INTRODUCTION

In order to meet the increasing demand to manufacture complicated

components of high accuracy in large quantities, sophisticated
technological equipment and machinery have been developed. Production
of these components calls for machine tools which can be set up fairly
rapidly without much attention.
The design and construction of Computer Numerically Controlled
(CNC) machines differs greatly from that of conventional machine tools.
This difference arises from the requirements of higher performance levels.
The CNC machines often employ the various mechatronics elements that
have been developed over the years. However, the quality and reliability
of these machines depends on the various machine elements and
subsystems of the machines. There are some of the important
constituents parts and aspects of CNC machines to be considered in their
designing, for example Machine structure, Guideways, Feed drives,
Spindle and Spindle bearings, Measuring systems, Controls, Software and
Operator interface, Gauging, Tool monitoring.
The control of a machine tool by means of stored information
through the computer is known as Computer Numerically Controlled. The
information stored in the computer can be read by automatic means and
converted into electrical signals, which operate the electrically controlled
servo systems. Electrically controlled servo systems permits the slides of a
machine tool to be driven simultaneously and at the apporopriate feeds
and direction so that complex shapes can be cut, often with a single
operation and without the need to reorient the workpiece.
Computer Numerically Control can be applied to milling machines,
Lathe machines, Grinding machines, Boring machines, Flame cutters,
Drilling machines etc.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS IN CNC MACHINES
A relatively short time ago, machines were operated by craftsmen
who determined the many variables such as speeds, feeds, depth of
cut etc. Now much of this work is being assigned to computer and
machines that are numerically controlled.
Numerical control as applied to machine tools, had its beginning in
1949, when the United States Air Force combined with Parsons
Corporation to produce contoured surface from instructions in the
form of punched tape.
Numerical control equipment was substituted for the tracer controls
on a three axis Cininnati Hydrotel Vertical Planer Mill.
A successful feasibility demonstration of continuous contour milling
was held in March 1952 followed by a final report; both the Air Force
and Private Industry began further work to extend the Numerical
Control technology developed at Massachusetts, Institute of
Technology, U.S.A.
Between 1955 and 1960 only 500 Numerically Controlled Machine
were installed in U.S.A.
During 1960 and 1964 approximately 4000 more were added.

Till the middle of 60s Russia, West Germany, Japan, and U.K. were
for behind U.S.A., in the production of Numerical Control Machine
Tools.
Japan entered the Numerical Control commercial scene during mid
60s and by 1971 surpassed the U.S.A. in NC ratio.
NC ratio = Production of NC machines tools (units)
Total production of machine tools
U.S.S.R. is also one of the largest producers of nc machine tools
mainly for industrial use.
FEATURES OF CNC MACHINES
Rigid machine structure is provided, in order to bear the static load,
Dynamic load , Thermal load , Vibration.
Guideways are used in machine tools to control the direction or line
of action of the carriage or the table on which a tool or workpiece is
held , To absorb all the static and dynamic forces.
On a CNC machine the function of feed rate drive is to provide
motion to the slide as per the motion commands. Since the degree
of accuracy requirements are high, the feed drive should having
high efficiency and response.
Hydrodynamic bearings, Hydrostatic Bearings, Antifriction Bearings
are provided to the CNC machine. In order to achieve the accuracy
and the quality of the work produced depends directly on the
geometrical accuracy, running accuracy and the stiffness of the
spindle assembly.
On all CNC machines, an electronic measuring system is employed
on each controlled axis to monitor the movement and to compare
the position of the slide and the spindle with the desired position.
CNC controls are the heart of the CNC machines. The early CNC
controls were developed for simple applications in turning,
machining centres and grinding. But with increased capabilities on
modern machine tools such as higher spindle speeds, higher rapid
traverses and more number of axes, CNC systems have been
developed to meet these needs.
Better work piece quality is one of the most important advantages
in using a hi-tech CNC machine. To maintain quality the effect of
parameters like tool wear and thermal growth can be eliminated by
automatic gauging system.
Presently, established tool monitoring sensors and systems are
available commercially for integrating and systems are available
commercially for integrating with CNC machines. Tool monitoring
systems enable the introduction of adaptive controls on machines
for optimizing the cutting parameters.
Feedback is taken from various devices, e.g. Ecoders, Transducers.
MACHINE STRUCTURE
The machine structure is the load carrying and supporting
member of the machine tool. All the motors, drive mechanisms and other
functional assemblies of machine tools are aligned to each other and
rigidity fixed to the machine structure. The machine structure is subjected

