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Human Geography
o Study of patterns and processes of the human world
o Social environment (economy, culture, politics behavior, etc)
Lecture 02
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https://avenue.cllmcmaster.ca/d2l/le/content/111814/viewContent/911632/
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Geographic Literacy
Key concepts to be able to effectively communicate geographical
concepts and ideas
Space
o Areal Extent, spatial extent, amount of earths surface that
something covers
o 2 ways to think about space
Location
o Location refers to a distinct position in space
Absolute(mathematical) location: Obtained through
GPS, or similar system and is relatively unchangingprecise and consistent
o Place
Attachments, meaning, significance at an individual or
collective level. Location +cultural/human meaning =
place
We can gain a sense of place through traveling
Sacred Place: a place with a strong sense of place,
typically associated with religion
Placelessness: Locations lacking a strong identity,
standardized and homogenized
o Distance
The amount of space between two or more locations
absolute/physical distance
Travel distance: time of travel (think time-space
convergence)
Economic/communication distance: Think in dollar
terms or difficulty of communication
Psychological distance: the distance changing based
on psychological distance
o Distribution
Distance and organization
Three forms of distribution
Density
Concentration/Dispersion
Clustered (agglomerated)
Dispersed (scattered)
Pattern: The spatial arrangement of objects:
linear, rectilinear, random, uniformed, etc
Lecture 03
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Spatial Interaction
o Amount of movement or communication between two
locations
1st law of geography
o Are you going to a nearby restaurant, or you going to a
nearly identical one across town?
o Are you more likely to meet with distant (former) neighbors
or distant relatives? What about immediate family?
Distance Decay
o How the level of interaction declines as distance increases
o The decline of an activity or function with increasing distance
Friction of distance
o Distance has a retarding effect on interactions
Accessibility and Connectivity
o Critical for the nature and level of spatial interaction
Accessibility
The ease with which distance can be crossed
Connectivity
The tangible and intangible ways that places are
connected
Friction of distance
o How easy or difficult it is to overcome the distances that
separate places
But think about it: Air Canada doesnt go to Africa!
Gravity models
o Measuring the quantity of movement or interaction between
two places
Relative sizes
Distance
Distance decay function
Related to accessibility and connectivity
Diffusion
o The process by which a characteristic spreads across space,
from one location to another, over time
Depends on distance, friction of distance, and densities
of population
Relocation diffusion
o The spread of an idea or characteristic through the physical
movement of people form one location to another
Immigrants
Currency
Contagious diffusion
o The rapid, and widespread, movement of a characteristic
through a population
Disease
Gossip
Heirarchial Diffusion
o The spread of ideas or characteristics from person or locations
of authority or power to other people or places
Fashion, music, technology
Lecture 04
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Cylindrical Projection
o The earths surface is projected onto a cylinder that just
touches along the equator
The map is most precise along the equator, declines
toward the poles, northern and southern areas seem
larger than they truly are
The Mercator Projection
Conical projections
o The earths surface is projected onto a cone that just touches
the outside edges of the globe in the mid-latitudes
Accuracy is best in the north/south hemisphere,
elsewhere the projection is extremely skewed
The Lambert Conformal Conic Projection
Azimuthal
o The earths surface is projected onto a flat surface that
touches the globe at one point only. Ususally the north or
south poles
There are hundreds of different projections, all with varying degrees
of these 3 projections
Lecture 05
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Lecture 06
What is
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developed?
Differentiating: Less Developed World (LDW) vs MDW, Third world
Relationships between these differentiations
Read chap 9
What Is Development?
Lecture 07
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Measuring Development
Development: wealth or prosperity, ie. Average income
Per capita income?
o We cant get this info, so we might use GDP per capita, or
GNI per capita
Measures of total value of all materials, foodstuffs,
goods, services produced by a country for a year
o We call these proxy measures
It is one singular measured, not THE method for measuring
development
Example: World Bank GNI per capita per country, ranked into 5
groups
Problem:
These metrics do not account for the cost of living and not always
consider the different currencies, in terms of Purchasing Power
Parity(PPP)
Market Basket of Goods
o A theoretical basket of goods and services that allows the
purchasing power to be compared and contrasted
Ecuador vs. Canada
o Income:10 times higher
o Essentials 2 times higher
o Cost of living: 4 times higher
Average income differences are not as great
PPP lowers the relative GNI in wealthy countries and raises them in
poor countries
o Compresses the range in incomes
Even with this compression, the income disparity still exists and
markedly so
Big Mac Index cost of big mac vs income
Economic measures assume that they are reliable surrogate
measures of social development
We also have social development, and economic measures assume
that they are reliable surrogate measures of social development
Social development=social investment
o There are relationships and patterns between economic and
social development, but this is not always the case
Disparities between the more and less developed
o Is the disparity on the decline?
