Unit-02

a) Written Communication

Principal of effective written communication

Commercial Letters
Report Writing
Speech Writing
Preparing Minutes of Meetings
Executive Summary of Documents

b) Non-Verbal Communications
c) Oral Communications: Art of public speaking, Effective Listening
d) Communicating in Teams

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a)

Written Communication

Principal of effective written communication

General Principles of Writing
Written messages must be made as readable as possible, by making them uncomplicated
and easy for even the average person to understand. Readability in turn is largely
determined by the length of words, sentences and paragraphs. A common mistake made by
writers, especially Indian writers, is to try and impress the reader by using flowery language
and an oratory style of writing. Two broad principles of writing are Write to express, not to
impress and Keep it short and sweet. A good writer is one who follows these principles
and asks himself/herself even before framing a sentence What am I trying to say? What
words will express it?
Let us try to understand these principles by first looking at some tips on writing style,
followed by some specific rules regarding English language usage, spelling and punctuation.
Tips on Writing Style
Writing style can be vastly improved through the choice of words. Some of the common
problems of word choice include use of complicated words, use of jargon, slang and colorful
language and mistakes in various part-of-speech categories.
1. Simple vs. Complex Words
As far as possible, the sender should select words that are within the receivers vocabulary.
If the words used are outside the vocabulary of the receiver, the latter may either not get the
message at all, get the wrong message by guessing the meaning incorrectly, or wonder
whether the sender intentionally selected a complicated word for making an impression.
Therefore, it is better to rely on plain, simple words, such as the ones shown in the left
column, rather than in the right column below, even though they mean the same thing
About =Approximately
Do= Accomplish
Improve =Ameliorate
Show =Demonstrate
Change=Modify
Ask=Interrogate

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This is because short, simple words convey ideas more effectively and require less time and
space. They also invite the sender to concentrate on ideas, rather than calling attention to
the words themselves.
2. Jargon, Slang and Metaphors
Jargon refers to technical terms that belong to a particular subject area or discipline.
For example, medical jargon would include terms that only medical practitioners and not
the lay person might understand. Such terms are to be avoided in general writing, since
they would be out of context. The only instance where jargon can be used and might be
essential, is in reports of a highly technical nature, where the reader is in a position to
understand these terms.
Slang refers to casual words that are not accepted and recognized in a Standard
English dictionary. While they could be used in a limited way in general or informal
writing, they are to be avoided in business writing, which needs to be formal in nature.
A metaphor is a figure of speech and refers to colorful comparisons which evoke visual
images.
Examples
1. He is rock solid in his support.
2. We provide an umbrella of insurance products for your security.
While such comparisons may be used in informal writing or in the language of advertising,
they are to be avoided in business communication which has to be objective and formal.
3. Parts of Speech
In the same way that use of big, complicated words may result in receipt of the wrong
message, use of small words in the wrong way grammatically could have the same result.
Such problems exist in all part-of-speech categoriesNouns
Just as the main actor in a film is the most important character, the subject in a sentence is
the most important noun. There are two categories of nouns abstract nouns or nouns
that cannot be visualized and concrete nouns or nouns that can be visualized. A
message will be understood more clearly if concrete nouns are used as subjects in a
sentence, rather than abstract nouns.
Example
Cancellation of the contract will be done in March. (use of abstract noun as subject)
The contract will be cancelled in March. (use of concrete noun as subject)

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In the above example, the second sentence, using contract as the subject, is likely to be
understood more clearly by the receiver. Not only is contract something which can be
visualized, it also emphasizes the main idea in the sentence.
Consider another example
That decision can be made only by the supervisor. (abstract noun as subject)
Only the supervisor can make that decision. (Concrete noun as subject)
Pronouns
Sometimes, using the masculine form of a pronoun might be taken in an offensive way by
the receiver, especially if the receiver happens to be a woman. Even if the receiver is not a
woman, the use of a masculine pronoun may convey the impression of being sexist.
Consider the following example
You need to consult your professor on that subject, but he has to be a specialist in the area
of Finance.
In the above sentence, the use of the masculine pronoun he conveys the unintentional
message that professors can only be men and not women, which could be taken as an
offense. Such offensive pronouns can be avoided in the following ways1. Avoid use of the pronoun completely
Example You need to consult your professor on that subject, but a specialist in the area of
Finance is required.
2. Repeat the noun
Example You need to consult your professor on that subject, but the professor has to be a
specialist in the area of Finance.
3. Use a plural noun
Example You need to consult some of your professors on that subject, but they have to be
specialists in the area of Finance.
(The use of they avoids implying that professors can be only men).
4. Use pronouns from both genders
Example You need to consult your professor on that subject, but he or she has to be a
specialist in the area of Finance.
Another principle regarding use of pronouns is to avoid excessive use of the first person
pronoun I, since this gives the impression that one is always talking about oneself. Never
sound too pleased with yourself or boast of your own achievements. This is especially true of
business writing, where it is important to be objective, rather than subjective.

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The second person pronoun you also needs to be used with care. A rule of thumb is to use
the second person pronoun when emphasizing a positive idea or message and to avoid the
second person when presenting a negative idea.
The following example illustrates this
You made a good presentation.
You made a number of mistakes in the report.
The first sentence contains a positive idea. Therefore, the second person pronoun should be
used, since it gives credit to the person who made the presentation. On the other hand, the
second sentence contains a negative idea and emphasizes that you are responsible. This
should be avoided by framing the sentence differently, such as The report contained a
number of mistakes.
Verbs
Since verbs are action words and action is an essential part of a sentence, correct use of
verbs is important. Senders of messages must use verbs that agree in number with the
subjects of the sentence.
The following examples illustrate the misuse of verbs in sentences
1. Only one of the students are present. (Wrong usage)
Only one of the students is present (right usage)
2. Each of the following reports have been modified. (Wrong usage)
Each of the following reports has been modified. (Right usage)
Note that the singular form of the verb and not the plural should be used in both the above
sentences, to agree with the subject which is in singular form (Only one and Each).
Verbs must also agree in person. The most common errors are made in agreement with the
third person and the second person
1. He dont like to work late (wrong)
He doesnt like to work late.(correct)
2. You was informed that the exams begin next week (wrong)
You were informed that the exams begin next week. (Correct)
Thirdly, since verbs indicate the time of action past, present or future, they should be used
in the correct tenses. The tenses should also be used consistently.

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Consider the following examples

1. He listens to the presentation and gave his feedback.
2. The manager spoke to the customer, but does not respond to his complaint.
In both the above sentences, it is not clear whether the event is past or present, since the
tenses are not used uniformly. It is better to use two present tense verbs or two past tense
verbs, but not one of each in the same sentence
1. He listens to the presentation and gives his feedback.
2. The manager spoke to the customer but did not respond to his complaint.
Adjectives
Adjectives give information about or describe nouns. Although they play a less important
role in a sentence compared to verbs and nouns, they must be used with care. A common
tendency is to use very strong adjectives, too many adjectives, or superlatives.
Examples
1. Sales this year have been absolutely incredible.
2. That is the most wonderful, powerful and moving speech that I have heard in a long
time.
3. Ours is the best product in the market today.
In the first sentence, if a sales report is being written or presented, it would be better to give
details about sales figures, rather than describe sales as incredible. In the second
sentence, a single adjective could have been used in place of three adjectives, which are too
many. The third example is a claim that needs to be defined ( i.e., best in what way?), or
supported with adequate proof.
Adverbs
In the same way that adjectives describe nouns, adverbs describe or modify verbs, adjectives
or other adverbs. Therefore, the same principles apply when using adverbs i.e., avoid use
of adverbs that are too strong, or are superlatives
Examples
1. Sales have been fantastically high this year.
The adverb fantastically describes the adjective high and is too strong to be credible.
2. This secretary types the fastest.

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Here, the adverb fastest describes the verb types and is a superlative, which is to be
avoided, unless it can be defined or supported with proof.
Active vs. Passive Voice
We discussed the correct use of verbs in the previous section. Verbs may also be classified
as active verbs and passive verbs. Using the active voice means that the subject is
the doer of the action and that the verb is active. On the other hand, a sentence in passive
voice means that the subject is the receiver of the action and that the verb is passive.
Examples
John wrote the report. (Active voice).
The report was written by John (Passive voice).
Note that in the first sentence, the use of the active voice draws attention to the doer of the
action. Namely John. This gives a sharper picture to the receiver of the message. In the
second example, the subject, i.e., the report, is emphasized more than the doer of the action,
giving a less clear picture to the receiver.
In most cases, the active voice is preferable to the passive, since it conveys ideas more
vividly. However, there are instances when use of the passive voice is more appropriate When the Doer of the Action has to be Subordinated, rather than Highlighted For
example, this is the case when writing research reports. It is more important to emphasize
what has been done, rather than who has done something. Therefore, it would be better to
say A questionnaire was prepared and interviews were conducted among a small sample.,
rather than saying I prepared a questionnaire and conducted interviews among a small
sample. This makes the report more objective, rather than subjective.
When an Unpleasant or Negative Idea has to be Subordinated Generally, negative
thoughts should be de-emphasized and not highlighted. The passive voice comes in useful in
such cases, as illustrated in the example below
The corrections in the report have not been carried out. (Passive voice)
You have not carried out the corrections in the report (active voice)
The first sentence downplays a negative idea the fact that the changes in the report have
not been included and is therefore less annoying to the receiver than the second. Expressing
the same idea in active voice may seem like pointing fingers at the doer of the action and is
likely to upset human relations.
Spelling and Punctuation
The important point to remember with regard to spelling is the difference between British
English and American English. Certain words are spelt differently in British and American
English. Here are a few examples

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British

American

Humour

Humor

Colour

Color

Analyse

Analyze

Organisation Organization
Programme

Program

Centre

Center

Generally British spellings should be used, unless you are addressing an American
audience. In any case, either British or American spellings should be uniformly used and
not mixed together, in order to ensure greater readability.
Another common mistake made with spellings is to confuse the noun form with the verb
form. Consider the following examples

Noun

Verb

Licence

License

Advice

Advise

Practice

Practise

Some words may sound the same but have different meanings when spelt differently. Some
words may include a single vowel that makes them sound different and have very different
meanings. It is important not to get confused with the spellings of these words
Examples
1. Compliment means to praise someone, whereas complement means to go with ( e;g;
your jewelry complements your outfit).
2. Stationery refers to paper, pencils, etc., whereas stationary means still or not
moving.

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Punctuation
Correct use of punctuation is important in both general writing, as well as in business
writing. The main categories of punctuation and their uses are highlighted below
1. Apostrophe
To form the possessive singular e.g., the Companys profits.
To form the possessive plural of words ending in s e.g., the dealers margins.
In expressions that indicate ownership e.g., last years records.
2. Parentheses or Brackets
To separate a phrase from the main section of a sentence, when it is not related to it
grammatically e.g., The Indian team tried their best (God knows it) but lost in the finals.
3. Colon
* To suggest that a list will follow a statement in sentence form e.g. ,For three reasons, we
have decided to expand our market : 1) 2) 3).
4. Comma
To separate words in a series e.g., The main punctuation categories are the full stop, the
comma, the colon, the semi colon and the apostrophe.
To separate two adjectives that modify the same noun e.g., The MBA exam is a long,
difficult, objective type exam.
5. Dash
* To separate the words in a sentence which are not necessary for its structure e.g.,
His answer the correct answer was supported by examples drawn from his own
experience.
6. Full stop or Period
At the end of a sentence
After abbreviations e.g, Dr., No., Jr.

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7. Quotation Marks
To enclose what is stated by others, verbatim e.g., The manager said I will review your
progress every month.
To enclose titles of magazine and newspaper articles e.g., Progress in Stem Cell
Research.
8. Semicolon
It is a pause that is longer than that expressed by a comma and is used to separate clauses
of a compound sentence when they have a comma.
Example We would like the material to be delivered in the morning hours, but before 5
pm will also be convenient.
We would like the material to be delivered in the morning hours; but if this is not possible
for you, before 5 pm will also be convenient.
5.2.4 Common Errors in English
Indian English tends to be prone to some common mistakes which should be avoided, in
order to make the communication clear and easily understood by the receiver. Some of these
mistakes include redundancies, clichs and frequently misused words. We will
discuss each of these briefly.
1. Redundancies These refer to phrases which contain repetitive or unnecessary words
to express the same meaning. This is a common Indian tendency and must be avoided.
Consider the following sentences
1. In the first class, the professor taught the basic fundamentals of Marketing.
2. I have to return back home before midnight.
The highlighted words are redundancies. In the first sentence, basic is an unnecessary
word, since fundamentals themselves are basic; in the second sentence, it is sufficient to
say return home and back is an unnecessary word.
Here are a few more examples
True facts
Past history
Exactly identical
Personal opinion

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Other alternative
A redundancy does not serve any purpose and is a mistake since it wastes words.
2. Cliches These are phrases that are overused and should be avoided, since they make
reading monotonous. They should be substituted with more original expressions.
Some commonly used clichs are
1. Last but not least, I would like to thank all the students for attending this session.
2. Thanking you in advance, I remain .
3. Looking forward to meeting and discussing this with you at an early date.
4. No problem.
In the first sentence, last but not least, which is a worn expression, could be substituted
for finally. The clich thanking you in advance is presumptuous, since it assumes that
the reader will do whatever has been asked of him. It seems to say that instead of thanking
him later, you will save time by expressing your thanks now. Therefore, it is better to say I
shall appreciate your (action)or If you will (action), I shall be grateful. In the third
example, the expression at an early date is too vague and should be substituted with
soon or with a specific date. The fourth example No problem, is a clich used commonly
by Indians. Although it denies that there is a problem, the problem exists. You might have
said for example, that you did not have enough cash to pay for something, in response to
which the shopkeeper may have said No problem. We accept credit cards. Therefore this
expression is avoidable.
3. Frequently Misused Words
Certain words which sound similar or are spelt slightly differently tend to be used in the
wrong context. Some examples are given below
1. All together and altogether All together means in one group, whereas altogether
means completely.
Example The answer is altogether wrong.
The students were all together.
2. Already and all ready Already means at a previous time, whereas all ready means
everything is ready.
Example He had already left when I called.
The computers are all ready to be used.
3. Eminent and Imminent Eminent means well known, imminent means about to
happen.

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Example An eminent lawyer will handle the matter.

A midterm election is imminent.
4. Lose and loose Lose means to fail to keep carefully, loose means not tight.
Example Dont lose the money.
The shirt is too loose for him.
5. Principal and principle Principal means main or primary, principle means rule.
Example The principal reason for leaving early is the peak hour traffic.
One of the subjects studied in the first semester of MBA is Principles of Management.
Principles of Business Writing
Having dealt with writing in general, we will now go briefly into the specifics of business
writing. As pointed out earlier, the language, style and tone of business writing is very
different from general writing. Therefore, we will examine these aspects in some detail.
Tone
We know that the spoken words, however perfect, can convey a negative message, if the tone
of voice is not consistent with what is said. Tone is equally important in conveying written
messages, particularly business related messages. Example : Try remembering Congress
Spokesperson talking about Anna Hazare saying Baaabu Anna Hazare batayein jo swayam
sir se paav tak corruption mein dube huye hain !
In written communication, tone refers to the way a statement sounds, which in turn,
depends on the choice of words. A sentence or statement may be grammatically perfect, but
may convey a negative message, if the choice of words is wrong.
Example
You failed to meet the sales target.
The above statement has a negative tone, since it emphasizes what could not be achieved.
The same idea could be expressed in a more positive tone, by emphasizing what could have
been done instead.
Example
With a little extra effort, you could have achieved the target.
The example shows that even a negative idea can be expressed in positive language through
the use of appropriate words.

