Health Education Journal

http://hej.sagepub.com/

Child sexual abuse reporting behaviour by school counsellors and their

need for further education
Juliette D G Goldman and Usha K Padayachi
Health Education Journal 2005 64: 302
DOI: 10.1177/001789690506400403
The online version of this article can be found at:
http://hej.sagepub.com/content/64/4/302

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Child sexual abuse reporting behaviour by

school counsellors and their need for further
education
Juliette D G Goldman
1 and Usha K

2
Padayachi

Abstract

Objective To examine a statewide sample of school counsellors reporting

behaviour of suspected cases of child sexual abuse, and their need for
further education in this area.
Design A questionnaire using four hypothetical vignettes on child sexual
abuse requested information on the degree of suspicion, reporting
behaviour and familiarity with the reporting procedures for child sexual
abuse in state schools in particular, and the state in general.
Setting Although school counsellors in Queensland, Australia have been
delegated with responsibilities regarding child sexual abuse, little is known
about whether or not they have the appropriate reporting behaviours to
fulfil these roles, and their training needs.
Metliod Some 283 questionnaires were mailed to all school counsellors
employed by the Department of Education across Queensland. The final
sample of 122 counsellors consisted of 52 males (43 per cent) and 70
females (57 per cent); a ratio comparable to the membership of the state
Counselling Association.
Results There was a tendency for school counsellors to under-report their
suspicions of child sexual abuse. School counsellors were more likely to
suspect abuse than report cases to the appropriate authorities. A
considerable proportion of school counsellors in Queensland also believe
they have little knowledge of the symptoms that identify cases of child
sexual abuse, lack counselling skills and procedures to work with sexually
abused children, and do not have the necessary training and knowledge
to act as resource persons. All school counsellors expressed interest in
Senior Lecturer, Faculty of Education, Griffith University, Queensland. 2Researcher,
1
Faculty of Education, University of Queensland, Queensland.
Correspondence to: Juliette D G Goldman, Faculty of Education, Griffith University,
PMB 50, Gold Coast Mail

Centre, Queensland, Australia

4217.

I.goldman@griffith.edu.au
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attending in-service education

programmes

addressing knowledge,

detection, intervention, prevention and treatment of child sexual abuse

and other forms of child abuse.
Conclusion School counsellors are in a unique position to aid in the battle
against child sexual abuse. However, the results of the present study
suggest that they lack confidence in their ability to identify and work
with children who have been sexually abused. Consequently, the development and implementation of training programmes to increase school
counsellorsskills and knowledge of child sexual abuse seem to be crucial
in fighting this crime against children. Because of the significant deficits
found here in counsellors professional responses to child sexual abuse, it
seems necessary, then, for future research to address the type, nature and
duration of support school counsellors need in this area, including
emotional factors, which may well intervene in the process. Research could
also address the range of policies that could identify quality of
relationships and inter-professional partnerships with other helping
professionals and government organisations such as the Department of
Families, Department of Health, Childrens Commission, police, social
workers, private counsellors, and, of course, school teachers, in order to
promote whole school approaches to enhancing the welfare of all children.

Key words: school counsellors, child sexual abuse, schools, education, reporting child
sexual abuse

Introduction
Child sexual abuse has become a social issue requiring urgent attention, particularly in
light of the published evidence over the last 30 years. The involvement of school
counsellors in addressing child sexual abuse has been discussed in the literature 1,2,3,-1.5,6.
School counsellors are in a key position to help in the discovery, intervention, treatment,
and prevention of child sexual abuse 7,R,Y,IO, and their regular accessibility to children
provides them with a social milieu conducive to professional investigation of it.
School appears to be the most important place outside the home where the abused
child regularly participates. Most of the victims of child sexual abuse are primary schoolaged, with abuse most commonly occurring between 8 and 12 years, 2,13 . Thus, the
victims presence in the school provides an opportunity for the abuse to be detected,
reported, and interventions implemented &dquo;. Even though child sexual abuse prevention
education in schools may be an area of work that school counsellors might be involved
in, it is not the thrust of this paper.
Since the welfare and wellbeing of children are the bailiwick of school personnel
most of the time, school counsellors and other school personnel have the moral,
professional and, in most cases, legal responsibilities to detect and report cases of child
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sexual abuse15,16. School counsellors should have had special training in interviewing,
assessment, and counselling skills, which are essential skills in working with the abused.
School counsellors have an ongoing contact with other children, teaching personnel
and the community at large who may know, or have suspicions of, the child being sexually
abused 14,15,16.17. Thus, school counsellors are seen by many researchers to be in a strategic
position to detect, intervene and ultimately prevent child sexual abuse. In Australia,
very little is known about the reporting behaviour of school counsellors, and whether
they feel adequately trained or require further training. This paper addresses school
counsellors reporting behaviour of suspected cases of child sexual abuse and their need
for further training in this area, using a state-wide sample of school counsellors employed
by the Department of Education in Queensland.