HDI-0(none) to 1.0
Norway 0.942 to Sierra Leone 0.275
A general association exists between HDI and GNIpc, but only in a
general way
HDI is an excellent metric, but not perfect
Gender and Equality
o Most measures of development ignore the differential social
and economic roles played by men and women
Clear spatial variations exist in these inequalities
This unequal distribution has clear consequences,
undernourishment, malnutrition, death, civil unrest, war,
environmental catastrophe
Lecture 08
Can we
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Lecture 09
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Population Geography
Demography
o The Study of population
Some universities have them, Mac does not
o Population Geography
The study of spatial expressions of the population
o Where do the live, work?
What is the spatial distribution of population?
o How do they live?
Density?
What are the consequences of our lifestyle?
o What resources do they use?
Are they accessible to all?
o What are the conditions of health and well being?
How is the social development?
What is the current approx population?
7.11 Billion
What was the global population in 1995?
5.69 Billion
Since I was born, ever day the population increased by 220,000
people
What is the worlds largest (by population) country?
China is #1
But India will surpass them by 2020
Global
Population Growth
1=300 mil
1800=1 bil
1927=2
1960=3
1975=4
1987=5
1999=6
2012=7
2013 =7.11
2050=9
Are there limits to population growth? Are there limits to what the earth can
hold? To what it can support?
Overpopulation
o State in which the number of people in an area exceeds the
capacity of the environment to support life at a decent
standard of living
o A recognition that the environment can only sustain a certain
population size
o What is a decent standard of living?
o Have we reached our carrying capacity?
o Catastrophists
believe that we are over populated and are pushing
beyond the earths carrying capacity
o Cornucopians
Lecture 10
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Population Dynamics
Fertility
Mortality
Theories of Population Growth
Malthus
Demographic Transition
Population Structure
Globally, population is understood with two things: Fertility (births) and
mortality (deaths)
P1=P0+(B-D)
Regionally though, population is also influenced by population movement:
Migration (immigration and emigration)
P1=P0+(B-D)+(I-E)
Crude Birth rate (cbr)
CBR=(B/P)*1000
o Total number of live births per every thousand people
True Fertility
The number of women in the population, and the number of women
of child bearing age (15-49)
General Fertility Rate (or fecundity) (GFR)
GFR=(B/PF:15-49)*1000
Preventative Checks
o Natural
Positive Checks
o People will go to war
He did not consider
o Agricultural productivity
o Contraception and reduced fertility rates
Demographic Transition
Demographic changes are associated with stage of economic
development
Lecture 09
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Population Migration
The spatial movement of population from one place to another
Recall: P1=P0+(B-D)+(I-E)
o Immigration(I)
People coming into the country
o Emigration(E)
People leaving the country
Different spatial contexts
o International migration
o Inter-regional migration
o Inter-urban
Key issues of interest to Geographers: Migration
o Cultural, political and economic characteristics of migrants
Who are they?
o Number of migrants(flow)
How many of hem are there?
o Distance moved
How far have they traveled?
o Political boundaries crossed
Provincial vs. national
o Causes of migration
What factors influence ones decision to migrate?
o Time spent in new location
Permanent, transient, etc
Migration
o A form of population redistribution
Over-populated to under-populated
North Africa>Europe
East Asia>North America
Latin America>North America
o Many core countries depend on immigration to sustain
population and economic growth
250,000 each year
1850-1900 30-60K
1900-1950:20-150k/year (peak in 1910)
o 1950-2000: 50-240K/year
Net Migrartion:
o Immigration-Emigration
o Destination countries
Low natural population growth, high economic and
social development
o Source countries
High natural population growth, low economic and
social development
Push/Pull Theory
o Based upon push and pull factors
o Push
Factors that make a current living location undesirable
Local economic crises, cultural or political oppression,
environmental or political crises
o Pull
Conditions that make another place appear to be better
Economic opportunities, family reunification, freedoms,
environment and amenities
o Push and pull factors take three main forms
Economic
A consequence in difference in wages
Political
Africans in Europe
South Asians in Australia
Difficult to estimate numbers
Lecture 12
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Cities between Mesopotamia and the Industrial Revolution 1700s and 1800s
Small, compact
Lecture 13
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Definition
Urban area
o A community that is defined as being urban;, a city, a town,
a suburb, etc etc
Population/spatial size is unique
o Demographic criteria
Based upon laws, seemingly arbitrary numbers of
people that have to live in an area to be called a city
May be additional requirement of density
o Economic criteria
Certain percentages of the labor force needs to be in
certain types of jobs, certain percentage in non urban
jobs
Again, defined by a country, varies around the world
o Variations around the world
Canada-solely demographic
Population>1000;density>400km2- relatively low
USA
Population>1000 (density requirement has been
removed)
Japan
Population>50,000;density>60% of housing in
built-up areas: employment >60% in
manufacturing, trade, etc
Botswana
Population>5000; employment>75% in nonagricultural work
Norway
Population>200
Do urban and city mean the ame thing?