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The tone of business communication should also be confident. You should avoid language
that makes you sound unsure of yourself.
Consider the following example
I hope you will agree that my qualifications match your job profile.
Beginning the sentence with I hope creates the impression that you lack confidence in
yourself. It might be better to say On reviewing my bio-data, you will find that my
qualifications match your job needs in the following respects.
While it is important to be self assured, avoid sounding over confident and pompous.
Example
I am sure you will agree that our Company has the best reputation for quality and service.
Instead, something like We shall try to live up to our reputation for quality and service.
would be more appropriate.
Another aspect of tone is to sound courteous and sincere. This builds goodwill and good
relations and increases the likelihood of a message achieving its objectives. Avoid statements
such as the following
You sent your complaint to the wrong department. You should have sent it to the shipping
department.
This sounds very discourteous and rude when responding to a customer complaint. Instead,
it might be better to say We have sent your complaint to the concerned department, which
will be contacting you shortly.
Sincerity also means avoiding exaggeration and flattery, especially when communicating
with customers. Consider the following examples
1. We are more interested in your satisfaction, than in making profits.
2. You are such a valued customer that we shall go to any lengths to earn your satisfaction.
The first sentence sounds insincere, since the main objective of any organization is to make
profits. The second sentence is exaggerated and unduly flatters the customer. It should be
toned down by saying something such as We value your goodwill and will make quick
efforts to ensure your satisfaction.
Finally, the tone of business writing should be non-discriminatory. This means that the
language that is used should not be offensive, irrespective of gender, religion or race.
One way of ensuring this is to avoid sexist language by using neutral job titles, or titles
that do not imply that a job is held only by a man.
For example, the following titles should be used

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Chairperson, instead of Chairman.

Salesperson, instead of Salesman
If the readers gender is not known, use a non-sexist salutation such as Dear Customer,
Investor, or Advertiser, instead of Dear Sir or Madam.
Personal titles and salutations such as Dr., Professor, etc. should be also be used
Wherever appropriate.
Emphasis and Subordination
A business writer can be compared to an artist or a musician. Just like an artist or a
musician tries to make certain elements stand out and others to get little attention, so too
with the business writer. An important principle of business writing is to emphasize
important ideas and to downplay unimportant ideas, so as to make the reader understand
what you consider to be significant. Generally, pleasant and important thoughts are
emphasized, while unpleasant and insignificant thoughts are subordinated or deemphasized.
Several techniques for emphasis may be used by the business writer
Place the idea in the first paragraph or in the last paragraph, in order to get attention.
Put the word that you wish to emphasize first or last in the sentence.
Example Success comes through sincere efforts. Failure will result without them.
Or, The event was a success. Without your efforts, it would have been a failure.
Use the active voice to emphasize the doer of the action and the passive voice to emphasize
the receiver of the action.
Example John made the presentation. (Active)
The presentation was made by John. (Passive).
Use words such as primary, major and significant to lay emphasis.
Example Cost is a significant factor to be taken into consideration.
Use repetition.
Example The Tata Nano is an inexpensive car. Inexpensive to purchase and
Inexpensive to maintain.
Number the ideas, so as to rank them in the order of importance

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Example The main reasons for his poor performance are 1) Lack of training 2) Lack of
team skills and 3) Lack of motivation.
Use visual elements such as bold type, capital letters, bigger font size and underlined
words to emphasize key ideas.
Example The Reva electric car is 25% LESS POLLUTING than other cars.
Another point to be remembered regarding emphasis in business writing is to stress what is
known as the you attitude, rather than the me attitude. This means explaining the
benefits to the reader, understanding his situation and answering his unspoken question
How is it relevant to me?
Example Instead of saying, Our bank will be open 24 hours, say You will be able to
avail of round-the-clock banking service.

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Commercial Letters
There are many different reasons for writing a business letter. However, most business
letters follow some general guidelines as described below :
1.
2.

Use block style - do not indent paragraphs.

Include address of the person you are writing to at the top of the letter, below your
company address.

3.

After the address, double space and include date

4.

Double space (or as much as you need to put the body of the letter in the center) and
include the salutation. Include Mr. for men or Ms for women, unless the recipient has a
title such as Dr.

5.

State a reference reason for your letter (i.e. 'With reference to our telephone
conversation...'

6.

Give the reason for writing (i.e. 'I am writing to you to confirm our order...')

7.

Make any request you may have (i.e. 'I would be grateful if you could include a
brochure...'

8.

If there is to be further contact, refer to this contact (i.e. 'I look forward to meeting
you at...')

9.

Close the letter with a thank you (i.e. 'Thank you for your prompt help...')

10.

Finish the letter with a salutation (i.e. 'Yours sincerely,')

11.

Include 4 spaces and type your full name and title

12.

sign the letter between the salutation and the typed name and title

Tips:
1.

Keep the letter brief and to the point

2.

Do not use shortened verb forms - write them out (i.e. 'don't instead of do not')

3.

Always keep a copy of correspondence for future reference

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You write to
an unknown firm/person
(BE) (AE)

How to begin the letter

How to end the letter

Dear Sir/Madam (BE) (AE)

Yours faithfully (BE)

Dear Sir or Madam (BE) (AE)

Yours truly (AE)

To whom it may concern (AE)

Truly yours (AE)

Yours faithfully (BE)

a woman whose name

you don't know

Dear Madam (BE) (AE)

Yours truly (AE)

Truly yours (AE)
Yours faithfully (BE)

a man whose name you

don't know

Dear Sir (BE) (AE)

Yours truly (AE)

Truly yours (AE)
Yours sincerely (BE)

a person whose name you

Dear Mr/Mrs/Ms Fisher (BE) (AE)
know

Very truly yours (AE)

Sincerely (yours) (AE)
(With) Best wishes (BE) (AE)
Yours (BE)

a person you know

personally

Dear Ann/John (BE) (AE)

Love (BE)
All the best (AE)
Kindest/Best regards (AE)

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Report Writing

1. Before you start

2.

Every report needs to add value to the company and you - otherwise it is not worth
the effort of writing!
A report is a working document that achieves specified objectives.
The report model shows the important factors in writing any report and these must
be considered before you put pen to paper.
If you forget any of the factors in the model you will end up taking too long to produce
a report that will be inadequate and ineffective in any case.
The first steps - planning
A first mistake is to assume that you know what the person who asked for the report
wants. Often they do not know what they want themselves. They will never hesitate to
tell you that what you have written is not what they want!
Before starting, insist on a thorough briefing from the person who requested the
report and identify:
(a) the purpose of the report
(b) the need for the report
(c) who is going to read the report
(d) the scope of the report
Be absolutely clear in your plan what you are going to say and how you will say it.
Remember: Logical, truthful, helpful and to the point.

Get the first steps right and the rest is easy!

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3. Objectives
Decide what you want the report to achieve. Write to achieve that and only that
Identify your readers, their motivations, needs and concerns
Identify what your readers need to do to help you to achieve your objectives
Write your objectives and reader profile on a "Post-It" and put it where you will see it
as you write. "The Economy - Stupid" was written in huge letters in Bill Clinton's
campaign offices!

Knowing what you want is halfway to getting it!

4. Readers
Focus on:
The reader's needs and concerns.
The reader's level of knowledge and technical expertise.
The reader's openness to new ideas.
Check:
Will the readers easily understand what you have written? Have you used any
technical or scientific words unknown to the readers?
Define your audience and write for them, not for yourself!
5. Structure
Focus on:
The beginnings and endings of reports - these are what busy people notice most!
Putting action points near the beginning or at the end
Signposting by using meaningful headings. The reader should know exactly what will
happen next. Important points should stand out clearly
Use an "Executive Summary" written in simple language
Information will not be read in the order you write it. Place essential information
either at the top or the bottom of the page with the less important information in the
middle paragraphs.
Check:
Have you clearly stated your conclusions and recommendations?
Structure the report for the audience!

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6. Style and impact

Focus on:
Using only straightforward, uncluttered English. Use short sentences, short words,
and simple sentence construction to give accuracy, brevity and clarity
Every word must serve a useful purpose and must be spelt correctly. Read the final
copy and get someone else to read the draft - never trust a spell-checker.
Using active verbs and concrete nouns to give a positive "feel" to the report?
Avoid using vague phrases and jargon, slant and bias and "business English".
Check:
Compliance with the company standard?
Does the report look good and can it be reproduced using the available equipment?
Style can make the difference!
7. Visual aids and diagrams
Focus on:
Using enough visual aids to improve understanding.
Getting visual aids in the right place clearly labeled and cross-referenced.
Check:
Are scales, units, dimensions and magnification consistent and shown on every visual
aid?
Will the visual aids still be clear when reproduced?
A picture is worth a thousand words!
8. Circulation and distribution
Is everybody who "needs to know" on the circulation list?
Is the circulation too wide?
Have you arranged for spare copies?
Make sure that all the right people get the "fruits of your labours".

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Speech Writing
One simple step in how to write speeches is to be yourself. Write what you know and in a
way that is understandable, concrete, and persuasive.
All writing is persuasive in its own right. No matter what you are trying to write, you want
people to believe what you have to say and engage with your line of thinking. Even in works
of fiction, the writer obviously wants to guide you in the way that you are reading his
writing. Once he has grabbed your attention and allowed for you to suspend disbelief, he
has you wrapped around his little finger. From that point on, he is able to persuade you that
anything is possible, and the way he chooses to see the world he is writing about is the way
that you should see it as well.
Persuasive speech writing is easier than you might think. Once you know what you're
writing about, many of the steps you will take will be akin to how to write a memoir.
Speeches may be about you, they may be about other people, or they may be about
something else entirely.
Three stages to writing an effective speech are :

Planning
Structure
Writing

Planning a speech
Like any earnest endeavor, there is only one place to start when planning a speech, and
that's with a plan.
It's only natural to want to dive head first into your first speech writing endeavor. In your
mind you can see the words Ladies and Gentlemen forming on your blank piece of paper,
but I beg you to hold back.
By taking the time to develop a great plan for you speech, your planning efforts, not to
mention your patience, will reap the benefit tenfold.
The purpose of planning a speech phase is to discover what you want to write, what you
ought to write, and what you should omit from your completed speech. Don't be the best
man who forgets to thanks the bridesmaids, the eulogist who omits their fondest memory of
the deceased, or the speechmaker who is babbling on or worse, lost for words.
Planning your speech well will also give you confidence every step on the way to your
speech.

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Speech Structure - How to organize your speech

Most good writing, we are told, must have structure. A good speech is no exception. By
providing your speech with a beginning, a middle, and an end, you will lay the foundations
for a successful speech that fulfills all of your aspirations.
Opening
The first thirty seconds of your speech are probably the most important. In that period of
time you must grab the attention of the audience, and engage their interest in what you
have to say in your speech. This can be achieved in several ways. For example you could
raise a thought-provoking question, make an interesting or controversial statement, recite a
relevant quotation or even recount a joke. Once you have won the attention of the audience,
your speech should move seamlessly to the middle of your speech.
Body
The body of your speech will always be the largest part of your speech. At this point your
audience will have been introduced to you and the subject of your speech (as set out in your
opening) and will hopefully be ready to hear your arguments, your thoughts or even your
ramblings on the subject of your speech.
The best way to set out the body of your speech is by formulating a series of points that you
would like to raise.
The points should be organized so that related points follow one another so that each point
builds upon the previous one. This will also give your speech a more logical progression, and
make the job of the listener a far easier one.
Don't try to overwhelm your audience with countless points. It is better to make a small
number of points well than to have too many points, none of which are made
satisfactorily.
Closing
Like your Opening, the Closing of your speech must contain some of your strongest
material. You should view the closing of your speech as an opportunity. It is an opportunity
to:

Summarize the main points of your speech

Provide some further food for thought for your listeners
Leave your audience with positive memories of your speech
End with a final thought/emotion

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Writing a speech
Writing a speech can be a daunting task for many people. Perhaps you're worried about the
quality of your writing skills, you're nervous about your public speaking inexperience or
maybe you just don't know what to write.
By setting out a few clear goals before you start writing your speech, you will be better
equipped to judge its progress and success of your speech prior to its public airing.
Follow following rules when writing a speech:

Accuracy
say what you mean
Give enough information to create understanding
Brevity
Use short & simple words
Keep sentences short
Keep paragraphs small
Clarity
Logical progression
Use active voice
Avoid jargons

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Preparing Minutes of Meetings

Studies have indicated that business executives spend about half their time on the job
attending meetings of some type or the other. We often find that someone we are trying to
contact is busy in a meeting. Irrespective of the size of the organization or the job
designation, business meetings are a part and parcel of the everyday work routine. While
meetings are common, they are not always productive and efficiently conducted. Therefore it
is important to understand how to plan, conduct and participate in meetings, so that they
produce good results. In this unit, we will examine meetings both from the perspective of the
participant, as well as from that of the person chairing the meeting. Some common mistakes
made during meetings, along with some guidelines for correcting them will also be
explained.
Types of Meetings
According to Deborah Tannen, A meeting is any focused conversation that has a specific
agenda, especially but not only if it has been set up in advance. This definition implies that
meetings are not aimless discussions, require careful planning and revolve around a specific
topic that is decided in advance. Therefore, while meetings may be more or less formal in the
way they are conducted, they need to be planned, irrespective of the nature of the meeting.
At the outset, let us discuss the different categories of business meetings
1. Task Oriented Meetings
As the name suggests, this type of meeting is a special meeting that is called to discuss
and make arrangements for a specific event.
For example, the company may be opening a new branch or a new factory, which will be
inaugurated by a minister on a specific date. All the key people involved may be asked to
attend the meeting, to discuss the arrangements that are being made for the inauguration.
Specific tasks are assigned to each of the participants of the meeting.
2. Progress Meetings
These are periodic meetings that are called to review the progress being made on a
particular front.
For example, weekly meetings may be held to review sales progress. Or, if a new project has
been initiated, periodic meetings may be held to review the progress of different stages of the
project.
3. Information Sharing Meetings
In some organizations, these types of meetings may be called regularly for the main
purpose of exchanging information on a topic of relevance to the organization. Such
meetings may take place between co-workers, or may also involve top management.