Literoture
Child sexual abuse and school counsellors
Traditionally, social workers, medical personnel and teachers have responded to the
known cases of child sexual abusel9,15,16. However, for the school counsellor, the presence
and implications of child sexual abuse are ever present with the most important concern
being the psychological wellbeing of the victim, since research has documented serious
psychological consequences of child sexual abuse20,21. Furthermore, the counsellor must
deal with the victims in-school (and out-of-school) behaviour, and adjustment problems
which result from sexual abuse.
A number of researchers have discussed the varying roles that the school
counsellor may play 7. Vevier and Tharinger22 (p.303) present a two-level framework
which delineates seven role functions of the school psychologist, which are to:
be knowledgeable about child sexual abuse in order to act as a resource person;
provide crises intervention after disclosure;
evaluate behavioural and physical indicators of suspected cases;
report cases of child sexual abuse;
provide ongoing indirect intervention;
provide direct intervention; and
implement prevention activities.
The first five functions are proposed as a first-level of involvement which Vevier
and Tharinger 22 believe all school counsellors should carry out. The last two functions
are for those school counsellors who are motivated and have the training to provide
counselling services to the child victim, and actively participate in the development
and implementation of prevention activities.
Although many researchers agree that the counsellor should intervene , there is
little agreement on when the counsellor must delineate his/her responsibilities. However,
there appears to be a general consensus that school counsellors should be cognisant of
indicators of sexual abuse, be aware of the reporting laws of the state and report to the
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appropriate authorities any suspected cases of child sexual abuse/-, 22 . Little is known
about whether counsellors can actually carry out these roles effectively.
lndicators of sexual abuse
If school counsellors and other school personnel are to be effective in their efforts to
prevent child sexual abuse, they need to be familiar with its physical signs and
behavioural changes 15, 16. The most important indicator of sexual abuse appears to be
the childs verbal disclosure of the incidents--. It is therefore important for the school
counsellor to verify the allegation, rather than dismiss it as false. In De Youngs-j
conceptual model to judge the truthfulness of an allegation made by a child, she identifies
the four Cs, namely, clarity, celerity, certainty, and consistency as appropriate criteria.
The greatest barrier to reporting cases of child sexual abuse to the appropriate
authorities by counsellors (and teachers) is the inability to identify cases 7,21 . To assist
mandated reporters of sexual abuse, comprehensive lists of indicators have been

compiles25, including:
Physical Indicators such as vaginal discharge; venereal disease; genitals chaffed,
bruised or itching; pregnancy in a child under the age of 13; torn, stained, or bloody
underwear; and difficulty in sitting or walking.
Behavioural Indicators such as sophisticated sexual knowledge; low self-esteem,
fears of separation and loss; inappropriate sexual behaviours (for example, clinging,
fondling, flirting, masturbating in public); self-mutilation, disfigurement; age
regression in toilet training; gender role confusion; consistently arriving early for
school or reluctant to go home after school; unwilling to undress or take part in
physical education; frequent absences from school justified by male parent or
guardian; disclosure by the child that he or she has been molested, frequently running
away from home; and manifestation through childs drawing, stories, or play.
Such indicators of sexual abuse do not exist in isolation, but often cluster
together, 21 . The presence of one indicator does not necessarily mean that sexual abuse
has taken place, but two or more of these indicators increase its possibility, and suggest
the need to investigate further to verify the counsellors suspicion. Besides, since many
of these physical indicators are seldom observable to counsellors, it is more likely that
they will have to rely on behavioural indicators.
Finkelhor and Brownes26 three-step conceptual model is closely tied with clinical
and empirical research on child sexual abuse and is another useful construct to aid its
investigation, and appears to be the most systematic. The first step provides an indicator
list, including a list of symptoms that can be used as indicators of sexual abuse. The
second step is to assess the childs vulnerability to sexual abuse, including predisposing
factors that have been found to have some association with sexual abuse. In the third
step, the reasons for false allegations of sexual abuse are explored. This conceptual model
is particularly useful for school counsellors in judging the truthfulness of a childss
allegation of sexual abuse.
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Interviewing
A knowledge of these physical and behavioural indicators of sexual abuse is important
assessing cases of child sexual abuse. However, it is believed that these indicators
may not be of primary importance for diagnostic assessment27. In order to verify ones
suspicion of the child being sexually abused, the school counsellor should talk nonin

intrusively to the child in an environment where s/he feels safe, and is not afraid, tense
or confused28.25,29. Clinical and research evidence shows that an interviewers approach
and style of questioning is crucial when considering the childs accuracy of recall
including establishing rapport, gaining trust, diffusing anxiety, and communicating at
an

age-appropriate level-.

