, Rene Descartes in 1637.
Ordinate
y axis (+)
Quadrant 2
(-,+)
Quadrant 1
(+,+)
Zero Point
Abscissa
x axis (-)
x axis (+)
Quadrant 3
(-,-)
Quadrant 4
(+,-)
y axis (-)
Cartesian Co-ordinate Graph
Fig. 12
A point on the graph can be determined by using the x-y coordinates, and these
must be specified with the x value first, followed by the y value. So a point (2,3)
indicates 2 units along the x-axis and 3 units along the y-axis, the point (-2,-3)
would be located in quadrant 3, and (4,-3) would be in quadrant 4.
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4.2.2
Straight Line Graphs
A typical straight line graph is produced when a tensile test is completed on an

elastic material resulting in a load/extension graph (refer Fig. 13). For such a
graph, it is evident that the load value is directly proportional to the extension that
the load produces.
Load
Load
Load/Extension
=
=
Extension
Constant x Extension
Constant
Extension
Load
Original
Length
Extension
Material being Stretched
Resulting Straight Line Graph
Straight Line Graph resulting from Load/Extension Test

Fig. 13
The value of this constant can easily be obtained, simply by selecting a value of
load (y) and dividing it by its corresponding extension (x). This is equivalent to
determining the slope of the graph, given the symbol m. y/x = m or y = mx
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MODULE 1
Mathematics
This relationship alters slightly if the straight-line graph fails to pass through the
origin. A graph (refer Fig. 14) of electrical resistance () plotted against
temperature (C) shows this.
The resistance is no longer directly proportional to the temperature. The gradient
(m) now has to be calculated by considering two points on the graph, a distance
b apart on the x-axis (C) and a apart on the y-axis (). Therefore a/b = m.
The relationship in this case takes the form of y = mx + c, and is the law of the
straight-line graph, where c is the value measured from the origin to the point
where the graph cuts the y-axis.
In terms of the two quantities plotted against each other in the example (refer Fig.
14), = mT + c.
a
Resistance
()
b
c
Temperature (C)
Straight Line Graph

Fig. 14
31/12/15
Page 12
JAR 66 CATEGORY A
MODULE 1
Mathematics
4.2.3
Curved Line Graphs
Anther form of common graph is the curved graph, which is usually produced as
a result of plotting from an algebraic formula. These graph types are known as
parabolic, hyperbolic, sine and cosine.
A quadratic equation, taking the form of y = ax 2 + bx + c, where a, b and c are all
constants, will produce a curve that is known as a Parabola. If you consider the
simplest form of quadratic, y = x 2 + 1 and plot the result on to a graph, you
form a parabola, a shape that frequently occurs in engineering. It is useful to be
able to recognise the type of formula that produces a parabola.
This is the graph produced by plotting y = x 2 + 1
x
-3
-2
-1
0
1
2
3
y
5
3
1
1
1
3
5
4
3
2
1
-3
-2
-1
Parabolic Graph
Fig. 15
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Page 13
JAR 66 CATEGORY A
MODULE 1
Mathematics
If you plot a graph, which represents the compression of a gas in a closed

cylinder, it takes the form as shown in Fig. 16. If the temperature of the gas
remains constant during the compression, then Pressure (P) multiplied by Volume
(V) equals a constant (C).
You may recognise this relationship as Boyle's Law. The curve produced from the
formula, P x V = C produces a curve known as a Hyperbola.
Pressure
Gauge
Pressure
increases as
volume is
reduced
P
V
Hyperbolic Graph
Fig. 16
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Page 14
JAR 66 CATEGORY A
MODULE 1
Mathematics
4.2.4
Graphs of Sine and Cosine Waves
Alternating voltages and currents are often represented by sine and cosine
waves. These are the result of plotting the path of a rotating output along a
straight axis (refer Fig. 17).
The difference between sine and cosine wave graphs is the start and finish point
of the graph. Sine waves always have the zero value at the start and completion
of each rotation, whilst the cosine wave begins and finishes its rotation with the
output at maximum value.
0/360
Sine
Wave
1
0.5
270
90
0
- 0.5
-1
180
90
180
270
Cosine
Wave
Sine and Cosine Wave Graphs

Fig. 17
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Page 15
360
JAR 66 CATEGORY A
MODULE 1
Mathematics
4.2.5
Nomograms
Nomograms or alignment charts, are a special type of graph that helps to solve
problems involving more than one variable. They contain a great deal of
information and have scales on three sides of the chart, as well as diagonal guide
lines. Some of the more complex nomograms may have detailed instructions on
how to use the chart.
A common nomogram is the distance, speed and time chart (refer Fig 18) that
allows a third variable to be calculated if any of the other two are known. For
example at a speed of 375 knots for 2.5 hours an aircraft would complete a
distance of approximately 950 nautical miles.
Nomogram
Fig. 18
31/12/15
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299513296.doc Issued 31/12/15

299513296.doc Issued 31/12/15

Mathematics is the basic language of science and technology. It is an exact

The Decimal System

The Binary System

Because the only option in an electrical circuit is ON or OFF, a number system

2.2 Arithmetical Terms and Signs

The process of finding the difference between two numbers in known as

Multiplication is a special form of repetitive addition. When a given number is

Just as subtraction is the reverse of addition, division is the reverse of

Directed Numbers (Signed Numbers)

Adding Directed Numbers

Subtracting Directed Numbers

Subtract 48 from - 216.

Set up the subtraction problem

Change the operation sign to a plus sign and change the

Multiplying Directed Numbers

Multiplication of directed numbers is accomplished in the same manner as

Dividing Directed Numbers

Like multiplying signed numbers, division of directed numbers is accomplished in

2.3 Common Fractions

It is generally considered good practice to reduce fractions to their lowest terms.

Reduce 15/45 to its lowest terms.

Reduce further by dividing both terms by 3

Lowest Common Denominator

Adding Common Fractions

Add the numerators and reduce to the lowest terms, if possible.

Rewrite using the least common denominator

Subtracting Common Fractions

Subtracting fractions also requires a LCD to be determined. Once this is

Rewrite using the lowest common denominator

Subtract the numerators and reduce to lowest terms.

Convert 3 to an improper fraction.

Adding Mixed Numbers

When adding mixed numbers, either to other mixed numbers or to proper

Add the following,

Convert each to an improper fraction.

Find the LCD and add.

Convert the improper fraction to a mixed number.

Subtracting Mixed Numbers

Find the LCD and subtract.

Convert to a mixed number.

Convert to improper fractions.

Multiplication of fractions is performed by, multiplying the numerators of each

Multiply the following,

Multiply the numerators and the denominators.

Reduce to lowest terms.

Simplify Fractions for Multiplication

The final fraction would then be simplified (if possible).

Division of common fractions is accomplished by inverting, the divisor and then

Invert the divisor and multiply.

Multiply and simplify the product.

is read as five tenths

Add the following: 25.78 + 5.4 + 0.237

If you have 325.25 kilograms of ballast on an aircraft and you

Divide 37.26 by 2.7

Move the decimal point in the dividend the same number of

Converting Decimals to Fractions

Convert 0.625 to a common fraction.

Reduce to lowest terms.

As decimal numbers can often be carried out an unreasonable number of places,

1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30 and 60.