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Examples
1. The Managing Director of a company may call his senior managers to share information
about the companys joint ventures, overseas collaborations or plans for acquisition.
2. A weekly meeting of top executives may be held to discuss the activities of the companys
international divisions.
3. The members of the R & D department may meet regularly, to compare notes on the
results of their research efforts.
4. Problem Solving or Decision Making Meetings
This type of meeting is the most challenging, since it involves taking some kind of action,
making major decisions or changing the existing policies and procedures. Therefore, all
interests and departments of the organization are represented at such meetings. They also
tend to be time consuming.
Example The marketing strategy of the company may need to be revised, since sales are
on the decline. Or, a new product is to be launched and a meeting may be called to discuss
the launch strategy.
Since problem solving meetings are the most complicated type of meetings, the guidelines
offered in this unit are more relevant to these meetings.
Before the Meeting
As pointed out earlier, meetings need to be planned in advance, so that they are successful.
Before any planning can be done however, a basic question to be asked is whether to hold a
meeting at all. The answers to the following questions would help to decide whether a
meeting is necessary in the first place

Can the matter be decided or discussed over the telephone?

Can the matter be expressed in writing, in the form of a memo, or an email message?
Are key people available to attend the meeting and are they prepared?
Is the time allotted for the meeting sufficient?

If the answers to the first two questions are yes and the answers to the other two questions
are no, there is no purpose in calling a meeting.
Once the need for a meeting has been determined, the next step is to start planning the
meeting. First of all, the type and number of participants should be decided. A problem
solving meeting should include representatives from all departments, since the decision
would otherwise be incomplete. Shareholders, who are the owners of the company, should
also be included. In terms of numbers, the size of the group could be anywhere between
seven and eleven members. An exception to this is an information sharing meeting, where
the numbers could be larger, so that a maximum number of people benefit from the
information.
The second and most important step in planning a meeting is to indicate the purpose or
agenda of the meeting to the participants in advance. An agenda is essentially a list of
topics that will be discussed during a meeting. In the words of Adler and Elmhorst, A

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meeting without an agenda is like a ship at sea without a destination or compass: no one
aboard knows where it is or where it is headed.
An agenda is prepared by the Chairperson of the meeting, or the person who calls the
meeting.
Apart from a list of topics, a comprehensive agenda should also include the following
1. The Time, Venue and Duration of the Meeting The starting time and length of the
meeting needs to be indicated, so that participants know how much to prepare and can plan
their other activities and meetings accordingly.
2. A List of Participants It is important to let all members know who will be attending the
meeting, so that they know whom to expect.
3. Background Information This could be in the form of new information, repetition of
facts as a reminder, or a brief explanation of the importance of the meeting.
4. A Clear List of Items and Goals These should be included in order to ensure that the
meeting has an outcome. Participants need to have a clear idea of their role in the meeting.
Goals should be stated so that they sound specific, result-oriented and realistic.
Example Pat will explain the advantages and disadvantages of switching to a new
supplier, so that we can take a final decision on this.
A goal stated like this helps participants to prepare adequately for the meeting. Goals may
be set by the person who calls the meeting, or in consultation with the participants.
5. Advance Preparation by Participants A good agenda tells participants how to come
prepared for the meeting for example, by reading an article, bringing important
documents, collecting facts, or jotting down their ideas on a particular issue. In case certain
members have to prepare in a specific way, this can be mentioned on their individual copy of
the agenda.
In general, the items to be discussed are listed in the descending order of priority in the
agenda i.e., from the most important to the least important item. Sometimes, the simple
issues may be listed first and then the more complicated issues.
During the Meeting
The task of conducting and moderating the meeting rests with the chairperson. He or she
must be well versed with the procedures for opening the meeting, encouraging balanced
participation, and solving problems creatively, concluding the meeting and managing time
efficiently. We shall discuss each of these procedures in detail.
1. Opening the Meeting The manner in which the meeting is opened is important, since a
good opening will ensure that the rest of the meeting will proceed smoothly. There are
different ways of opening a meeting. Generally, it is best to sum up what has been stated in
the agenda - including the goals, background information and expectations of the
participants. It is also a good idea to provide an outline of how the meeting will proceed, as
well as a time budget.
Example We will begin the meeting with a ten minute presentation by Pat on new office
equipment, followed by a fifteen minute presentation by Chris on office decoration. The last
twenty minutes will be reserved for brainstorming among the group for creative ideas for the
advertising campaign.

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2. Encouraging Balanced Participation It is also the responsibility of the chairperson to

encourage silent members to contribute to the meeting and to moderate the dominant
members, so that they do not hijack the meeting. There are several techniques to
encourage participation
Encourage Participation in the Reverse Order of Seniority This means getting the
junior members to speak or air their opinions first. If the senior people speak first, they may
feel suppressed or be afraid to disagree with their superiors.
Nominal Group Technique In this method, the meeting participants are encouraged
to work and contribute their ideas independently. It consists of five different stages
i) Each participant is asked to put down his or her ideas on paper. These are then collected
by the chairperson or a discussion leader.
ii) All the ideas are then written down on a chalkboard, so that everyone can view all the
ideas, without knowing who has contributed a particular idea. This makes the method
unbiased.
iii) All the ideas are then discussed openly by all participants. The purpose here is to
understand the ideas and not to judge them.
iv) The ideas are then rank ordered by all participants, from the best to the least promising
idea.
v) The ideas that are ranked highest by a majority of the group are then discussed critically
and a decision is made collectively on the best idea.
The above method is more suitable for decision making meetings involving important issues.
Since the process is anonymous, there is less room for conflict and more freedom to air
ones ideas.
Encourage Participation In Turns In this method, the chairperson goes around in
turns, to make sure that each member contributes to the meeting. This is a good way to
break the initial silence and start off a meeting.
Use Overhead QuestionsThese are questions that are addressed to the entire group
and which may be answered by anyone in the group.
Example Can anyone explain the reason for the sales decline?
This method is good, as long as all members participate equally.
* Use Direct Questions These are questions that are addressed to individual
members. The idea is to get quiet members to speak out.
Example What is your opinion on this issue, Pravesh?
Direct questions should be used tactfully, since they tend to create a classroom
atmosphere, which may be resented by the meeting participants.
Use Relay Questions This is similar to an overhead question. When a member asks
the chairperson a question, the chairperson refers it to the entire group, to encourage
participation.
Example Pravesh has a suggestion. What do you think of it?

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This type of question is particularly useful when the chairperson does not want to give his
own opinion and influence the group.
3. Managing Time There is no prescribed length for a meeting. The duration of a meeting
will depend on the type and purpose of the meeting. Generally, problem-solving meetings
will take longer than other routine meetings. In any case, the chairperson should set a time
budget for the meeting, depending on the agenda and ensure adherence to the time limit.
4. Keeping the Meeting Focused Often, a lot of time is wasted during meetings by going
off track and by discussing topics that are irrelevant. In such situations, it is the
responsibility of the chairperson, or the person moderating the discussion to make sure that
the discussion remains focused on the topics mentioned in the agenda. Some of the
techniques that could be used to do this are
Reminding Members of Time Constraints When members dwell on a topic for too long,
or engage in irrelevant discussions, the chairperson must intervene to remind members that
time is running out and request them to proceed to the next item
Summarizing and Moving On When an item on the agenda has been fully discussed but
the discussion rambles on, the chairperson can quickly summarize the ideas, acknowledge
the contributions and mention the next item to be discussed.
Example I think we have generated a sufficient number of excellent, creative ideas for the
advertising campaign. Maybe we should move on to discuss the media plan.
Postponing Discussion of Irrelevant Ideas Sometimes, participants may waste time by
coming up with ideas that are not relevant to the topic being discussed. In this case, the
chairperson should be firm but polite, by appreciating the idea and promising to discuss it
after the meeting.
5. Ensuring Convergence Convergence means hearing the points of view of all the
members and then arriving at a decision. It is again the responsibility of the chairperson
to bring the meeting to a point where an opinion emerges on each item of the agenda.
6. Summing Up This means summing up the different points of view, the decisions and
the actions to be taken. This should be done by the chairperson, identifying the role of each
person on each item of the agenda, along with a specified deadline.
Example Chris will take the responsibility of contacting the media and sending material
for advertisements and press releases by March 13th.
7. Concluding the Meeting The way a meeting is concluded is as important as the
opening, since it will influence the follow-up action taken on decisions made during the
meeting. The chairperson should know when and how to conclude the meeting.
The meeting should normally be concluded at the scheduled closing time, unless important
issues still remain to be discussed and members are willing to extend the meeting.
Sometimes meetings may be concluded before the closing time, when key decision makers
are not present, or when important information such as cost figures are not available.
There are different ways of concluding a meeting. One way is to signal and indicate how
much time is remaining, so that the group can wrap up the discussions. Another way is to
summarize what has been discussed and decided and to mention the follow-up action to be
taken. The role and responsibility of each member can also be mentioned, so that everyone
is clear about what is to be done after the meeting. An important point to be remembered is

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to retain the goodwill of the participants, by thanking them for their contributions. Members
who have made significant contributions should be acknowledged individually.
Example I must thank all of you for coming up with so many wonderful ideas for making
this inauguration a success. A special thanks to Chris for negotiating and getting a good
deal on the office equipment. And to Pat for the excellent design of the new office floor plan.
8. Keeping Minutes of the Meeting Since meetings are called to take important
decisions concerning the organization, it is important to maintain a permanent written
record of the proceedings, which can be referred to at a later stage, or serve as a guide for
action. Such a record is known as minutes of the meeting and may be done in an informal
or formal manner, depending on the type of meeting.

So far, we have looked at how meetings should be conducted from a chairpersons

perspective. We will now look at how participants of a meeting should conduct themselves.
There is a meeting etiquette, or code of conduct that needs to be followed by
participants.
1. Be brief and to the point It is important to focus on the topic mentioned in the agenda
and to remember that there is a time limit for the meeting. Do not dominate a meeting by
speaking more than what is necessary and do not engage in irrelevant discussions.
2. Do not say something for the sake of it Participation in a meeting does not mean just
saying something, whether it is relevant or not.
3. Contribute to add value Adding value may be done by expressing a new idea, through
constructive disagreement (e.g., why not do it this way instead?), by endorsing another
persons opinion (e.g., I agree with you) or by seeking clarification ( e.g., Can you explain
that again?).
4. Give credit where it is due It is good meeting etiquette to appreciate someone elses
idea, if you think it is good.
5. Keep an open mind to facilitate convergence Dont impose your own ideas on others.
Give others a chance to express their ideas, so that different viewpoints emerge on a single
issue.
6. Do not interrupt If you wish to say something, always signal this by raising your hand
politely at a suitable juncture.
7. Always address the chairperson Avoid bi-lateral talks and mini meetings, or
discussions with other participants, as well as speaking in another language. Address your
questions to the chairperson.
8. Use tools and technology with care As mentioned earlier, meetings today can be non
face-to-face, thanks to technological advances. When using facilities such as internal
messaging, teleconferencing and video-conferencing, remember to be brief and to avoid
using the tool for its own sake.

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After the Meeting

A meeting that proceeds smoothly will still not be successful, unless proper follow-up
measures are taken to ensure that the goals are fully accomplished. Follow-up may involve
the following steps
1. Plan for the Next meeting Very few meetings is conclusive and cover all the items in
the agenda completely. It is the chairpersons responsibility to make a note of the items that
have not been discussed and to schedule the next meeting, along with a fresh agenda. All
participants must be informed that a follow-up meeting is being planned.
2. Check Progress on Follow-up Actions Members of the meeting may have been
assigned different responsibilities and deadlines for completion of tasks. Therefore, it is
important to monitor their progress every now and then, after the meeting is over, to ensure
that the deadlines are met.
3. Do your own Groundwork Apart from monitoring the progress of meeting participants,
it is also important that you as the chairperson finish any pending work before the next
meeting.
Common Mistakes made at Meetings
Since meetings are prone to so much inefficiency, it would be relevant to round off this unit
with a list of common mistakes to avoid, both from a chairpersons as well as a participants
perspective.
1. Lack of Structure Meetings should be structured in terms of an agenda being sent to
participants in advance, the discussion being initiated by a specific person and the
chairperson ensuring that different points of view emerge. A loosely structured meeting will
not be successful.
2. No Goals or Agenda It was pointed out earlier that a meeting without an agenda lacks
direction.
3. No Pre-meeting Orientation This is the job of the chairperson. Members must be
briefed on how to prepare for the meeting.
4. Inadequate Preparation This is a mistake made by members who attend the meeting
without preparation.
5. Not Focusing on the Subject This is a common mistake made by participants who
discuss matters that are not relevant to the meeting.
6. Meetings that are too long The chairperson must try to avoid this, by ensuring
adherence to the time limit.
7. Disorganized Meetings Again, this is the chairpersons responsibility to see that the
meeting is well organized.
8. Inconclusive Meetings The chairperson must hear out all the points of view and then
arrive at a decision.
9. Ineffective Leadership This is the fault of the chairperson, if or she he fails to give
direction to the meeting..
10. Time Wasted Participants may engage in unrelated discussions and the Chairperson
may be inefficient at managing time.
11. Dominating the Discussion A few members may speak all the time, while others
remain silent.
12. No Follow-up Action The meeting may proceed satisfactorily, but nothing is done after
the meeting either by the chairperson or the participants, to ensure that the meeting goals
are accomplished.

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Importance of Minutes of Meeting:

When our meetings aren't effective, we waste valuable time figuring out what we are
trying to accomplish in them.
When our meeting minutes aren't effective, we waste the time we spent in meetings.
Without good meeting notes or minutes, we may not remember or recognize:

What we decided in the meeting

What we accomplished in the meeting
What we agreed to in terms of next steps (action items)

And when we can't remember the items above, we end up going in different directions and
then meeting again for the same original purpose!
(Definition: Notes and minutes are the same thing. Minutes are more formal and are often
required by organizational bylaws.)
To avoid wasting your time spent in meetings, be sure your notes and minutes answer
these 10 questions:
1. When was the meeting?
2. Who attended?
3. Who did not attend? (Include this information if it matters.)
4. What topics were discussed?
5. What was decided?
6. What actions were agreed upon?
7. Who is to complete the actions, by when?
8. Were materials distributed at the meeting? If so, are copies or a link available?
9. Is there anything special the reader of the minutes should know or do?
10. Is a follow-up meeting scheduled? If so, when? Where? Why?
Minutes need headings so that readers can skim for the information they need.

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Do's and Don'ts of Writing Minutes :

Do write minutes soon after the meeting--preferably within 48 hours. That way, those
who attended can be reminded of action items, and those who did not attend will promptly
know what happened.
Don't skip writing minutes just because everyone attended the meeting and knows what
happened. Meeting notes serve as a record of the meeting long after people forget what
happened.
Don't describe all the "he said, she said" details unless those details are very important.
Record topics discussed, decisions made, and action items.
Don't include any information that will embarrass anyone(for example, "Then Terry left
the room in tears").
Do
use
positive
language. Rather
than
describing
the
discussion
as heated or angry, use passionate, lively, orenergetic--all of which are just as true as the
negative words.