Guidelines for interviewing

Guidelines have been formulated for interviewing victims in cases of incest28.27,30,25.
The child should tell the story about what happened without being led into telling what
the counsellor wants to hear25.22,29. Counsellors should refrain from asking direct probing
questions and utilise non-verbal approaches in communicating with the child27,25. For
younger children it has been found that doll play> toys, drawings, puppets or colours are
useful to express the victims experiences27,25. Older children respond well by doodling,
tilling eco-maps which represent the childs world, or by working with ambiguous picture
cards28. These communication aids are believed to provide a measure of distance for
children, from the counsellor, and in a non-threatening way, may help the child discuss
what he or she has experienced.
The counsellor should also be aware of childrens varying sexual vocabulary25,
because research has shown that children have a wide range of vocabulary for body
parts including sexual organs and sexual acts; most of them being pseudonyms3!.

Reporting and referral

The importance of reporting suspected cases of sexual abuse is highlighted by the high
frequency of recurrence, and also the incidence of non-reporting. To help prevent sexual
abuse, every state in the USA, for example, has enacted into law a mandatory child
abuse reporting statute, and its approach is summarised here for contextual purposes,
and also because most of the counselling literature in this area appears to emanate from
there.

USA
In the United States, it is

crime for child-care workers, school personnel, medical

professionals, social workers, psychologists, and members of the clergy not to report
cases of child maltreatment. The obligation to report arises when the adult has reasonable
cause to suspect that the child has been abused. However, a large majority of mandated
reporters do not report cases of child abuse to child protective services, and in an effort
to encourage reporting, every state in the United States has also included an immunity
a

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in the reporting statute. This provision provides immunity from civil and
criminal actions if the original report was made in good faith. A majority of the states
also provide a specific penalty for wilful failure to make a required report.
While school personnel are lawfully required to report suspected cases of abuse,
studies in the United States indicate that counsellors (and teachers) receive little training
in child abuse and, as a result, lack knowledge about some important aspects of it. The
relatively few referrals of child sexual abuse from school counsellors appear to reflect
limited awareness and reluctance on the part of the school personnel to report.

provision

Australia
The laws

relating to the reporting of suspected cases of child sexual abuse vary from
state to state. For example, in New South Wales (NSW), mandatory reporting of suspected
cases of child sexual abuse has been extended from physicians to school personnel;-.
In order to prepare school personnel for the introduction of this new law, the New South
Wales Department of Education conducted in-service courses for school counsellors,
principals and a teacher from each school. After the introduction of this new law, the
number of cases of child sexual abuse reported by school personnel increased
dramatically from 11.4 per cent to 24 per cent33 . Thus, the laws main objective, of
increasing the likelihood of victims of child abuse being identified, was achieved.
In contrast, in Queensland, until 1998, there was no legal mandate that required
teachers and school personnel to report suspected cases of child sexual abuse. However,
since then:
.

if an employee receives information that provides reasonable gl-oll)lds for

suspecting that a student is in need of protectioll ji-am harm from internal or
external sources, the allegation or information must be reported to the [school)
principal. If allegatiolls may constitute child abuse by a persall external to the
state educational institution, Principal must report the matter to the Police or
the Department of Families, Youth artd Community Care. 34 (p.13)

