Chapter 24: Hormones

Short-Answer Questions
1) What characteristics distinguish steroid, protein, and peptide hormones from paracrine
regulators? To which of these categories do prostaglandins belong and what are some of
their major characteristics?
Answer
Steroid, protein, and peptide hormones are carried throughout the circulatory system of the body
acting locally as well as acting on distant cells with the appropriate receptors. Paracrine
regulators are chemical messengers as well, but diffuse through intracellular fluid, acting locally
on nearby cells with the appropriate receptors. The prostaglandins are a major group of
paracrine regulators that are produced by most cells and tissues of the body and are responsible
for many functions, including inflammation of tissues and dilation of blood vessels.
2) Distinguish between the location of receptors associated with the cell for protein, peptide,
and steroid hormones. Which are water soluble and lipid soluble? How does this affect
the location of hormone receptors?
Answer
The receptors for protein and peptide hormones are located on the surface of the target cell
because these hormones are not lipid soluble and cannot pass through the cell membrane. The
receptors for steroid hormones are located within the cytoplasm or nucleus because this kind of
hormone is lipid soluble and can easily pass through the cell membrane and enter the cytoplasm.
3) What are the two hormones that are produced by the posterior pituitary gland and what
are their functions?
Answer
Oxytocin this hormone increases the chances that an individual will form social attachments
with others and influences the production of milk in nursing mothers as well as uterine
contraction during childbirth.
Antidiuretic hormone this hormone influences the conservation of water. An increase of this
hormone reduces the volume of urine produced by the kidneys and therefore causes the
conservation of water; a reduction of this hormone would have the opposite effect.
4) How do the thyroid and parathyroid work together to regulate blood calcium levels?
Answer
Calcitonin Production of this hormone increases when blood calcium levels increase, resulting
in excess calcium being stored in bones of the skeletal system.
Parathyroid hormone is produced by the parathyroid glands and causes an increase in calcium
removal from bone and a reduction in calcium loss through urination when blood calcium levels
are lower than normal.

5) Target cells of a hormone will often reduce the number of receptors for a hormone when
the levels for that hormone become chronically elevated. Conversely, the number of
receptors for a hormone may increase if the concentration of a hormone is chronically
reduced. Explain why this occurs during these cases.
Answer
Hormones are chemical messengers that are required in small quantities to produce their effects.
If hormone levels are elevated for long periods of time, cells with the correct receptors will only
need a smaller number of receptors for maximum response. Therefore, the cell has more
receptors for this hormone than it needs and will respond by reducing the number of receptors.
Conversely, if tissue fluid levels, including blood, of hormones are chronically low, cells will
produce more receptors to maximize their response to existing levels of hormones.
6) Why is the pituitary gland often referred to as the master gland? Is it correct to refer to
the pituitary as the master gland?
Answer
Specifically, the anterior pituitary gland produces hormones that direct other glands to produce
and, in some cases, not produce hormones. The pituitary gland itself is under the direction of the
hypothalamus, which receives input on the internal and external environment. In response to
environmental input, the hypothalamus produces hormones that control the release of hormones
from the pituitary gland and produces hormones that are transported to and directly released from
the pituitary gland. Therefore, calling the pituitary gland the master gland is not an entirely
correct label.
Essay questions
1) Why would predatory animals, which are top tropic members, be more prone to the
effects of endocrine disruptors within a particular environment than organisms that are
part of the lower tropic level, such as plants? What changes in the environment would
have to be made to conserve a predatory species?
Answer
Since predators are at the top of the tropic levels in an ecosystem, they will eat directly or
indirectly many producers. Many of the producers may have some of the hormone disrupter in
their body tissues; as they are eaten by predators the hormone becomes concentrated and they
may be more adversely affected than producers within the same ecosystem.
In order to conserve a predatory species it would be necessary to remove the endocrine disrupter
from the part of the environment from which the consumers feed. For example, if the primary
consumers live in soil, all contaminated soil will need to be removed or mitigated by some other
method that either changes the endocrine disrupter into a harmless form or completely breaks it
down.

2) Compare and contrast the nervous system and endocrine system.

Answer
The basic differences and similarities between the nervous and endocrine systems include:
Both systems cause some change in the physiology of a cell. The nervous system stimulates
target cells directly through the use of electrical impulses with specialized cells called neurons,
whereas the tissues of the endocrine system produce chemical messengers called hormones,
which expose all cells of the body but only stimulate cells with the appropriate receptors. Target
cells respond immediately when stimulated by the nervous system, whereas target cells exposed
to hormones may respond very quickly or much longer.
3) Describe the gland that produces adrenaline and cortisol and the role they play in
response to dangerous situations. What are the effects of the hormone cortisol on mood?
Knowing the effects, what changes in mood may result if a patient is prescribed cortisol for
the treatment of inflammation?
Answer
There are two adrenal glands, one located atop each of the kidneys, which produce both
adrenaline and cortisol. During a situation where a person feels as if their safety is threatened,
the adrenal glands release adrenaline and cortisol. These two hormones cause the heart rate to
increase, the release of stored fatty acids, the breakdown of glycogen in the liver and muscles,
dilation of the bronchioles, and formation of goose bumps. Cortisol is sometimes given to
patients as a treatment for inflammation; however, it consequently causes a person to have more
depression and anxiety, which may need to be monitored.
4) What are the hormones produced by the pancreas that regulate blood glucose? How do
they work together to regulate blood glucose levels? How would consuming large
quantities of starchy foods, such as pasta, benefit a person prior to running a marathon?
Answer
The pancreas makes insulin, which is produced in higher concentrations as blood glucose
concentration increases, such as after consuming a meal rich in carbohydrates. This causes cells
of the liver, muscle cells, and fat cells to absorb glucose. As blood glucose levels fall, the
pancreas produces less insulin. The pancreas also makes glucagon, which is produced in higher
concentrations when blood glucose levels drop too low. Glucagon causes the conversion of
glycogen stored in the liver into glucose, which enters the circulatory system and raises blood
glucose concentrations back to normal range. As blood glucose levels return to a normal range,
the pancreas reduces its production of glucagon.
A common practice prior to running a marathon or participating in other long endurance sports,
is to consume a large quantity of foods rich in starch that increase blood glucose levels. In
response, the pancreas produces more insulin, which causes liver cells to absorb glucose and
convert it to glycogen, which is stored in the liver. During a high endurance activity, such as a
marathon, glycogen is converted back to glucose, which raises blood glucose levels back to a
normal level and allows the person to continue their activity.