Tips for Preparing the Minutes of a Meeting

1. Minutes are not a description of what happened at a meeting they are the official record
of decisions that were taken. So keep them brief and accurate.
2. Minutes usually cover the following:
Apologies for absence offered on behalf of anyone who cannot attend.
Minutes of the last meeting. (If everyone agrees that they are accurate a copy will be signed
and filed.)
Matters Arising. (This is a report of action taken or progress made since the last meeting.)
New Business. (Here items of new business are dealt with this is usually the longest part
of the meeting.)
Any Other Business. (This item gives members an opportunity to raise matters of minor
importance that have not been included in the agenda.)
Date/Time/Place of next meeting.
3. Minutes should include:
The purpose of the meeting (ie its title).

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 The date and place of the meeting.

The names of those present and those who sent apologies for absence. (If it is a large
meeting numbers only will be given.)
The business transacted and the decisions taken.
Any resolutions passed, or motions defeated.
4. When taking notes of a meeting dont try to write everything down. Concentrate only on
what is relevant and what decisions are taken.
5. Write up the minutes from your notes as soon as possible after the meeting while it is still
fresh in your mind. If you cannot do this, then at least read through your notes so that you
make sure you understand them and can fill in any gaps.
6. When writing the minutes from your notes use plenty of numbered points and subheadings so that everything is clear.
7. Always use the past tense and it is often better to choose the passive rather than the
active voice. (It was agreed, It was decided) These two examples also demonstrate the
empty it construction. It is useful in minutes because they should be impersonal; so avoid
the use of we and us.
8. When you have finished the minutes and had them typed-up, always check them
carefully for accuracy of content and also for correct spelling and punctuation.
9. When complete, minutes should be circulated to all the people who attended. They can
then be signed at the start of the next meeting if everyone agrees that they are accurate.
10. And a very important point: the format for minutes varies from organization to
organization. There is no right or wrong way be guided by whats usual in your
company.

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Executive Summary of Documents

The executive summary is the most important part of a business document. It is the first
(and sometimes the only) thing others will read and the last thing you should write. It is
simply a brief summary of the document, given so that the busy people who will read your
document know at a glance how much to read and what actions will probably be needed.
What Is It For?
Summarize large bodies of research
Written for someone who will not read the entire document
Intended as an adequate representation of the entire document, in a shortened form.
Academic Research
Scientific Data
What Does it Do?
Gives readers the essential contents of your document in a small quantity of pages (5-10%
of the total document).
Previews the main points of your document enabling readers to build a mental framework
for organizing and understanding the detailed information in your document.
Helps readers determine the key results and recommendations reported in your document.
Spells out any uncommon symbols, abbreviations, or acronyms
Defines any unfamiliar methods or processes
Allows the reader to draw conclusions and make decisions based on the data

How To Write It
1. Write the Executive Report after writing the rest of the content and adequately
structuring it
2. Scan your research to determine what the content, structure and length of the report
would be.
3. Highlight key points; determine purpose/central theme of the report.

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4. Review your research and determine what the key ideas or concepts are.
5. Group ideas in a logical fashion and prepare a bullet form outline of the summary.
6. Edit the outline to eliminate secondary or minor points; use your judgment to keeping the
summary concise.
7. Determine whether subtitles, bullets, selective bolding or some other type of
organizational structure will add to the clarity of your summary.
8. Write the summary in your own words, using a professional style.

Elements of an Executive Summary

Conclusions & Recommendations :The most important part of your Executive Summary;
write this
first.
Methods

:What techniques did you use? How many users did you
talk to? Why should we listen to you?

Results

:What did you observe, discover or understand?

Scope
body of

:Write this last; what is the broad structure of the entire

research?

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b)

Non-Verbal Communications

Types of Communication
Broadly, communication may be divided into two areas verbal and non-verbal
communication.
Verbal communication, or communication through words, provides the opportunity for
personal contact and two-way flow of information. A large part of our communication,
whether at work or outside, is verbal in nature. Verbal communication in turn, may be
divided into two areas oral and written communication.
Oral communication may be defined as a process whereby a speaker interacts verbally
with one or more listeners, in order to influence the latters behavior in some way or the
other.
Example In a business context, a manager doing a performance appraisal with an
employee, or a sales manager making a sales plan presentation to his sales team. In the first
example, the manager may point out areas for improvement and in the second case, the
sales manager may be explaining how to achieve new sales targets.
Oral communication in a business context can take the form of meetings, presentations,
one-to-one meetings, performance reviews and so on.
Written communication is a process whereby a writer interacts verbally with a
receiver, in order to influence the latters behavior.
Example A manager writing a letter of apology in response to a customers complaint
regarding poor service.
Written communication at the workplace can take several forms such as letters, memos,
circulars, notices, reports and email. We will examine some of these in more detail in later
chapters.
Non-verbal communication, on the other hand may be defined as communication without
words. It refers to any way of conveying meanings without the use of verbal language.
The game of dumb charades is a perfect example. Non-verbal communication is generally
unintentional, unlike verbal communication. All of us tend to communicate silently and
unknowingly send signals and messages by what we do, apart from what we say. Gestures,
facial expressions, posture and the way we dress, are all part of non-verbal communication.
Non-verbal communication can have a greater impact than verbal communication, since
how you say something is sometimes more important than what you say. Although nonverbal communication can affect both our personal and business relationships, it is
particularly important in the workplace.

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Verbal Communication
We communicate most of our ideas to others through verbal messages, i.e., through spoken
or written messages. However, verbal messages have some drawbacks the message may
not be properly worded, or the message may be misunderstood, or interpreted differently
from its intended meaning.
For example, even a simple statement like lets discuss this matter tomorrow might be
interpreted by one person as lets meet tomorrow and by another as lets discuss this over
the phone.
Miscommunication through verbal messages could be avoided by following a few simple
guidelines
Avoid Words with Multiple Meanings: Words sometimes tend to have different meanings
in different cultures. Therefore, when communicating in a cross-cultural context, it is
particularly important to avoid literal translation of words, since they might have a negative
meaning in another culture.
Example: The advertising campaign for Electrolux vacuum cleaners with the slogan
Nothing sucks like an Electrolux, was introduced without any changes in the American
market. However, the product failed since the word sucks which is American slang, has a
negative connotation which means bad.
Even simple words used in the same cultural context could have multiple meanings and be
interpreted differently.
Example: If I ask you What kind of shape are you in?, you might understand it to mean
what kind of financial position you are in, whereas the intended meaning might have been
What kind of mental or physical shape are you in?.
Therefore, when communicating verbally, it is important to use words that are precise,
unambiguous and have a single accepted meaning.
Ensure Clarity through Highly Specific Statements: Instead of describing an object or
idea in general terms or in abstract language, use highly specific language to avoid a variety
of interpretations.
Example If you are calling the IT support staff in your organization to fix a problem with
your computer, instead of saying My computer doesnt work, it is better to state in more
precise terms that I get a message saying that my computer is not responding.
Avoid overuse of Jargon: Jargon refers to technical terms or specialized vocabulary.
Every profession has its own jargon which only experts in that field can understand. For
example, IT experts use terms like computer architecture which the layperson may not
understand. The use of jargon depends on the audience with whom you are communicating.
A certain amount of jargon may be permissible when writing a technical report for example,
but should be avoided when communicating with a general audience, since the terms may
not be understood. Above all, never use jargon just to impress your audience.

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 Avoid Biased Language and Offensive Words : Language has the power to arouse
negative feelings, if it is not used with care. This can happen when the words used seem to
be objective, but actually contain an intentional or unintentional bias.
For example, referring to a co-worker as wishy washy if he is not quick in making a
decision, could lead to misunderstanding and conflict. Similarly, certain words may have a
sexist connotation and be taken in an offensive way for example, referring to a lady
receptionist as that female.
Non-verbal Communication
We have defined non-verbal communication earlier in this unit. Let us now take a look at
some of its characteristics, which distinguish it from verbal communication.
* Non-verbal Communication Cannot Be Avoided While one can avoid verbal
communication by refusing to speak or write, it is not possible to do the same with nonverbal communication. That is because non-verbal communication is not always intentional,
unlike verbal messages, as pointed out earlier. Sometimes, silence itself may convey a lot of
meaning.
Example A speaker making a presentation may find that the audience is not very
interactive. Instead he notices people yawning during his presentation. At the end of the
session, when he asks for some feedback, there is total silence.
The message conveyed in the above example is that the audience is bored with the session.
The silence indicates that they have not listened to the session and that the feedback is
negative.
* Non-verbal Communication is Powerful Non-verbal communication helps us to form
first impressions and make judgments of others. First impressions generally tend to be
lasting impressions.
Let us say you go for a job interview fifteen minutes late and dressed in informal attire.
When asked some questions, you avoid eye contact. This immediately reflects on your
attitude and the impression formed of you is that of a person who takes things casually, is
insecure and lacks knowledge.
* Non-verbal Communication is Ambiguous While precise words can be used in verbal
communication to ensure that that the message is clearly understood, non-verbal
communication is not always clear and easy to understand.
For example, sitting back in a relaxed posture may be a signal of boredom or fatigue.
Similarly, avoiding eye contact with your audience could mean that either you are nervous
or guilty of something!
Therefore it is not possible to accurately understand the messages conveyed by non-verbal
behavior.
* Non-verbal Communication Cannot Express All Messages Non-verbal behavior can
only express a persons feelings, attitudes, level of interest, liking or dislike for something.

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Certain messages about ideas or concepts can only be expressed through the spoken or
written word. Consider the following exampleA sales manager wanting to report that sales for the current year has exceeded targets, can
only do so through a written report or oral presentation. If he is making an oral
presentation, his non-verbal behavior can only indicate how pleased he is about the increase
in sales.
*Non-verbal Communication Varies Across Cultures While certain types of non-verbal
behavior are universal, others may be different in different cultures.
Examples There are different rules regarding the appropriateness of the handshake in
oriental and western cultures. Generally, in oriental cultures like India, any form of physical
contact is not common and is interpreted as being intimate, while it is an accepted thing in
western countries.
Similarly, a nod of the head means yes in some cultures and no in other cultures.
In this age of business communication across cultures, it is important for you to understand
these differences, especially when doing business overseas. Failure to do this could lead to
costly blunders.
Classification of Non-verbal Communication
We have seen how non-verbal communication plays an important role in business
communication. Given its importance, an understanding of the different types of non-verbal
communication is essential. There is a common misconception that non-verbal
communication is synonymous with body language and includes only body language. The
fact is that it is a vast area which has been widely researched and includes several aspects.
The table below lists the different types of non-verbal communication, with the
corresponding communication terminology-

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Types of Non-verbal Communication

Let us now look at each of the above aspects of non-verbal communication in detail1. Kinesics This is the most often studied and important area of non-verbal
communication and refers to body movements of any kind. Different body movements can
express inner states of emotion.
Facial Expressions can convey feelings of surprise, happiness, anger and sadness. If you
meet a long lost friend and say Im very happy to meet you again, but with a sad facial
expression, it conveys the exact opposite meaning.
Eye Movements, such as wide open pupils express feelings of surprise, excitement or even
fear. The importance of eye contact with ones audience was pointed out earlier. Direct eye
contact is an indication of intensity and interest, while lack of it can convey feelings of
nervousness and guilt.
Gestures, such as movement of the hands while giving a lecture or presentation indicates a
high level of involvement in what you are saying. On the other hand, shuffling of the feet is a
sign of nervousness and speaking with ones hands in ones pockets is considered to be
casual or even rude.
Head Movements like nodding the head can convey interest, appreciation, agreement or
understanding.
Body Shape and Posture Body shape is not within ones control but can be stereotyped to
convey certain meanings. For example, someone who is strong and muscular is generally
thought to be athletic, as opposed to a person who is short and fat!
Posture on the other hand is within our control. In formal settings such as job interviews or
classroom settings, it is essential that you maintain an erect posture to convey that you are
attentive, since slouching or a relaxed posture conveys a casual attitude.
Physical Appearance Our outward appearance, including the way we dress and the
jewelry and make-up that we wear can convey an impression of formality or informality.
Going to a job interview dressed in blue jeans or not sticking to a stipulated dress code at
the workplace can convey that you are a rebel, non-conformist or a very casual person.
Therefore, it is important to take care of your appearance, so that you convey the right
meaning to others.
2. Proxemics Proxemics is derived from the word proximity or closeness and is the
communication term for personal space and distance. The space and distance which we
choose to keep from people is also part of non-verbal communication. Each of us has our
own inner and outer circles, which differ for different people.
Our inner most circle is an intimate space, into which we generally admit only select
people such as family and close friends. Next comes a personal space which might
include other friends and colleagues or coworkers. These two spaces involve communication
of an informal nature.

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Most of us also have a social and public space, which includes official or workplace
relationships, where the communication is of a more formal nature.
In a business context, it is more relevant to understand the concept of fixed space and
semi-fixed space.
Fixed space means that the physical features of the work environment such as furniture,
room size and seating arrangement are permanent. This conveys an impression of formality.
On the other hand, semi-fixed space means that certain elements of the environment can be
changed for example, the seating arrangement could be changed and this conveys an
impression of informality.
Sometimes, use of space at the workplace can determine leadership positions. For example,
seating at the head of the table conveys leadership or authority. A round table meeting,
however, conveys the idea of equality, since no one can be seated at the head of the table!
All points of a circle are the same. That is why when heads of state meet (as in UN Security
Council meetings), it is always a round table discussion, since all heads are equal.
Space should therefore be used carefully in a work environment, so as to convey the right
impressions.
3. Time Language This refers to the meaning or importance attached to time and
varies between different people. One person may value time more than another. Similarly,
time language also varies across cultures.
In most western cultures for example, punctuality is considered to be important. Arriving
late for a business meeting is inexcusable. In other cultures, it is more relaxed and time is
not given that much importance.
We convey messages to others through the time we spend on a work related activity or by
the importance that we give to time. Arriving early at work or for a job interview shows
interest, involvement and seriousness. Spending time with an employee and giving him
suggestions on how to improve his performance shows interest and involvement in his
career growth.
4. Paralanguage Para means like or similar to, therefore paralanguage means like
language. Of all the forms of non-verbal communication, paralanguage is closest to verbal
communication. It refers to the tone of voice with which something is said. In other words,
it is how something is said, and not what is said. The tone of voice includes the pitch
(high or low pitch), the pace (slow or fast) the emphasis on words and the volume (soft or
loud) and can convey different moods and emotions, as mentioned earlier in this unit.
Example: The statement I practice good business communication can be understood in
different ways, depending on the emphasis on certain words.
Saying I practice good business communication means that I alone practice it above
anyone else. On the other hand, saying I practice good business communication could be
interpreted to mean that you communicate particularly well in a business context, rather
than in a general context.

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The important point to keep in mind regarding tone of voice is to avoid mixed signals that
is, making sure that what you say is consistent with how you say it.
5. Physical Context This refers to the physical environment or surroundings within
which we communicate and includes two aspects 1) color and layout and 2) design.
Colors are known for their symbolic meaning and have associations with different feelings.
For example, colors like black and grey are associated with death, mourning and negative
feelings. Yellow and green are associated with more positive feelings. Of course, these can
also vary across cultures. The point to remember is that you can make the right impressions
with use of the right colors.
Layout in a work environment refers to the size of an office, or the arrangement of furniture.
Design refers to the type of chairs, desks or carpeting. All these can convey status, formality
or informality.
We have seen how the types of non-verbal communication outnumber the types of verbal
communication. Non-verbal communication is an important supplement to verbal
communication and can enhance verbal communication, if used in a positive way. The
sender should use the right non-verbal cues to convey a positive message, while the receiver
should learn to look for unintended messages conveyed by non-verbal communication.