Reporting suspected cases of child sexual abuse is not an easy task for the school
counsellor, nor for any other person in the helping profession, as they are bound by
requirements of confidentiality that they will not disclose information about the client3.
However, the school counsellor need not make false promises of total secrecy, since the
ideal of confidentiality is superseded by legal requirements and the moral responsibility
of protecting children. In determining the necessity for making the report, the school
counsellors main purpose is to protect children, not to apprehend or interrogate the
perpetrators. That is the role of other agencies such as the police.
The counsellors role
As indicated earlier, once the report has been made, the school counsellors task is not
complete. Traditionally, the counsellors responsibilities ended after the report had been
made to the appropriate child protective services, but many researchers now believe
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that the school counsellor should remain involved even after the case has been closed2.
After the report has been made, school counsellors may help in the investigation by the
appropriate authorities. In the inquiry phase, school personnel are well placed to
comment on the various aspects of the childs development, such as his or her family
life, performance in school, unusual behaviour such as unexplained withdrawal from
school, inappropriate sexual behaviours, and reluctance to go home after school. The
counsellor may be the only adult the victim trusts and relies on to help her/him through
this stress.
Professional bodies, such as the school counsellor associations, and state
governments, advocate that counsellors roles should include major responsibilities to
deal with child sexual abuse. Their active participation is also espoused by many
researchers and clinicians who specifically address the schools role in response to sexual
abuse. The major roles delegated to counsellors are to:
be in the forefront of child advocacy;
intervene on behalf of children who show signs of being abused; and
in conjunction with medical and other helping professions, assist in the identification,
referral and treatment of sexually abused children.
However, little is known about whether or not school counsellors have the
knowledge and the appropriate skills to fulfil these roles. Only a few studies have been
conducted to assess if school counsellors are aware of their states laws, and if they have
the working knowledge to intervene effectively.
One of the few such studies was conducted by Wilson et a12-1 in Kentucky, in the
United States. Even though the counsellors in their sample reported they could identify
the symptoms of child sexual abuse, knew how to report cases, and had counselling
procedures to work with them, they encountered a limited number of child sexual abuse
cases. However, that study did not assess the level of counselling procedures that the
respondents had, nor the degree of competence in recognising the symptoms of child
abuse. For instance, if the respondent had indicated strongly agree for statements such
as I have counselling procedures to work with an abused child, it does not necessarily
mean that he or she possesses that knowledge. Thus, the validity of information about
counsellor knowledge derived from Likert-type scales is questionable unless veritied
by questions specitically designed to ascertain such knowledge.
Krupnick36 in New Jersey assessed school counsellors knowledge and attitudes
towards incest, incest taboo, detection, assessment, and treatment. The results showed
that a majority of school counsellors in the sample were not aware of the procedures for
reporting suspected cases of incest, did not have any training in the understanding of
incest and how to treat it, and needed additional knowledge and training. Unfortunately,
the results of this survey cannot be generalised because of the educational qualification
bias of the sample, with a large percentage of respondents (31 per cent) holding
doctorates. Moreover, that study specifically explored only one type of sexual abuse,
namely incest, so the results may not be generalisable to other types of sexual abuse.
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Another study, conducted by James and De Vaney~&dquo;, investigated the reporting

behaviour of school counsellors and trainee counsellors in Kentucky, USA. This study
used hypothetical vignettes in which a child admitted being sexually abused. In cases
where a step-parent was a perpetrator, a majority of both trainees (79 per cent) and
counsellors (92 per cent) stated that they would report the abuse to the authorities.
However, when the alleged perpetrator was a teacher, only 41 per cent of trainees and 44
per cent of school counsellors reported that they would take this course of action. Instead,
almost equal proportions, 41 per cent of trainees and 46 per cent of counsellors, stated
that they would defer to the Principal. These figures show that, even when children
disclose abuse, school counsellors and trainee counsellors do not always take the
appropriate action. Unfortunately, due to the nature of the study, the counsellors and
trainees ability to recognise symptoms of abuse was not assessed, nor was their
competence in treating victims of abuse, once the abuse had been discovered.

Queensland school counsellors

A literature search indicates that almost all the studies on school counsellors responses
to child sexual abuse have been conducted in the United States. Although school
counsellors in Queensland, Australia have been delegated with responsibilities regarding
child sexual abuse, little is known about whether or not they have the appropriate
reporting behaviours to fulfil these roles. As far as is known, there has not been any
such kind of investigation undertaken yet in Australia, nor Queensland. This study aims

explore these school counsellors reporting behaviour toward child sexual abuse and
their training needs in this area.

to

Method
Questionnaire
The questionnaire was designed to explore Queensland school counsellors reporting
behaviour of child sexual abuse. It sought social and family demographic data of
counsellors, their work setting and educational background. Using four hypothetical
vignettes, it requested information on the degree of suspicion, reporting behaviour and
familiarity with the reporting procedures for child sexual abuse in Queensland State
schools in particular, and in Queensland in general.

Sample
questionnaires were mailed to all school counsellors employed by the
Department of Education across Queensland. A second letter was sent three weeks later
resulting in the final sample of 122 counsellors, or about 43 per cent response rate,
which compares favourably with similar surveys. For example Krupnick36 reported a
response rate of 48 per cent in his survey on school psychologists awareness of, and
attitudes towards, incest. Similarly, Finlayson3? reported a response rate of 43 per cent
Some 283

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in her survey on psychologists professional judgements related to child abuse reporting

laws in child sexual abuse cases in the United States.