to static and dynamic forces and it is, therefore , essential that the
structure does not deform or vibrate beyond the permissible limits under
the action of these forces. All components of the machine must remain in
correct relative positions to maintain the geometric accuracy, regardless
of the magnitude and direction of these forces. The machine structure
configuration is also influenced by the consideration of manufacture,
assembly and operation.
The basic design factors involved in the design of machine structure
are as follows,
1. Static load
2. Dynamic load
3. Thermal load
4. Guideways
5. Feed drive: - 1)Servo motor, 2)Mechanical Transmission System
6. Spindle / spindle bearings 1)Hydrodynamic 2)Hydrostatic 3)Antifriction
7. Measuring Systems: - 1)Direct 2)Indirect
8. Controls, Software and user interface
9. Gauging
10. Tool monitoring systems

CONFIGURATION OF CNC SYSTEM

A CNC system basically consists of the following: Central processing unit (CPU).
Servo control unit
Operator control panel
Machine control panel
Other peripheral devices
Programmable logic controller

Figure gives the typical control configuration of Hinumerik 3100 CNC

system.
1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) :The CPU is the heart of a CNC system. It accepts the information stored in
the memory as part program. This data is decoded and transformed into
specific position control and velocity signals. It also oversees the
movement of the control axis or spindle and whenever this does not
match with the programmed values, a corrective action as taken.
All the compensation required for machine accuries (like lead
screw pitch error, tool wear out, backlashes.) are calculated by CPU
depending upon the corresponding inputs made available to the system.
The same will be taken care of during the generation of control signals for
the axis movement. Also, some basic safety checks are built into the
system through this unit and continuous necessary corrective actions will
be provided by CPU unit. Whenever the situation goes beyond control of
the CPU, it takes the final action of shutting down the system and in turn
the machine.
2. Servo control unit :The decoded position and velocity control signals, generated by the CPU
for the axis movement forms the input to the servo control unit. This unit
in turn generates suitable signals as command values. The command
values are converted by the servo drive units which are interfaced with
the axes and the spindle motors. The servo control unit receives the
position feedback signals for the actual movement of the machine tool
axes from the feedback devices (like linear scales, rotary encoders,
revolvers, etc.)
3. Operator Control Panel :The Operator Control Panel provides control panel provides the user
interface to facilitate a two way communication between the user, CNC
system and the machine tool. This consists of two parts;
Video display unit
Keyboard
4. Machine Control Panel :It is the direct interface between the operator and the NC system,
enabling the operation of the machine through the CNC system.
During program execution, the CNC controls the axis the motion, spindle
function or tool function on a machine tool, depending upon the part
program stored in the memory. Prior to the starting of the machining
process, machine should first be prepared with some specific takes like,
Establishing a correct reference point
Loading the system memory with the required part program
Loading and checking of tool offsets, zero offsets, etc.
5. Other peripheral devices :These include sensor interface, provision for communication equipment,
programming units, printer, tape reader interface, etc.
6. Programmable logic Controller:-

A PLC matches the NC to the machine. PLCs were basically as

replacement for hard wired relay control panels. They were basically
introduced as replacement for hard wired relay panels. They developed to
be re-programmed without hardware changes when requirements were
altered and thus are re-usable. PLCs are now available with increased
functions, more memory and larger input/output capabilities.
In the CPU, all the decisions are made relative to controlling a machine or
a process. The CPU receives input data, performs logical decisions based
upon stored programs and drives the outputs. connection to a computer
for hierarchical control are done via the CPU.