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c) Oral Communications: Art of

public speaking, Effective Listening
Art of public speaking
Throughout each day in our personal life and in the world of business we orally
communicate with customers, colleagues, associates ,supervisors,employees ,employers and
others.
Strategies for improving oral presentations
Let us understand the strategy by discussing about :

Steps for preparing effective presentations

Follow following seven steps:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Determine the purpose

Analyse the audience and occasion
Select the main idea for the message
Research the topic
Organise the data and write the draft
Create visual aids
Rehearse the talk

Kind of oral presentations

Basically ,all oral communication lies between informative speaking on one end of a
continuum and persuasion at the other end. Short talk may range from 1 to 10 minutes in
length.

Ways of delivering the oral message

We have four options for speaking:

1. Extemporaneous : This is preferred by both audience and speaker-allows a speaker
to use notes or an outline.
2. Reading
:Major political figures and others who do not want to make
mistakes read a manuscript.
3. Memorization
:A risk of memorization is forgetting precise words and groping for
words in front of an audience decreases your credibility.

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4. Impromptu :When you speak off the cuff ,without preparation ,without a
forewarning that you will speak ,you are speaking impromptu.

Strategies for using an effective oral delivery

You can give life to your delivery in following ways :

1. Pitch : Pitch is highness or lowness of your voice.Pitch should vary because
lack of variation may result in being called a monotone.Example Mary dont do
that can be spoken with emphasis on each words separately.
2. Rate : Most communication experts suggest the range for public speaker lies
between 80 to 160 words per minutes.Variation in rate is better than speaking
at the same speed.
3. Volume : Unless you as a speakers is heard ,many of your words will be lost.
Adapt your volume level to the size of the audience and room.
4. Vocal Quality : Ones voice is hard to describe; we often turn to metaphors to
describe voice quality.
5. Pronunciation: Suggestion for improving pronunciation are listening to the
educated and cultured people of your community and consulting a recent
dictionary.

Strategies for effective non verbal delivery

1. Posture : Make right posture because how you stand ,even sit,communicates
something about yo as a communicator.
2. Movement : Lectern (stand for speaker's papers ) are movement-inhibiting. If
you must use a lectern ,try moving slightly from one edge to the other.
3. Gesture : At a simplistic level any movement of head,shoulders,arms and
hands are termed as gestures and there is an entire science of body movement
called kinesics of which gestures are a part.
Emblems: Behaviors that has direct verbal counterparts such as the
arm wave for hello or goodbyes.
Illustrators: Here belongs the gestures ,usually the arm used to
describe a circle or finger pointing to emphasize a point. As Emblems
have direct verbal counterpart ,illustrators do not.
Affect Displays: Speakers may use any of the primary emotional states
usually via facial expression: happiness, sadness, anger ,fear, surprise,
disgust, contempt and interest.
Regulators : Speakers use body movements of their audience to search
out responses to their message.Thus listener may nod their
head,maintain eye contact,shift their postures ,incline their heads to
hear better.
Adapters : These are often unintentional movements to a physical or
psychological state :scratching a nose ,twisting a pencil ,smoothing
ones hair.
To emphasize : For example ,the clenched fist emphasizes a point by
either hitting the palm of the hand or shaking it upright before an
audience.

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To Point : Th index finger calls attention ,indicating either locations or

directions.
To Reject
To Describe

Following suggestions may be kept in mind regarding gestures:

Vary Gesture : Using same action repeatedly is boring to the audience and suggest
lack of creativity on your part.
Avoid Continuous Gesture: Give audience some break as overuse can weaken the
emphasis.
Watch Timing: The gesture should accompany the oral thought, not precede or
follow it.
Adapt Gestures : Adapt to the size of the group. Seated at a table is not the time for
broad ,all inclusive gestures.On the other hand ,a large audience would not see a
small gesture.
4. Facial Expressions : A smile or or a laugh suggests that your topics interests
you .A frown or glare convey non verbal impressions that you are worried
,angry or perhaps ill at use.Facial expression include eye contact. Speakers
who bury their head in their notes or who speak to the screen behind them
lose a sense of directness with the audience.Eye contact with your listeners
suggest respect and goodwill ,adding to a favourable impression of you as a
speaker.
5. Appearance : Western attire is accepted throughout the world .Conversely,
western businesspersons must recognize that other nations may have different
dress code.

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Strategies for effective non verbal delivery

Regardless of culture ,stage fright is universal: The heart rate increases ,blood pressure and
body temperature rise and mouth run dry !
In a true sense it is Mind over matter , confidence above all ,feeling that you know the
subject better than anyone else ,that yo are in charge.
Adopt following strategies to decrease speaking fears:

Know the subject well

Rehearse your talk
Request in advance a lectern
Pre-check any equipment you need
Breathe deeply and slowly before speaking
Move during the speech
Approach lectern with assurance and enthusiasm

So, how does a presentation and a presenter becomes persuasive and more effective ?
There are 4 critical factors :
1. Logos
Translated from Greek, it means logic. Information must make sense it needs to be
organized logically so people can follow along. Not only is organization important, but so are
the facts and figures that make your case. Information that hits the head falls into the
logos category.
2. Pathos
Pathos = emotions. We are moved by our emotions hitting the heart and the gut. Not
everyone is moved by the same things, however. Some people are motivated by money;
others by prestige or power. The better you know the people that you want to persuade
(their demographics, job levels, reasons for being there, etc.), the better you can use
examples that will move them. Overall, a speakers goal is to create a need driven by the
positives that the people will achieve by doing what the presenter suggests or the pain they
will experience by not doing it.

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3. Ethos
Your ethos is your credibility. If people believe and trust you as a speaker, you will have a
much easier time getting them to believe what you have to say. If they dont like or trust
you, it would be rare for them to buy into your ideas. There would always be an
undercurrent of skepticism. This unearned credibility can come from the bio audience
members read before attending your presentation, or in the words of an introducer reading
your prepared introduction.
4. Passion
No matter what the message, a speaker must deliver it with passion. Use vocal variation that
makes the message convincing.

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Paths to
Audience

Pathos: How

to

Connect

with

Your

Strong pathos in presentations can be made through a variety of following emotional

pathways :
1: Select Emotional Themes and Points
You always have choices to make about which points to include in the time allotted. Be sure
that some of them carry emotional power. Example: Suppose you have identified fifteen
reasons why your audience should consider public speaking training. Unfortunately, your
short speech only allows you to discuss three or four of them. Which do you choose?
Conquer your public speaking fear probably evokes stronger emotions than Learn to speak
with more precision.

2: Choose Words which Add Emotional Emphasis

Some words are emotionally neutral, while some are emotionally charged. Exercise judgment
to select the words which fit the emotional tone that works to your advantage.
Example: Consider the difference in words used to label a suicide bomber on opposing sides
of a political war. What emotion does the label terrorist evoke? What emotion does the label
martyr evoke? Which one would best complement your speech?
3: Use Rich Analogies and Metaphors
Analogies, metaphors, and other figures of speech not only make your speech more
interesting, but often allow you to make an emotional connection by tapping into emotions
already felt by your audience.
Example: If you speak about gang violence, you might plainly state that We have
a problem in our city On the other hand, you might say We have a cancer in our city
The latter analogy draws on your audiences pre-existing feelings about cancer, and makes
them want to eradicate the cause!
4: Tell Stories
Stories are often the quickest path to the greatest emotional connection with your audience.
Carefully crafted stories allow you to evoke any of a wide range of emotions. This may
explain why stories are often the most memorable components of a speech.

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5: Use Humor
Humor is closely related to storytelling, because you usually arrive at humor through
stories. Nonetheless, humor merits special mention. Humor in a presentation evokes
emotions such as joy and surprise, and often triggers secondary emotions such as calmness
and friendship. If your audience is laughing, they are having fun. If they are having fun,
they are happy to be listening to you and they are attentive. As an added boost, humor
makes your audience like you (at least for a moment), and that boosts your ethos too.
6: Connect through Visuals
Maybe you have slides with photographs. Maybe you have a prop. Either way, a concrete
visual element opens many more emotional pathways than abstract words alone.
Examples: Consider the following pairs, and ask yourself which creates the stronger
emotional impact:
Saying that smoking damages lung tissue versus Showing a slide with a

photograph of tar-like lung tissue

Claiming that

cords

from

window

blinds

pose

risk

to

children

versus

Showing (with a prop) how the cords might strangle a baby doll.

7: Model the Emotion with Your Delivery Techniques

The emotional effectiveness of stories, humor, visuals, and other content tools often
depends greatly on your delivery. Great delivery magnifies emotions; poor delivery nullifies
them.
Example: Words from your mouth or slides on a screen may induce sadness in your
audience, but the effect is multiplied when combined with sadness on your face, in your
posture, and in your voice.
8: Analyze Your Audience
When your audience feels an emotion, they are motivated to act.
Without doing any audience analysis at all, you always know two things:
1.

Everyone in your audience is human.

2.

Most humans share many emotional triggers.

As a result, you can always achieve moderate success applying the first seven tools.

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But to hit a pathos home run, youve got to analyze your audience. Are they old or young?
Technical or non-technical? Male or female? Rich or poor? Liberal or conservative? These
and many other factors will impact which emotional triggers will have the strongest impact.
Do the analysis!
9: Evoke Curiosity with Marketing Materials
When your audience feels an emotion, they are motivated to act. If the emotion is pity, they
are motivated to address the situation (e.g. perhaps by donating money to charity).
In a similar way, if you make your audience curious through your marketing materials, they
are motivated to act. How does one act on curiosity?

Show up to the presentation

Pay attention

Take notes

Engage with the speaker and follow along

So, make your audience curious. Include a bold claim or a startling statistic. (Of course, you
need to follow up in your presentation.) Focus on the benefits to be realized by your
audience, and their curiosity will attract them to your speech.
10: Evoke Surprise (in the Introduction and elsewhere)
A great way to connect immediately with your audience is to start with a surprise. A
surprise gets your audience excited. Getting them excited makes them listen.
Surprise can be effective elsewhere, particularly as the length of your speech grows. Like
curiosity, your audience is motivated to act on the surprise. How? They try to resolve how
this surprising element fits with the rest of the presentation. To do that, they have to listen.
11: Use Vivid, Sensory Words
Concentrate on concrete, vivid, sensory words. When you use sensory words, your audience
feels emotions they have associated with those words.
Example: When you mention the touch of your fathers flannel shirt or the aroma of your
grandmothers kitchen, youve done more than just mention fabric and smells. You have
evoked emotions which, depending on your audience, probably include loving memories of
childhood.
12: Be Authentic

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Remember that the goal of pathos is to connect with the audience and share emotions with
them.
To share an emotion, youve got to feel it too.
Pathos is not about tugging emotional strings as if you were a puppeteer. You get zero
marks for that. Actually, you get negative marks for that, because your ethos gets destroyed
when the audience realizes you are toying with them.
Be honest. Share your presentation in a way that your audience will feel as passionately as
you feel.
13: Match Your Vocal Delivery to the Emotion
Vocal delivery is one clear clue to how you feel about what you are saying. Your tone,
volume, pace, and other vocal qualities should mirror your emotions.
Examples:

Anger might be accompanied by a loud, defiant voice.

Sadness or despair might call for a softer voice.

Optimism or excitement might be matched by a quickened pace.

14: Match Your Gestures to the Emotion
Your body is another clue for the audience to gauge your emotions. If you are telling a story
about love or joy, your body shouldnt look like a mannequin. If you are revealing your own
disappointment in a story, your shoulders should probably droop, and you shouldnt be
smiling.
Some speakers find it difficult to do this because they are speaking about past events where
the emotions have dulled with the memories over time. The emotions were felt then, but
arent as easy to summon now. Youve got to show the audience how it felt in the moment.
Remember that they are hearing this story for the first time.
15: Connect with Your Eyes
Eye contact isnt a scorecard. Your aim isnt to collect check-marks from each person who
you look at over the course of your presentation.
Meaningful eye contact is about connecting with one person at a time. Your eyes should
express your frustration, your contempt, or your joy. In the ideal case, the person youre
looking at will mirror your emotion back to you. Thats connection!

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16: Eliminate Physical Barriers to Connect with Your Audience

In most speaking situations, your goal should be to reduce barriers between you and your
audience. Get out from behind the lectern. Move closer to the audience. Ask them to sit in
the seats near the front.
The closer you are to your audience, the more personal your presentation feels for them. The
more personal it feels, the greater your chance for emotional connection.

17: Eliminate Competing Emotions in the Environment

There usually are a myriad of competing elements in and around the room which are
evoking emotions in your audience. For instance, a marching band practicing outside might
be annoying your audience. If this annoyance is strong, it may prevent you from evoking
competing emotions with your presentation.
The solution is to take charge and eliminate or minimize these causes whenever you can so
that your audience can focus on you.
Examples:

Hunger and biological needs create strong emotions. Take appropriate breaks if you
deliver lengthy training.

Excessive noise, temperature extremes (either too hot or too cold), or poor lighting
make your audience uncomfortable and perhaps even angry at you or the organizer. Do
whatever you can to optimize the conditions.

Speaking over your allotted time may make your audience nervous or anxious if
theyve got to pick up their kids. Stick to your time bounds.
18: Avoid Tripping Emotional Land Mines
Situations where you arent familiar with your audience are potentially dangerous. Perhaps
youve been invited to speak at a company which has just experienced massive layoffs.
Perhaps youve been invited to speak to an audience of a different culture. In either case,
youve got to be careful not to say something (or gesture something) which accidentally
triggers an emotion that you had not intended.

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How to Use the Rule of Three in Your Speeches

The rule of three is powerful speechwriting technique that you should learn, practice, and
master.
Using the Rule of Three allows you to express concepts more completely, emphasize your
points, and increase the memorability of your message.
Thats the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth.
What is the rule of three? What are some famous examples? How do you use it in speeches?
Read on!
Western Culture and the Rule of Three
Trios, triplets, and triads abound in Western culture in many disciplines. Just a small
sampling of memorable cultural triads include:
Christianity

Father, Son, and Holy Spirit

Heaven, hell, and purgatory

Movies & Books

The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly

Sex, Lies, and Videotape

Supermans Truth, Justice, and the American Way

In a more general sense, there is the allure of trilogies as with Indiana

Jones, The Godfather, The Matrix, Star Wars, and many others.
Politics

U.S. Branches of Government: Executive, Judicial, and Legislative

U.S. Declaration of Independence: Life, liberty, and the pursuit of

happiness
Abundance of tri-colored flags

Civic, Organizational, and Societal Mottos

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Fire safety motto: Stop, Drop, and Roll

Olympic motto: Citius, Altius, Fortius or Faster, Higher, Stronger

Real estate: Location, Location, Location

Historic Rule of Three Speech Examples

Speechwriting is, of course, part of our culture. Examples of the Rule of Three can be found
in some of the most famous speeches ever delivered:
Julius Caesar

Veni, vidi, vici (I came, I saw, I conquered)

Shakespeares Julius Caesar

Friends, Romans, Countrymen. Lend me your ears.