Sample characteristics
The final sample of 122 school counsellors consisted of 52 males (43 per cent) and 70
females (57 per cent). This ratio compares favourably with the membership of the
Queensland Guidance Counselling Association. Most of the counsellors were aged
between 40-49 years,with 46 per cent (n=24) of males and 46 per cent of females (n=32)
in this age range. The results of a two-tailed probability t-test showed that males were
signiticantly older than females (p=.049).
A large majority of males (77 per cent, 11=40) and females (about 56 per cent,
n=39) were married, whilst 69 per cent (11=36) of the males and about 55 per cent
(11=39) of the females were biological parents. More females (47 per cent, u=33) than
males (about 38 per cent, n=20) were High School counsellors, while 30 per cent ( u=21 )
of females and almost an equal proportion of males (31 per cent, n=16) were primary
school counsellors. The remaining counsellors worked in other educational settings,
such as kindergartens, pre-schools, special schools, school support centres, or a
combination of these.
Male counsellors had more years of experience in school counselling than female
counsellors, with 46 per cent (i7=24) of males having ten or more years of experience
compared to only 13 per cent (11=9) of females. A two-tailed probability t-test revealed
a significant difference between the male and female counsellors in relation to the
number of years of experience (p=.000). Males counsellors were signiticantly more
experienced in school counselling than females. There was no significant difference
between the female and male counsellors tertiary qualifications. A large majority of
both female and male counsellors had either Postgraduate Diploma or Masters
qualifications. None had doctorates.

Definition of terms

The following definitions were used:

A child is defined as a person under the age of 17 years.
Child sexiial abuse is unwanted contact or non-contact sexual experience perpetrated
on a child.
Contact sexual abuse is unwanted sexual experiences, including kissing, hugging or
fondling a childs breasts or genital; and/or simulated intercourse; and penetration of
the vagina, anus, or mouth with a penis, finger or an object.
Non-contact sexual abuse is unwanted sexual experiences, including exhibitionism,
taking picture of the child in the nude or someone engaged in sexual intercourse in the
presence of the child.
Incestuous or intrcrfarnilial nbtrse includes any unwanted contact or non-contact sexual
experience which is perpetrated on a child by a relative who is related to the child either
.

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by marriage or blood.
Extrafamilial sexual abuse includes any unwanted contact or non-contact sexual
experiences perpetrated on a child by individuals who are not relatives of the child (for
example, authority figures, strangers, friends or family friends).

Questionnaire vignettes

The questionnaire included four hypothetical vignettes that were used to explore school
counsellors professional decision-making behaviour regarding detection and reporting
of cases of child sexual abuse. The type of sexual acts in each vignette varied from
vaginal penetration, to fondling, to no sexual contact at all. In each vignette, pertinent
background information was provided, including family background, the age of the
child, and the type of symptoms. In each hypothetical case, symptom presentation was
further elucidated during the hypothetical interview with the school counsellor. In all
four cases presented, the school counsellor was not able to elicit any further information
from the child at the end of the interview.
In Vignette A, the boy exhibits a sudden change in behaviour and an unexpected
deterioration in academic performance. The school counsellor finds him sad and
withdrawn. During the interview he draws a picture of a man and makes vague
statements about a bad man, but does not make any specific statement about being
sexually abused.
In Vignette B, the girl is withdrawn, clingy, fearful and sexually acts out with peers.
The girl arrives at school very early and leaves for home very late. During the interview
with the school counsellor, the girl makes a passing remark about the doll being very
lucky by not having a pee-wee as Tom would not be able to poke her. However, she does
not make any specific statement about being sexually abused.
In Vignette C, a teenage girl verbally discloses about being sexually abused to her
grandmother as well as to the school counsellor. The symptoms presented in this case
are social withdrawal and mood change.A direct disclosure about being sexually abused
was made in this case.
In Vignette D, an eight-year old girl shows signs of social withdrawal, nocturnal
enuresis, nervousness and listlessness. Her drmvings are infantile. The girl makes vague
statements about a monster undressing a little girl and taking pictures other, but she
does not make any specific statement about being sexually abused.
The school counsellors ability to identify as reportable the hypothetical cases of
child sexual abuse presented in the vignettes was examined, and in each case, pertinent
background information of the child and symptoms of sexual abuse were provided.
The type of sexual experience in each vignette varied from non-contact sexual act
(Vignette D) to fondling (Vignettes A and C) to sexual intercourse (Vignette B). The
school counsellor had interviewed each child to elucidate further information from him
or her. In order to report a case to the appropriate authorities, school counsellors need
to have some degree of suspicion about the child being sexually abused. Following each
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vignette, counsellors were asked to indicate on a four-point scale their degree of suspicion
that abuse had occurred in each case. Data was compiled and analysed using SPSS.
When comparisons were made, chi-square, t-tests and analysis of variance (ANOVA)
were used as tests of significance. Statistical significant difference was set at the .05
level.