o Canada is 80% urban, does that mean 80% of us live in cities
Urban
City
Time Period 2
Lecture 14
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How many large cities are there, and how large are they?
o
million+
o
million+
o
million +
10
o
million+
20
171
55
22
4 largest cities
o New York, Tokyo, Seoul and Jakarta
Various sources give different sizes
o Many suggest Tokyo as largest, but not widely accepted
Others include New York, Seoul, Shanghai, Dehli,
Mexico City, Sao Paulo and Chongqing
Uncertainty arises from the matter of definition
MDW is urbanized
LDW is urbanizing
Lecture 15
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Urban Hierarchy
Ranking of cities based on population size and range of functions
Pyramid
o Bottom
Many small cities serving small areas
Small number of goods and services available
o Top
Few large cities serving large areas
Wide range of services available
Hierarchy
Interdependence
Southern Ontario
Lecture 16
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Land use is the most dense and most expensive downtown, with the highest
demand
As such only certain developments can locate there
Bid rent curves!
Suburban Malls
Lecture 17
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Agriculture
o Pressures to increase productivity via investment in
technology=> rise of agribusinesses (recall TNCs)
o Agricultural specialization has created distinct geographies of
agriculture
Forestry
o Key resource for extraction in certain parts of North America
o Not a major part of national economy, but very important to
certain areas
Agriculture: most important human activity for the past 12,000
years
o 45% of the worlds working population
o 30% of the worlds landmass
o In parts of Asia and Africa >80%
o In North America-only 2%
Agriculture is a system of food production
o A system is a set of interacting components that work
together as a unit
o A food producing system includes
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Industry
o Key to economic vitality within these MDW economies.
o Newly industrializing countries, the industry is still key, and
secondary activities are required for these countries to grow
Pre-industrial production
o Localized and rudimentary production
o Driven by skill set of people on a local level on a small scale
The Industrial revolution-18th and 19th century
o
o
o
o
Branch plants
Domestic market
Tradiotnal Manufacturing areas
o North America, Europe and Japan
o Mahoriy of global output
Newly Emerging
o South and South Eats asia
Us Manufacturing
o Northeast to the south
Lower wages
Japan
o High quality consumer goods post WWII
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Situation: Markets
Market oriented
Transport rates-fast
Weight gain in production of materials
o Bottling
Perishable products
Raw Materials and intermediate goods
Raw materials
o Ore, coal
Intermediate goods
o Multiple stages of processing, are still the raw materials to a
finished product
Transportation Costs
Terminal costs are fixed
Line haul costs are variable
Terminal costs are distributes over the length of haul
Transport costs differ between modes-rail/truck/sea
Labor
Infrastructure
Transportation facilities, communications, utilities and other
services
Energy
Not a big issue for MDW
o Energy availability is ubiquitous
o Notable Exceptions:
Industrializing countries
Agglomeration
Clustering of plants in one place
o Production and trabsport costs can be reduced
Auto industry
Site and situation: Other factors
Political stability, tax incentives, environmental conditions,
availability if land, access to capital, etc
Consider: EPX
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Canada, like other more developed economices are going through economic
transitions
Secondary to tertiary /quaternary: post-industrial
o Uneven transitions
o Re-shaped what people do every day
Comes with some significant challenges
Presented some opportunities
Deindustrialization
o A recution in manufacturing employment and output
o Spatially concentrated
o Consequences are uneven
Some benefit more, some suffer more
Deindustrialization occurs rapidly
Flint, Micigan, Detroit
Reindustrialization:
o Small, niche-market producers
Secondary to Tertiary
Shift to a post-industrial Society: Economic restructuring
o Manufacturing to services
o Production to consumption
Eg. Converting factory to casino
o What does the shift look like?
People are employed to provide services to others
Modeling the transition in terms of food
o Primary/Pre-Industrial/Subsistence
Food produced and consumed at home
o Secondary/Industrial
Food made locally, purchased in a grocery
o Tertiary/Post-Industrial/Service Society
going out to eat
What are the different types of services? Are all these services
alike?
o Consumer Services
Retail, education, health and leisure/hospitality
o Business Services
Professional,financial, clerical, information and
transportation
o Public Services
Government, police, fire, etc
Transition
o One type of activity to another
Employment:
o Primary 5%
o Secondary 20%
o Tertiary 75%
GDP
o Primary 8%
o Secondary 23%
o Tertiary 68%
Course Conclusion
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Definitions gifts
5 of these 10 will be in concepts, and all will likely will be in the rest
of the exam
Geography
GIS
Distance Decay
Industrial Revolution
Megacity
Development
Agri business
TNC
Primate City
Total Fertility Rate
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