Abraham Lincolns Gettysburg Address

We can not dedicate we can not consecrate we can not hallow this

ground.
Government of the people, by the people, for the people

General MacArthur, West Point Address, 1962

Duty, Honor, Country [repeated several times in the speech]

Barack Obama, Inaugural Speech

we must pick ourselves up, dust ourselves off, and begin again the work of

remaking America

Whats Magical About the Rule of Three?

It is reasonable to ask whats so special about three? Why is it so popular in our culture?
Arent there just as many examples of two- or four-element famous speech lines?
For a famous duo, there is Patrick Henrys Give me liberty or give me death.
For a classic quartet, it is tough to beat Winston Churchills I would say to the House as I
said to those who have joined this government: I have nothing to offer but blood, toil, tears
and sweat.
Despite examples like these, there is something magical about the Rule of Three in the way
that it allows a speaker to express a concept, emphasize it, and make it memorable.
Use one for power. Use two for comparison, contrast. Use three for completeness,
wholeness, roundness. Use four or more to list, inventory, compile, and expand.

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Oral Presentation Skills

Many of us are now required to make presentations as a part of our job. Indeed for some
people it will limit their career prospects if they are seen to be reluctant to make them. For
the lucky few it doesn't seem to be a problem: they seem to have always been able to do it
and thrive on it. For the rest of us, however, presentation skills are something we learn.
Given that it can be a daunting and even frightening area of learning for most of us, it would
seem sensible to use an approach that seeks to make it easy and enjoyable rather than one
that makes it even more difficult.
The difficult presentation skills path is the one where you learn to get it right first time, to
be flawless in your delivery and to make no mistakes. This is "how to" learning. Learning
what to do and what not do.
The First Law of Presentation Skills
Presentation Audiences Sleep!
While we're on the subject of audiences, there is only one thing you really need to know
about audiences, audience interaction, handling questions or anything else involving them.
They sleep!
That is their function. All presentation dynamics are set up to encourage this. They sit, you
stand. You speak, they listen. Often the lighting and heating are soporific.
It follows then, that your bottom-line function is not to present well, but to keep waking
them up! Every one of us has slept through some pretty good presentations because the
presenter wasn't following the first law of presenting. If they are not awake, stop what you
are doing and do something different. Most people are sent to sleep by a breaking of the
second law. Repetition can also be not moving (repetition of stillness); it can be even vocal
tone (monotony).
The Second Law of Presentation Skills
Repetition is Death
When you understand how presenting works you discover that all these things only look
wrong if they are repeated. A gesture used over and over again becomes at first irritating and
then all consuming; your audience won't be able pay attention to anything else.
The easy presentation skills route then, is to do all the things people will tell you are "wrong"
one after the other. This has the magical effect of freeing up your body language and, very
quickly, your hands will start working in concert with your words. Incidentally, the reason
we feel so self-conscious when presenting is perfectly rational. You are stood in front of a
group of people who are looking at you, judging you, trying to interpret and understand you.
It is important that you are aware of what you are doing.

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Your options, however, are not to start using different body language. No, your options are
how much to use, or feature, your present body language. So, in place of all those 'don't do'
rules, you can have just have the second law - no repetition.
The Third Law of Presentation Skills
Feelings are a poor indicator of how you are doing
An area of presentation skills that seems rarely to be addressed is how we feel about
ourselves when we are presenting. This is the area of self-image and confidence. Here,
there is also a hard route and an easy one. The hard route is to do everything yourself. To be
your own critic and to monitor your own performance. This means that you have to learn to
be objective about yourself. For any type of performer this takes years of dedicated work.
The problem is that we are always the worst person to give ourselves advice about how we
are doing.
For instance. You're stood in front of a group of your peers talking through an idea you've
had. You lose your train of thought, somebody interrupts with a question about an aspect
you haven't thought through, you struggle to regain your composure, limp through to the
end and sit down mortified (worst case scenario here). Now, how do you think you've done?
Chances are you will base your assessment on how you feel and the little voices in your
head (you know, the ones that tell you how stupid, useless, silly etc. you are).
However ask some of your colleagues how you did and they will say things like. "I'm always
impressed by the way she brings new ideas to the team " or "She handled Charan well. He's
always so negative about new ideas".
People don't see everything that's going on inside us. They just see what they see. This
means that the best information you need about how you are doing lives in other people.
You remember that old saying "Perception is reality"? Well this is it in action.
The point of making a presentation is to communicate ideas and concepts to other people. If
they clearly get your message it makes no difference that you feel you didn't express it
clearly. It would be nice if you felt good, but that can be just as deceptive! You can be having
a great time banging on about something with a group of people who don't care and aren't
interested.
The good news in this is that you don't have to do any of the "how am I doing?" presentation
skills work. They do it all for you. All you have to do is watch. If they are smiling, you must
be saying amusing things. If they are not paying attention, you're obviously not being very
stimulating. If they are arguing, you must be challenging them.
So exactly how does presenting work and what's the point of it all?

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The Fourth Law of Presentation Skills

The Presentation job is to get them to want more of what you've got
Presentation works if you impact your audience in some way. They can even be impacted in
a way you don't want and didn't choose and the act of presentation is still working. Not as
you'd like, but it is still working. The point of a presentation is to get the audience to want
what you've got.
This is important to grasp. The hard way to present is to gather all the information you
have, put it together in a faultless presentation and deliver it impeccably. The mistake here
is to think that a presentation is a good medium for delivering information. The easy way to
present is to put together the bits that will appeal to the people you are speaking to and to
use them to entice your audience into wanting to know more. Once you've got there you can
stop. Your job is done. They will get the information for themselves. The difference
here is rather like getting someone to read a book. You don't do it by reading the book to
them; you do it by reading the NDTV blurb (recommendation).
The Fifth Law of Presentation Skills
When you're making a Presentation you're in charge
Now we come to one of my personal favourites. When you are presenting you are in charge.
In charge of everything. This is the way that the agreement about presenting works. When
people accept the role of audience they effectively say, "Ok, over to you. What have you got?"
This means you are put in a very powerful position. It may not feel that way.
The feeling we usually start out with is it's just little old me and all of them. The journey we
make from there is one of 'ownership'. It is effectively a claiming of territory that most
audiences will willingly give up. When you begin to work from a position of being in charge
or responsible for everything, you start to realise that you are responsible for what your
audience thinks and feels for the duration of the presentation. If they are excited it's your
fault. If they are bored, it's your fault. If they can't keep up, it's your fault.
At first glance this may seem more, rather than less difficult. But if you look again you can
see that it brings with it a liberation from the straitjacket of just doing what you've already
prepared (the Blue Peter approach to presenting). If you can see that they haven't
understood and it's your fault, then the obvious thing to do is to depart from the script until
everyone's up to speed. This can bring a gloriously refreshing approach to the preparation of
a presentation, where you begin to look at a grab bag of possible routes you may take and
possible things you may bring into your presentation.

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The Sixth Law of Presentation Skills

If it's a Presentation, there is always a message
I said we'd look at easy ways of approaching presentation skills, so here's an idea that is
quite complex to grasp, but once grasped, frighteningly simple in its effectiveness.
Everything we do communicates. The experts who study the way communication works will
tell you that in your typical face to face presentation situation, the words you say are
actually a very small part of the communication. How you say them will often convey more
meaning than the words themselves.
For example, the phrase "It's very quiet today", takes on a different meaning if you say "It's
VERY quiet today". It is possible to make the most innocent phrase vicious with hidden
meaning by the way you say it. However these same experts will also tell you that it is
possible that what you do and how you behave can carry more "message" than the
combination of what you say and how you say it.
There are two important factors at work here. The first is this: a strong message is conveyed
by words, vocal force and demeanour. This means that a clearly defined message doesn't
necessarily reside in the text or words you choose to say. Indeed, the most powerful
messages are the unspoken ones. You can think of a strong message in sound bite terms.
For instance "I want everyone to feel that I know what I'm talking about". I may never say
outright "Listen, I know what I'm talking about", but if I make that the central message of
my presentation, that is what most people will go away thinking.
Incidentally, if we haven't chosen a clear message we don't stop communicating, we just give
a message by accident. We communicate that we're tired, or we've had a row with the wife,
or anything else that happens to be hanging around. So if you haven't got a message - get
one.
The second factor at work here is conviction, belief, or passion. You can think of it however
you like, but it is that essential ingredient that makes what you say live. If you feel strongly
about something, it will affect the way you speak about it. Passion communicates.
The Seventh Law of Presentation Skills
In any Presentation Passion is Mandatory
This is easier than it sounds. If you have to present something you have no real feeling for,
then you need to find something you do have some feeling for and relate it to the subject you
are presenting.
The reason I say passion is mandatory is simple. You can get everything else perfect, but if it
doesn't have as sense of your commitment behind it, it will be dead. If it's dead, I can ignore
it.

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The final unwritten law of presentation skills is by now somewhat self-evident. Everything
we have been talking about is to do with keeping presentation alive and powerful. Keeping it
in the moment so that no one can sleep through it. Keeping it so that no one quite knows
what's coming next. Making it something that people can't switch off to. Making it
interactive as opposed to a repetition of a rehearsed and fixed programme.
So the Unwritten Law of Presentation Skills?
It's Presentation Not Television..

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Email etiquette
It is amazing to find that in this day and age, some companies have still not realized how
important their email communications are. Many companies send email replies late or not at
all, or send replies that do not actually answer the questions you asked. If your company is
able to deal professionally with email, this will provide your company with that all important
competitive edge. Moreover by educating employees as to what can and cannot be said in an
email, you can protect your company from awkward liability issues. This website discusses
the main etiquette rules and provides advice on how employers can ensure that they are
implemented.
'By requiring employees to use appropriate, businesslike language in all electronic
communications, employers can limit their liability risks and improve the overall effectiveness
of the organization's e-mail and Internet copy in the process' - Excerpt from 'Writing Effective
E-mail', by Nancy Flynn and Tom Flynn.
Why do you need email etiquette?
A company needs to implement etiquette rules for the following three reasons:
Professionalism: by using proper email language your company will convey a professional
image.
Efficiency: emails that get to the point are much more effective than poorly worded emails.
Protection from liability: employee awareness of email risks will protect your company from
costly law suits.
Top
What are the etiquette rules?
There are many etiquette guides and many different etiquette rules. Some rules will differ
according to the nature of your business and the corporate culture. Below we list what we
consider as the 32 most important email etiquette rules that apply to nearly all companies.
32 most important email etiquette tips:
1. Be concise and to the point
2. Answer all questions, and pre-empt further questions
3. Use proper spelling, grammar & punctuation
4. Make it personal
5. Use templates for frequently used responses
6. Answer swiftly
7. Do not attach unnecessary files
8. Use proper structure & layout
9. Do not overuse the high priority option
10. Do not write in CAPITALS
11. Don't leave out the message thread
12. Add disclaimers to your emails
13. Read the email before you send it

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14. Do not overuse Reply to All

15. Mailings > use the bcc: field or do a mail merge
16. Take care with abbreviations and emoticons
17. Be careful with formatting
18. Take care with rich text and HTML messages
19. Do not forward chain letters
20. Do not request delivery and read receipts
21. Do not ask to recall a message.
22. Do not copy a message or attachment without permission
23. Do not use email to discuss confidential information
24. Use a meaningful subject
25. Use active instead of passive
26. Avoid using URGENT and IMPORTANT
27. Avoid long sentences
28. Don't send or forward emails containing libelous, defamatory, offensive, racist or
obscene remarks
29. Don't forward virus hoaxes and chain letters
30. Keep your language gender neutral
31. Don't reply to spam
32. Use cc: field sparingly
1. Be concise and to the point
Do not make an e-mail longer than it needs to be. Remember that reading an e-mail is
harder than reading printed communications and a long e-mail can be very discouraging to
read.
2. Answer all questions, and pre-empt further questions
An email reply must answer all questions, and pre-empt further questions If you do not
answer all the questions in the original email, you will receive further e-mails regarding the
unanswered questions, which will not only waste your time and your customers time but
also cause considerable frustration. Moreover, if you are able to pre-empt relevant
questions, your customer will be grateful and impressed with your efficient and thoughtful
customer service. Imagine for instance that a customer sends you an email asking which
credit cards you accept. Instead of just listing the credit card types, you can guess that their
next question will be about how they can order, so you also include some order information
and a URL to your order page. Customers will definitely appreciate this.
3. Use proper spelling, grammar & punctuation
This is not only important because improper spelling, grammar and punctuation give a bad
impression of your company, it is also important for conveying the message properly. Emails with no full stops or commas are difficult to read and can sometimes even change the
meaning of the text. And, if your program has a spell checking option, why not use it?

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4. Make it personal
Not only should the e-mail be personally addressed, it should also include personal i.e.
customized content. For this reason auto replies are usually not very effective. However,
templates can be used effectively in this way, see next tip.
5. Use templates for frequently used responses
Some questions you get over and over again, such as directions to your office or how to
subscribe to your newsletter. Save these texts as response templates and paste these into
your message when you need them. You can save your templates in a Word document, or
use pre-formatted emails. Even better is a tool such as ReplyMate for Outlook (allows you to
use 10 templates for free).
6. Answer swiftly
Customers send an e-mail because they wish to receive a quick response. If they did not
want a quick response they would send a letter or a fax. Therefore, each e-mail should be
replied to within at least 24 hours, and preferably within the same working day. If the email
is complicated, just send an email back saying that you have received it and that you will
get back to them. This will put the customer's mind at rest and usually customers will then
be very patient!
7. Do not attach unnecessary files
By sending large attachments you can annoy customers and even bring down their e-mail
system. Wherever possible try to compress attachments and only send attachments when
they are productive. Moreover, you need to have a good virus scanner in place since your
customers will not be very happy if you send them documents full of viruses!
8. Use proper structure & layout
Since reading from a screen is more difficult than reading from paper, the structure and lay
out is very important for e-mail messages. Use short paragraphs and blank lines between
each paragraph. When making points, number them or mark each point as separate to keep
the overview.
9. Do not overuse the high priority option
We all know the story of the boy who cried wolf. If you overuse the high priority option, it
will lose its function when you really need it. Moreover, even if a mail has high priority, your
message will come across as slightly aggressive if you flag it as 'high priority'.
10. Do not write in CAPITALS
IF YOU WRITE IN CAPITALS IT SEEMS AS IF YOU ARE SHOUTING. This can be highly
annoying and might trigger an unwanted response in the form of a flame mail. Therefore, try
not to send any email text in capitals.