Questionnaire needs assessment

Three questions sought to determine the level of confidence (on a four-point scale) the
counsellors had in their:
knowledge of the symptoms by which they could identify cases of child sexual abuse;
counselling skills and knowledge of procedures to work with sexually abused
~

children;

training and knowledge to act as resource persons for the school and the community.
Three further questions sought to determine the type of formal training the
counsellors received in relation to the understanding, assessment and treatment of
victims of child sexual abuse, as well as their needs for further training in these areas.
~

Results

Degree of suspicion
Counsellors were asked to indicate the level of suspicion that sexual abuse had occurred,
ranging through substantial reason, to moderate, to little, to no reason to suspect, in
each of the hypothetical cases presented in the vignettes (Table 1 ).
TABLE 1

Degree of suspicion of child sexual abuse (%)

*rounding

error

Both male and female counsellors were likely to have moderate to substantial
suspect sexual abuse in all the hypothetical cases presented in the vignettes.
For Vignette A, a large majority of male (87 per cent, u=45) and female (about 86 per
cent, n=59) counsellors had substantial reason, and the remaining approximately 13
per.cent of males (u=7) and about 14 per cent of females (u=10) had moderate reason
reasons to

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believe that abuse was occurring. When totalled, all male and females were included
in these two categories of substantial and moderate suspicion.
For Vignette B, only 50 per cent (ii=26) of the male and about 66 per cent (n=46)
of the female counsellors reported they had substantial reason to believe that abuse was
occurring, while 44 per cent (n=23) males and about 30 per cent (n=21) of females
reported they had moderate reason. When totalled, 94 per cent of males and 96 per cent
of females were included in these two categories of substantial and moderate suspicion.
The degree of suspicion of abuse in Vignette B, at the moderate and substantial levels,
reported by counsellors was a little lower at 94 per cent for males, considering the fact
that the child displayed inappropriate sexualised behaviour, exhibited acute
symptomatology, and indirectly disclosed abuse using words such as poke and pee
wee during the interview, which appear to be indicative of sexual intercourse.
For Vignette C, a large majority of male and female counsellors, 79 per cent ( u=41 )
and about 84 per cent (n=59) respectively, indicated substantial reason to suspect that
sexual abuse occurred, and when totalled with the moderates include 98 per cent of
males and 96 per cent of females. These figures compare with Vignette D with only
about 62 per cent ( n=32 ) of males and 63 per cent (ii=44) of females, but when totalled
with moderates include 97 per cent for males and 99 per cent of females.
In summary, nearly all the school counsellors indicated substantial or moderate
degree of suspicion that the children in the four cases were being sexually abused.
However, the degree of suspicion appears to differ according to the specificity of the
symptom presentation and seriousness of abuse in each case, except in Vignette B. In
Vignette B, although the child appeared to exhibit acute symptomatology and displayed
inappropriate sexual behaviour, counsellors appeared to be less confident that the child
was sexually abused. Both female and male counsellors held more substantial suspicion
of the child being abused in Vignettes A and C than in Vignettes B and D, but overall,
there was a total substantial and moderate degree of suspicion for all vignettes.
to

Reporting behaviour
School counsellors were asked if they would report the cases of child sexual abuse
presented in the vignettes to the appropriate authorities. They were asked to indicate
their responses on a four-point scale, ranging from definitely not report to definitely
report the case to the appropriate authorities.
As just explained, while all the male and the female counsellors reported
substantial to moderate reason to suspect that the child in Vignette A was being sexually
abused, Table 2 shows that no males but 13 per cent (n=9) of the females indicated it
was definitely not or unlikely that they would report the case to the appropriate
authorities. Similarly, in Vignette B, almost all the female and male counsellors had
tended to have moderate to substantial reason to suspect that the child was being sexually
abused. However, totals of 18 per cent of the females and 17 per cent of the males
responded that they would be unlikely to, or would definitely not, report the case. Similar
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results were obtained for Vignettes C and D. The figures clearly indicate that these school
counsellors were more likely to suspect abuse than report suspected cases to the
appropriate authorities. In general, a higher proportion of male than female counsellors
indicated that they would definitely or likely report the suspected case.
TABLE 2

Reporting behaviour (%)

Reporting behaviour after the child denies

The school counsellors were asked about their reporting behaviour when faced with
the additional information that the child denied being sexually abused. Table 3 shows
that there was a trend for counsellors to be more likely to report the abuse prior to
questioning the child on the possibility of being sexually abused than after the child
denied that he or she was abused.
TABLE 3

Reporting behaviour after the child denies (%)

For instance, as found earlier in Vignette A, although all the counsellors had
moderate to substantial reason to suspect that the child was being sexually abused, no
males but 13 per cent (n=9) of females indicated they were unlikely to report the case
(see Table 2). However, the number of non-reporters increased to 6 per cent (11=3) of
males and about 16 per cent (n=11 ) of females respectively when the child denied being
sexually abused (see Table 3). Similarly, in Vignette B, 25 per cent (u=13) of male and
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about 19 per cent (11= 13) of female counsellors, and in Vignette C, 8 per cent ( n=4) of
male and about 17 per cent (n=12) of female counsellors, and in Vignette D, 8 per cent
(ii=4) of male and about 17 per cent (n=12) of female counsellors reported they would
definitely not or were unlikely to report the case to the appropriate authorities if the
child denied being sexually abused. A comparison of Table 2 with Table 3 reveals that a
slightly higher proportion of both males and females decided not to report the case
after the child denied being sexually abused than prior to it.
These school counsellors are more likely to suspect abuse than report it to the
appropriate authorities. Although approximately 94-100 per cent of counsellors had
moderate to substantial reasons to suspect that sexual abuse was occurring in each
case, some 6-25 per cent of males and 16-19 per cent of females indicated they would
not report the case to the appropriate authorities if the child had denied being sexually
abused. The results clearly show that counsellors were more likely to suspect cases of
child sexual abuse than to report them to the authorities.

Effects of

higher

levels of

training and counselling

on

likelihood

to suspect and report cases

The likely reporting behaviour of the counsellors in relation to the number of years of
counselling experience was also explored. It is often assumed that counsellors with more
experience would be more likely to suspect and report child sexual abuse than those
who had less experience. The sample was divided into two groups: (a) the experienced
group, with seven or more years experience, and (b) the limited experienced group,
those with fewer than seven years experience. The highly experienced group and the
limited experienced group were compared in response to their reporting behaviour using
t-tests. There was no significant difference in the reporting behaviour between the two

groups

(p>.05).

frequently assumed that school counsellors who had extensive training

in relation to the understanding, assessment and treatment of child sexual abuse would
suspect and report more often than those who did not receive any training. A total of
about 56 per cent (ti=68) of the counsellors, 63 per cent (n=44) of females and 37 per
cent (11= 19) of males reported they had some formal training in the understanding,
assessment and treatment of child sexual abuse. The term (formal training was specified
It is also

as:
a

part of formal academic course,

b in-service workshop of at least three days duration,

c workshop of at least three days duration,
d conference presentation, and
e
others.
Counsellors were asked to indicate more than one type of training if applicable.
Counsellors who reported they had some type of formal training in relation to
the understanding, assessment, and treatment of sexual abuse were divided into four
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different groups according to their training level:

a
highly trained (those who received formal training as part of an academic
and in-service and/or workshop of at least three days duration),

course

b medium level of training (those who participated in in-service workshop and/or

other workshop of at least three days duration),
c
low level of training (those who participated in conferences), and
d comprised counsellors who had not received any formal training.
The ANOVA results in Table 4 show that there was no significant difference in the
degree of suspicion or the reporting behaviour between those school counsellors who
had some formal training in relation to the understanding, assessment, and treatment
of cases of sexual abuse, compared to those with little or no training.
TABLE 4 ANOVA results of level of training and
abuse

suspicion

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and

reporting of

The observed cases had the

was moderate to substantial

mean

value of 1.0, as all the counsellors indicated there

to suspect abuse in Vignette 1.

reason

Needs assessment

Finally, school counsellors were asked to indicate their level of confidence and willingness
in dealing with cases of child sexual abuse. The findings revealed that:
a
Less than 10 per cent of the school counsellors in Queensland were completely
confident in their knowledge of symptoms to identify sexual abuse cases, while a
considerable proportion of them, 47 per cent, had little confidence, and 37 per cent
confidence.
b No male and only 6 per cent of the female counsellors were completely confident
that they had the counselling skills and knowledge of procedures to work with
sexually abused children while a large majority, approximately 60 per cent, indicated
they were somewhat or completely lacking in confidence.
Fewer than 10 per cent of the school counsellors were completely confident that the
c
type of training and their knowledge of child sexual abuse would equip them to act as
resource persons, while approximately 50 per cent of them were lacking in confidence.
had

no

Discussion
School counsellors reporting behaviour
Once the school counsellor has decided that sexual abuse has occurred, he or she may
face the dilemma of whether or not to report the case. In certain circumstances, it may
be an automatic decision to report, depending on the nature of abuse and the legal
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requirements of the state/country. In Queensland, however, at the time of this research,

school counsellors were not mandated to report suspected cases of child sexual abuse.
To ascertain the likely reporting behaviour of school counsellors in reporting suspected
cases of child sexual abuse, counsellors were asked whether they would report the cases
presented in the hypothetical vignettes.
The findings revealed that although school counsellors were aware of the reporting
laws in Queensland, they still were not likely to report all the cases of child sexual abuse
when they suspected it. This result is not surprising. In other somewhat related studies,
researchers have reported similar results, even showing that mandated reporters choose
not to report all cases they believe are abuse37,18. The finding confirms the commonly
held belief that child sexual abuse is underreported by professionals involved with child
welfare, including school counsellors.
-