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11. Don't leave out the message thread

When you reply to an email, you must include the original mail in your reply, in other words
click 'Reply', instead of 'New Mail'. Some people say that you must remove the previous
message since this has already been sent and is therefore unnecessary. However, I could not
agree less. If you receive many emails you obviously cannot remember each individual email.
This means that a 'threadless email' will not provide enough information and you will have
to spend a frustratingly long time to find out the context of the email in order to deal with it.
Leaving the thread might take a fraction longer in download time, but it will save the
recipient much more time and frustration in looking for the related emails in their inbox!
12. Add disclaimers to your emails
It is important to add disclaimers to your internal and external mails, since this can help
protect your company from liability. Consider the following scenario: an employee
accidentally forwards a virus to a customer by email. The customer decides to sue your
company for damages. If you add a disclaimer at the bottom of every external mail, saying
that the recipient must check each email for viruses and that it cannot be held liable for any
transmitted viruses, this will surely be of help to you in court (read more about email
disclaimers). Another example: an employee sues the company for allowing a racist email to
circulate the office. If your company has an email policy in place and adds an email
disclaimer to every mail that states that employees are expressly required not to make
defamatory statements, you have a good case of proving that the company did everything it
could to prevent offensive emails.
13. Read the email before you send it
A lot of people don't bother to read an email before they send it out, as can be seen from the
many spelling and grammar mistakes contained in emails. Apart from this, reading your
email through the eyes of the recipient will help you send a more effective message and
avoid misunderstandings and inappropriate comments.
14. Do not overuse Reply to All
Only use Reply to All if you really need your message to be seen by each person who
received the original message.
15. Mailings > use the Bcc: field or do a mail merge
When sending an email mailing, some people place all the email addresses in the To: field.
There are two drawbacks to this practice: (1) the recipient knows that you have sent the
same message to a large number of recipients, and (2) you are publicizing someone else's
email address without their permission. One way to get round this is to place all addresses
in the Bcc: field. However, the recipient will only see the address from the To: field in their
email, so if this was empty, the To: field will be blank and this might look like spamming.
You could include the mailing list email address in the To: field, or even better, if you have
Microsoft Outlook and Word you can do a mail merge and create one message for each
recipient. A mail merge also allows you to use fields in the message so that you can for
instance address each recipient personally. For more information on how to do a Word mail
merge, consult the Help in Word.

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16. Take care with abbreviations and emoticons

In business emails, try not to use abbreviations such as BTW (by the way) and LOL (laugh
out loud). The recipient might not be aware of the meanings of the abbreviations and in
business emails these are generally not appropriate. The same goes for emoticons, such as
the smiley :-). If you are not sure whether your recipient knows what it means, it is better
not to use it.
17. Be careful with formatting
Remember that when you use formatting in your emails, the sender might not be able to
view formatting, or might see different fonts than you had intended. When using colors, use
a color that is easy to read on the background.
18. Take care with rich text and HTML messages
Be aware that when you send an email in rich text or HTML format, the sender might only
be able to receive plain text emails. If this is the case, the recipient will receive your message
as a .txt attachment. Most email clients however, including Microsoft Outlook, are able to
receive HTML and rich text messages.
19. Do not forward chain letters
Do not forward chain letters. We can safely say that all of them are hoaxes. Just delete the
letters as soon as you receive them.
20. Do not request delivery and read receipts
This will almost always annoy your recipient before he or she has even read your message.
Besides, it usually does not work anyway since the recipient could have blocked that
function, or his/her software might not support it, so what is the use of using it? If you
want to know whether an email was received it is better to ask the recipient to let you know
if it was received.
21. Do not ask to recall a message
Biggest chances are that your message has already been delivered and read. A recall request
would look very silly in that case wouldn't it? It is better just to send an email to say that
you have made a mistake. This will look much more honest than trying to recall a message.
22. Do not copy a message or attachment without permission
Do not copy a message or attachment belonging to another user without permission of the
originator. If you do not ask permission first, you might be infringing on copyright laws.
23. Do not use email to discuss confidential information
Sending an email is like sending a postcard. If you don't want your email to be displayed on
a bulletin board, don't send it. Moreover, never make any libelous, sexist or racially
discriminating comments in emails, even if they are meant to be a joke.

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24. Use a meaningful subject

Try to use a subject that is meaningful to the recipient as well as yourself. For instance,
when you send an email to a company requesting information about a product, it is better to
mention the actual name of the product, e.g. 'Product A information' than to just say
'product information' or the company's name in the subject.
25. Use active instead of passive
Try to use the active voice of a verb wherever possible. For instance, 'We will process your
order today', sounds better than 'Your order will be processed today'. The first sounds more
personal, whereas the latter, especially when used frequently, sounds unnecessarily formal.
26. Avoid using URGENT and IMPORTANT
Even more so than the high-priority option, you must at all times try to avoid these types of
words in an email or subject line. Only use this if it is a really, really urgent or important
message.
27. Avoid long sentences
Try to keep your sentences to a maximum of 15-20 words. Email is meant to be a quick
medium and requires a different kind of writing than letters. Also take care not to send
emails that are too long. If a person receives an email that looks like a dissertation, chances
are that they will not even attempt to read it!
28. Don't send or forward emails containing libelous, defamatory, offensive, racist or
obscene remarks
By sending or even just forwarding one libelous, or offensive remark in an email, you and
your company can face court cases resulting in multi-million dollar penalties.
29. Don't forward virus hoaxes and chain letters
If you receive an email message warning you of a new unstoppable virus that will
immediately delete everything from your computer, this is most probably a hoax. By
forwarding hoaxes you use valuable bandwidth and sometimes virus hoaxes contain viruses
themselves, by attaching a so-called file that will stop the dangerous virus. The same goes
for chain letters that promise incredible riches or ask your help for a charitable cause. Even
if the content seems to be bona fide, the senders are usually not. Since it is impossible to
find out whether a chain letter is real or not, the best place for it is the recycle bin.
30. Keep your language gender neutral
In this day and age, avoid using sexist language such as: 'The user should add a signature
by configuring his email program'. Apart from using he/she, you can also use the neutral
gender: ''The user should add a signature by configuring the email program'.

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31. Don't reply to spam

By replying to spam or by unsubscribing, you are confirming that your email address is
'live'. Confirming this will only generate even more spam. Therefore, just hit the delete
button or use email software to remove spam automatically.
32. Use cc: field sparingly
Try not to use the cc: field unless the recipient in the cc: field knows why they are receiving
a copy of the message. Using the cc: field can be confusing since the recipients might not
know who is supposed to act on the message. Also, when responding to a cc: message,
should you include the other recipient in the cc: field as well? This will depend on the
situation. In general, do not include the person in the cc: field unless you have a particular
reason for wanting this person to see your response. Again, make sure that this person will
know why they are receiving a copy.
How do you enforce email etiquette?
The first step is to create a written email policy. This email policy should include all the do's
and don'ts concerning the use of the company's email system and should be distributed
amongst all employees. Secondly, employees must be trained to fully understand the
importance of email etiquette. Finally, implementation of the rules can be monitored by
using email management software and email response tools.

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PowerPoint Dos and Donts

Text
Color
Images and Shapes
Graphs and Charts
Sound and Animation
Transitions
Bulleted Points

Text

Dos

Keep slides concise. Experts vary but generally agree on no more than 5-7 lines (not
bullets!) per slide and no more than 5-7words per line
Depending on the size of the room, font size should range between 48 for titles to 24
for subtitles and lists. Discipline yourself to eliminate words instead of shrinking font
size.
Use sans-serif fonts that are easy to read, such as Arial.

Did you know? Non-standard fonts may not be supported by the facilitys computer setup
and their default font may change your layout with disastrous consequences!

Use uppercase letters for the first letter

Leave space between the lines of text
Use statements or lists, not sentences
Use keywords to help the audience focus on your message

Remember that slides are just a visual aid -- if you overload them, the audience may end up
trying to make sense of the slides and not pay attention to you. Worse, they will feel
overwhelmed and lose interest entirely. Use the space limitations of the slide format to keep
you on message and focused on what is most important for the telling of your story.
Donts

Include too much details and data (7 words per line and 7 lines per slide)
Crowd the information.
Use flashy or curvy fonts.
Use all uppercase letters (hard to read and can be perceived as yelling).
Avoid obscure abbreviations.
Skip punctuation marks for bulleted items on slides.

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Color
Dos

Limit the use of color to 2 to 4 colors/shades.

Use your institutions PowerPoint template if available.
Use colors that will stand out and be easy on the eyes (dark backgrounds and light
text is best).
PowerPoint offers many professionally designed color schemes and design templates.
Use colors to highlight important words or concepts within the text, but dont overdo
it.

Donts

Don't mix multiple color schemes in the same presentation.

Don't use dark colors on a dark background. For example, red, blue and black should
not be used together as text and background.
Avoid overly bright background colors that will strain your audience's eyes.
Remember that colors projected from a data projector will look different than colors
on your computer screen, so avoid using nuanced (low-contrast) shades in charts and
graphs.

Images and Shapes

Dos

Include images that make the issue you are presenting more true to life, so your
audience will understand and identify with it.
Include only 1-2 images per slide.
Look for images that reflect the demographics and characteristics of your audience to
create a sense of connection.
Use shapes to illustrate complex topics.

Donts

Don't use too many graphics, which can be distracting.

Don't use low-quality images. Images should not be pixilated as they will appear
grainy and unprofessional on a large screen.
Avoid using cartoonish images or at least use them with care. They can undermine
your credibility.

Graphs and Charts

Dos

Use only appropriate graphs, charts and images that closely follow or complement the
concept expressed in each slide.
Include graphs and charts that show relationships, comparisons and change.
Illustrate your point by verbally discussing the graph or chart.

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Donts
Avoid meaningless graphs that are difficult to read.

Sound and Animation

Dos

Use sounds only if they help convey, complement, or enhance the message.
Use animation only to make a point and not to make your presentation more
interesting use content and delivery style to do that!

Donts

Avoid using sounds when they aren't appropriate. Sounds can be distracting and can
make your presentation less effective.
Dont use too many animation effects.

Transitions
Dos

Use transitions to help your presentation make more of an impact by varying the way
one slide replaces another.
Keep transitions to a minimum.
Use the same transition or a variation of the transition.

Donts

Avoid flashy transitions, as too much movement will distract your audience.

Most experts recommend against using PowerPoints Random Transition option as being
distracting.
known as "bullet points" may be short phrases, single sentences, or of
paragraph length. Bulleted items are not usually terminated with a full stop if they are not
complete sentences, although it is a common practice to terminate every item except the last
one with a semicolon, and terminate the last item with a full stop. It is correct to terminate a
bullet point with a full stop if the text within that item consists of more than one sentence.

Bulleted items

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Effective Listening
Almost everyone sincerely believes that he or she listens effectively. Consequently, very few
people think they need to develop their listening skills. But, in fact, listening effectively is
something that very few of us do. It's not because listening effectively is so difficult. Most of
us have just never developed the habits that would make us effective listeners.
Importance of effective listening
Research has found that by listening effectively, you will get more information from the
people you manage, you will increase others' trust in you, you will reduce conflict, you will
better understand how to motivate others, and you will inspire a higher level
of commitment in the people you manage.
Listening makes our loved ones feel worthy, appreciated, interesting, and respected.
Ordinary conversations emerge on a deeper level, as do our relationships. When we
listen, we foster the skill in others by acting as a model for positive and effective
communication.
In our love relationships, greater communication brings greater intimacy. Parents listening
to their kids help build their self-esteem. In the business world, listening saves time and
money by preventing misunderstandings. And we always learn more when we listen than
when we talk.
Listening skills fuel our social, emotional and professional success, and studies prove that
listening is a skill we can learn.

Eight barriers to effective listening

More attention is usually paid to making people better speakers or writers (the "supply
side" of the communication chain) rather than on making them better listeners or
readers (the "demand side"). The most direct way to improve communication is by
learning to listen more effectively.
Nearly every aspect of human life could be improved by better listening -- from family
matters to corporate business affairs to international relations.
Most of us are terrible listeners. We're such poor listeners, in fact, that we don't know how
much we're missing.
The following are eight common barriers to good listening, with suggestions for overcoming
each.

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1. Knowing the answer

"Knowing the answer" means that you think you already know what the speaker wants to
say, before she actually finishes saying it. You might then impatiently cut her off or try to
complete the sentence for her.
Even more disruptive is interrupting her by saying that you disagree with her, but without
letting her finish saying what it is that you think you disagree with. That's a common
problem when a discussion gets heated, and which causes the discussion to degrade
quickly.
By interrupting the speaker before letting her finish, you're essentially saying that you don't
value what she's saying. Showing respect to the speaker is a crucial element of good
listening.
The "knowing the answer" barrier also causes the listener to pre-judge what the speaker is
saying -- a kind of closed-mindedness.
A good listener tries to keep an open, receptive mind. He looks for opportunities to stretch
his mind when listening, and to acquire new ideas or insights, rather than reinforcing
existing points of view.
Strategy for overcoming this barrier
A simple strategy for overcoming the "knowing the answer" barrier is to wait for three
seconds after the speaker finishes before beginning your reply.
Three seconds can seem like a very long time during a heated discussion, and following this
rule also means that you might have to listen for a long time before the other person finally
stops speaking. That's usually a good thing, because it gives the speaker a chance to fully
vent his or her feelings.
Another strategy is to schedule a structured session during which only one person speaks
while the other listens. You then switch roles in the next session.
It's worth emphasizing that the goal of good listening is simply to listen -- nothing more
and nothing less.
Keeping the mind open during conversation requires discipline and practice. One strategy is
to make a commitment to learn at least one unexpected, worthwhile thing during every
conversation. The decision to look for something new and interesting helps make your mind
more open and receptive while listening.
Using this strategy, most people will probably discover at least one gem -- and often more
than one -- no matter whom the conversation is with.

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2 - Trying to be helpful
Another significant barrier to good listening is "trying to be helpful". Although trying to be
helpful may seem beneficial, it interferes with listening because the listener is thinking
about how to solve what he perceives to be the speaker's problem. Consequently, he misses
what the speaker is actually saying.
An old Zen proverb says, "When walking, walk. When eating, eat." In other words, give
your whole attention to whatever you're doing. It's worth emphasizing that the goal of good
listening is simply to listen -- nothing more and nothing less. Interrupting the speaker in
order to offer advice disrupts the flow of conversation, and impairs the listener's ability to
understand the speaker's experience.
Many people have a "messiah complex" and try to fix or rescue other people as a way of
feeling fulfilled. Such people usually get a kick out of being problem-solvers, perhaps
because it gives them a sense of importance. However, that behavior can be a huge hurdle to
good listening.
Trying to be helpful while listening also implies that you've made certain judgments about
the speaker. That can raise emotional barriers to communication, as judgments can mean
that the listener doesn't have complete understanding or respect for the speaker.
In a sense, giving a person your undivided attention while listening is the purest act of love
you can offer. Because human beings are such social animals, simply knowing that another
person has listened and understood is empowering. Often that's all a person needs in order
to solve the problems on his or her own.
If you as a listener step in and heroically offer your solution, you're implying that you're
more capable of seeing the solution than the speaker is.
Strategy for overcoming this barrier
Schedule a separate session for giving advice. Many people forget that it's rude to offer
advice when the speaker isn't asking for it. Even if the advice is good.
In any case, a person can give better advice if he first listens carefully and understands the
speaker's complete situation before trying to offer advice.
If you believe you have valuable advice that the speaker isn't likely to know, then first
politely ask if you may offer what you see as a possible solution. Wait for the speaker to
clearly invite you to go ahead before you offer your advice.

3 - Treating discussion as competition

Some people feel that agreeing with the speaker during a heated discussion is a sign of
weakness. They feel compelled to challenge every point the speaker makes, even if they
inwardly agree. Discussion then becomes a contest, with a score being kept for who wins the
most points by arguing.

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Treating discussion as competition is one of the most serious barriers to good listening. It
greatly inhibits the listener from stretching and seeing a different point of view. It can also
be frustrating for the speaker.
Strategy for overcoming this barrier
Although competitive debate serves many useful purposes, and can be great fun, debating
should be scheduled for a separate session of its own, where it won't interfere with good
listening.
Except in a very rare case where you truly disagree with absolutely everything the speaker is
saying, you should avoid dismissing her statements completely. Instead, affirm the points of
agreement.
Try to voice active agreement whenever you do agree, and be very specific about what you
disagree with.
A good overall listening principle is to be generous with the speaker. Offer affirmative
feedback as often as you feel comfortable doing so. Generosity also entails clearly voicing
exactly where you disagree, as well as where you agree.

4 - Trying to influence or impress

Because good listening depends on listening just for the sake of listening, any ulterior
motive will diminish the effectiveness of the listener. Examples of ulterior motives are trying
to impress or to influence the speaker.
A person who has an agenda other than simply to understand what the speaker is thinking
and feeling will not be able to pay complete attention while listening.
Psychologists have pointed out that people can understand language about two or three
times faster than they can speak. That implies that a listener has a lot of extra mental
"bandwidth" for thinking about other things while listening. A good listener knows how to
use that spare capacity to think about what the speaker is talking about.
A listener with an ulterior motive, such as to influence or impress the speaker, will probably
use the spare capacity to think about his "next move" in the conversation -- his rebuttal or
what he will say next when the speaker is finished -- instead of focusing on understanding
the speaker.
Strategy for overcoming this barrier
"Trying to influence or impress" is a difficult barrier to overcome, because motives usually
can't just be willed away. Deciding not to have a motive usually only drives it beneath your
awareness so that it becomes a hidden motive.
One strategy is to make note of your internal motives while you're listening. As you notice
your motives in progressively closer and finer detail, you'll eventually become more fully
conscious of ulterior motives, and they may even unravel, allowing you to let go and listen
just for the sake of listening.

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5 - Reacting to red flag words

Words can provoke a reaction in the listener that wasn't necessarily what the speaker
intended. When that happens the listener won't be able to hear or pay full attention to what
the speaker is saying.
Red flag words or expressions trigger an unexpectedly strong association in the listener's
mind, often because of the listener's private beliefs or experiences.
Good listeners have learned how to minimize the distraction caused by red flag words, but a
red flag word will make almost any listener momentarily unable to hear with full attention.
An important point is that the speaker may not have actually meant the word in the way
that the listener understood. However, the listener will be so distracted by the red flag that
she will not notice what the speaker actually did mean to say.
Red flag words don't always provoke emotional reactions. Sometimes they just cause slight
disagreements or misunderstandings. Whenever a listener finds himself disagreeing or
reacting, he should be on the lookout for red flag words or expressions.

Strategy for overcoming this barrier

When a speaker uses a word or expression that triggers a reflexive association, you as a
good listener can ask the speaker to confirm whether she meant to say what you think she
said.
When you hear a word or expression that raises a red flag, try to stop the conversation, if
possible, so that you don't miss anything that the speaker says. Then ask the speaker to
clarify and explain the point in a different way.

6 - Believing in language
One of the trickiest barriers is "believing in language" -- a misplaced trust in the precision of
words.
Language is a guessing game. Speaker and listener use language to predict what each other
is thinking. Meaning must always be actively negotiated.
It's a fallacy to think that a word's dictionary definition can be transmitted directly through
using the word. An example of that fallacy is revealed in the statement, "I said it perfectly
clearly, so why didn't you understand?". Of course, the naive assumption here is that words
that are clear to one person are clear to another, as if the words themselves contained
absolute meaning.
Words have a unique effect in the mind of each person, because each person's experience is
unique. Those differences can be small, but the overall effect of the differences can become
large enough to cause misunderstanding.

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A worse problem is that words work by pointing at experiences shared by speaker and
listener.
If the listener hasn't had the experience that the speaker is using the word to point at, then
the word points at nothing. Worse still, the listener may quietly substitute a different
experience to match the word.
Strategy for overcoming this barrier
You as a good listener ought to practice mistrusting the meaning of words. Ask the speaker
supporting questions to cross-verify what the words mean to him.
Don't assume that words or expressions mean exactly the same to you as they do to the
speaker. You can stop the speaker and question the meaning of a word. Doing that too often
also becomes an impediment, of course, but if you suspect that the speaker's usage of the
word might be slightly different, you ought to take time to explore that, before the difference
leads to misunderstanding.

7 - Mixing up the forest and the trees

A common saying refers to an inability "to see the forest for the trees". Sometimes people pay
such close attention to detail, that they miss the overall meaning or context of a situation.
Some speakers are what we will call "trees" people. They prefer concrete, detailed
explanations. They might explain a complex situation just by naming or describing its
characteristics in no particular order.
Other speakers are "forest" people. When they have to explain complex situations, they
prefer to begin by giving a sweeping, abstract, bird's-eye view.
Good explanations usually involve both types, with the big-picture "forest" view providing
context and overall meaning, and the specific "trees" view providing illuminating examples.
When trying to communicate complex information, the speaker needs to accurately shift
between forest and trees in order to show how the details fit into the big picture. However,
speakers often forget to use "turn indicators" to signal that they are shifting from one to
another, which can cause confusion or misunderstanding for the listener.
Each style is prone to weaknesses in communication. For example, "trees" people often have
trouble telling their listener which of the details are more important and how those details fit
into the overall context. They can also fail to tell their listener that they are making a
transition from one thought to another -- a problem that quickly shows up in their writing,
as well.
"Forest" people, on the other hand, often baffle their listeners with obscure abstractions.
They tend to prefer using concepts, but sometimes those concepts are so removed from the
world of the senses that their listeners get lost.

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"Trees" people commonly accuse "forest" people of going off on tangents or speaking in
unwarranted generalities. "Forest" people commonly feel that "trees" people are too narrow
and literal.
Strategy for overcoming this barrier
You as a good listener can explicitly ask the speaker for overall context or for specific
exemplary details, as needed. You should cross-verify by asking the speaker how the trees
fit together to form the forest. Having an accurate picture of how the details fit together is
crucial to understanding the speaker's thoughts.
An important point to remember is that a "trees" speaker may become confused or irritated
if you as the listener try to supply missing context, and a "forest" speaker may become
impatient or annoyed if you try to supply missing examples.
A more effective approach is to encourage the speaker to supply missing context or
examples by asking him open-ended questions.
Asking open-ended questions when listening is generally more effective than asking closedended ones.
For example, an open-ended question such as "Can you give me a concrete example of
that?" is less likely to cause confusion or disagreement than a more closed-ended one such
as "Would such-and-such be an example of what you're talking about?"
Some speakers may even fail to notice that a closed-ended question is actually a question.
They may then disagree with what they thought was a statement of opinion, and that will
cause distracting friction or confusion.
The strategy of asking open-ended questions, instead of closed-ended or leading questions,
is an important overall component of good listening.

8 - Over-splitting or over-lumping
Speakers have different styles of organizing thoughts when explaining complex situations.
Some speakers, "splitters", tend to pay more attention to how things are different. Other
speakers, "lumpers", tend to look for how things are alike. Perhaps this is a matter of
temperament.
If the speaker and listener are on opposite sides of the splitter-lumper spectrum, the
different mental styles can cause confusion or lack of understanding.
A listener who is an over-splitter can inadvertently signal that he disagrees with the speaker
over everything, even if he actually agrees with most of what the speaker says and only
disagrees with a nuance or point of emphasis.
That can cause "noise" and interfere with the flow of conversation. Likewise, a listener who
is an over-lumper can let crucial differences of opinion go unchallenged, which can lead to a
serious misunderstanding later. The speaker will mistakenly assume that the listener has
understood and agreed.

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It's important to achieve a good balance between splitting (critical thinking) and lumping
(metaphorical thinking). Even more important is for the listener to recognize when the
speaker is splitting and when she is lumping.
Strategy for overcoming this barrier
An approach to overcoming this barrier when listening is to ask questions to determine more
precisely where you agree or disagree with what the speaker is saying, and then to explicitly
point that out, when appropriate.
For example, you might say, "I think we have differing views on several points here, but do
we at least agree that ... ?" or "We agree with each other on most of this, but I think we have
different views in the area of ...."
By actively voicing the points of convergence and divergence, the listener can create a more
accurate mental model of the speaker's mind. That reduces the conversational noise that
can arise when speaker and listener fail to realize how their minds are aligned or unaligned.

Quadrant of cognitive/explanatory styles

More than one barrier may often be present at once. For example, a speaker might be an
over-splitter who has trouble seeing the forest, while the listener is an over-lumper who can
see only the forest and never the trees. They will have even more difficulty communicating if
one or both also has the habit of "knowing the answer" or "treating discussion as
competition".

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10 Tips to Effective & Active Listening Skills

1. Face the speaker. Sit up straight or lean forward slightly to show your attentiveness
through body language.
2. Maintain eye contact, to the degree that you all remain comfortable.
3. Minimize external distractions. Turn off the TV. Put down your book or magazine, and
ask the speaker and other listeners to do the same.
4. Respond appropriately to show that you understand. Murmur (uh-huh and umhmm) and nod. Raise your eyebrows. Say words such as Really, Interesting, as well as
more direct prompts: What did you do then? and What did she say?
5. Focus solely on what the speaker is saying. Try not to think about what you are going
to say next. The conversation will follow a logical flow after the speaker makes her point.
6. Minimize internal distractions. If your own thoughts keep horning in, simply let them
go and continuously re-focus your attention on the speaker, much as you would during
meditation.
7. Keep an open mind. Wait until the speaker is finished before deciding that you disagree.
Try not to make assumptions about what the speaker is thinking.
8. Avoid letting the speaker know how you handled a similar situation. Unless they
specifically ask for advice, assume they just need to talk it out.
9. Even if the speaker is launching a complaint against you, wait until they finish to
defend yourself. The speaker will feel as though their point had been made. They wont feel
the need to repeat it, and youll know the whole argument before you respond. Research
shows that, on average, we can hear four times faster than we can talk, so we have the
ability to sort ideas as they come inand be ready for more.
10. Engage yourself. Ask questions for clarification, but, once again, wait until the speaker
has finished. That way, you wont interrupt their train of thought. After you ask questions,
paraphrase their point to make sure you didnt misunderstand. Start with: So youre
saying

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d)

Communicating in Teams

Developing Effective Team Communication Skills

Be it a personal or professional affair, the foundation of all successful interactions is based
on effective communication skills.
Importance of Effective Communication Skills
Effective communication skills empower an individual to inspire and influence others in
order to reach the desired outcome, no matter how difficult the situation may appear to be.
An individual with effective communication skills not just has an edge over his/her fellow
colleagues/friends/acquaintances etc. but also carries out his/her job with a lot of
confidence, ease and perfection.
Effective Communication Skills and the Team
Now that we have seen the importance of good communication skills, let us find out its
relevance in a team in the context of your work place.
Most organizations, now, work on different projects simultaneously with separate teams
allocated to each project. Depending on the project size and scope these teams can be small
or large. Irrespective of the number of employees in a team, it is essential that every member
of a team understands and shares relevant information related to the project. It is also
important that they have a clear picture of their roles and responsibilities with respect to the
project and deliver accordingly. Thus, in order to ensure a successful project execution, it is
important that the team members share a healthy relationship based on trust, confidence
and mutual understanding.
All this is possible only when a team develops and practices effective communication skills.
How to Develop Effective Team Communication Skills
Developing effective communication skills within the team can be done easily by imbibing
some basic manners, professional etiquette and keeping an open mind.
Following are some tips given below to develop effective team communication skills :

Always respect all your fellow team members, irrespective of whether you are just a
team member or a team leader.
Ensure whether all the team members understand the project requirements
thoroughly and know what the project targets are. Ask questions or have discussions
to clarify the same.

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Organize regular team meetings to understand the doubts and queries of every team
member and provide solutions accordingly.
Keep every team member informed with the latest project updates or project issues.
Define the role and responsibility of every team member clearly to avoid confusion
or unnecessary re-work.
When in a meeting or discussion, let every one have their turn to speak and
suggest. It is of no use if you alone keep talking and ignore what others have to say.
Listen to others' opinions and use their suggestions if found to be effective. Listening
plays a significant role in effective communication. Repeat others' words to
acknowledge their point of views.
Ask for feedback and suggestions from your team members.
Always speak in a clear and slow manner. Give sound and logical reasoning to your
opinions.
Always be polite in your way of speaking and behavior. Using rude tone or body
language may bring upon negative feelings among the team members.
Clear out personal differences and misunderstandings by speaking it out with the
concerned person. Keeping it inside and harboring grudges against one another may
affect the team spirit and have a direct impact on the quality of your work.
Make appropriate use of emails, telephones, voice messages and instant
messengers while communicating with the fellow team members. Follow the
professional etiquette while writing emails, greeting over telephones, leaving voicemail
and sending instant messages. These modes of communication also have a lot of
importance in today's work place.
Avoid using unpleasant words, expressions, giving out sensitive and confidential
information while using the above modes of communication.
Display acknowledgement and appreciation through face to face interaction or
electronic modes when a team member performs well. Just a pat on the back, a warm
handshake or two lines of an appreciation mail can have a great impact to motivate a
team member.
When appreciated or praised, thank the person in a polite and sophisticated manner.
Avoid continuous rejoicing about your personal success. This might create an
uncomfortable situation for your other team members.
Always have a friendly attitude towards each other. Help others in need and you will
get back others' help when you require the same.
Deal with tense situations with a calm mind. If words of any team member make you
angry try to keep a cool head and put your point forward. Avoid using harsh words in
return.
Avoid blaming others continuously when any work is not done. Instead, try to find
out the root cause and see to it that it is not repeated in future.
Find out if any team member is facing any problem and have a discussion with
him/her to address the issue. Speaking and constant interaction with each other
always helps in developing a healthy team spirit.

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Teams have advantages and disadvantages

Teams are often at the core of participative management i.e., the effort to involve
employees in the organization's decision-making.

Among the advantages of successful teams are

1.
2.
3.
4.

Increased information and knowledge

Increased diversity of views
Increased acceptance of a solution
Higher performance levels

Among the disadvantages (dysfunction) of teams are

1. Groupthink when peer pressures cause individual members to withhold

contrary or unpopular opinions
2. Hidden agendas private motives that affect the group's interaction
3. Free riders those who don't contribute their fair share
4. Cost the high cost of coordinating group activities

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