impact of training
There was no significant difference in the suspicion and reporting of abuse between
those school counsellors who had extensive training in child sexual abuse and those
who had little or none. This tinding is consistent with results reported by Finlayson37
where she found psychologists with extensive training and experience in child sexual
abuse were no more likely to report or suspect abuse, than were psychologists with little
training. One plausible explanation is that almost all school counsellors undergo a similar
training programme, so there may be very little differences in training. It is more likely
that professional training differences in this study were masked due to the choice of
sample. The school counsellors involved were all post-graduate diploma or Masters
holders, who came from a relatively homogeneous background. It would be useful, then,
to sample a less homogeneous group of school counsellors, if possible.
It appears that school counsellors from New South Wales (NSW), where reporting
is mandatory, appeared to be more informed and may have extensive training in child
abuse and neglect, including child sexual abuse. This appears to be the popular practice
when mandatory reporting is first enforced in any state or country. The views expressed
by a counsellor below shows dissatisfaction with the Queensland legislation and
allocation of resources:

My training was in NSW as has been Illost of ny~ experience. My 18 months iu

Queensland has left nte bewildered and anglY about the lack of services in the
area of child sexual abuse. Resources are extremely limited, procedures virtually
non-existent and the various departments and agencies work against each other
rather than togetha The situation is a disgrace! (Male, 40-49 years old).
In Australian states where notification of abuse is mandatory, professionals who
would be mandated to report would be more aware of their roles and responsibilities.
This would appear to be so under the new Queensland Department of Education Child
Protection Policy 34 , but it is currently too early to determine.
One of the conclusions that may be drawn from the vignette analysis is that it is

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reasonable to assume that the more serious a school counsellor judges a case of sexual
abuse to be, the more likely that a report will be filed. Although little research on reporting
decision has been undertaken, some support for this contention has been found~~3.
Thus, it appears that, generally, only the serious cases of abuse will be reported,
consequently data from reported cases would not accurately reflect the nature and
incidence of abuse.
Another conclusion is that a discrepancy between the number of cases of sexual
abuse and the number of cases reported is probably inevitable, and that some cases of
abuse will be underreported disproportionately to others. Again, inferences from
reported cases may be misleading.
...
One of the roles and responsibilities of school counsellors in relation to child sexual
abuse, that is advocated by many researchers, is to evaluate behavioural and physical
indicators of suspected cases of abuse. However, from the findings of this study, it appears
that these school counsellors may not successfully carry out this role because they are
not confident with their level of knowledge of the symptoms of sexual abuse. This is a
major concern since the greatest barrier to reporting child sexual abuse is the inability
to identify cases. Familiarity with the physical signs and behavioural changes that may
be indicative of sexual abuse is essential if counsellors are to be effective in their efforts
to address this social problem.
Detection and follow-up are vital to the welfare of sexually abused children.
However, detection and prosecution may not prevent the problem. Both the victims and
the perpetrator need counselling assistance. The school counsellor is in a unique position
to help victims address some of the traumas of child sexual abuse9. One of the major
effects of child sexual abuse is robbing the child of basic trust in adults&dquo;. School counsellors
may be able to help the child develop a more trusting relationship with an adult by providing
a supportive, non-judgemental attitude that would encourage the child to talk and share
feelings. The counsellors, however, require not only counselling skills, but also knowledge
of appropriate procedures to work with the abused children and perpetrators. However,
according to the results reported above, counsellors appear to be lacking in the skills
and knowledge required to work with abused children. This is another concern which
needs to be investigated and redressed by educators and programme developers.
Another role of the school counsellor is to assist in the prevention of child sexual
abuse. School counsellors should be able to be a resource person in prevention education
for children. Some parents may be concerned that children should be taught at school
about sexual abuse or that they may need protection from their own parents. They may
think parents are the best people to look after their children. However, some parents
sexually abuse their children, and a number of them are not sufficiently capable of
protecting their children from being sexually abused by other members of the family
or friends38.12,13, Schools should take a wider role in the development of educational
programmes including sexuality education3l . However, less than 10 per cent of the school
counsellors felt completely confident that their training and knowledge of child sexual
.

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abuse equipped them to act as resource persons. This is a concern which needs to be
addressed urgently if school counsellors are to be actively involved in the amelioration
of child sexual abuse39,, ~.

Further training
In this survey of school counsellors in

Queensland, approximately 95 per cent of the

counsellors stated that they needed more training in child sexual abuse dynamics as

they believe that their education had been deficient in preparing to deal with child sexual
abuse cases. Perhaps more than anything else, the results here call for more research
into the counsellors role in child sexual abuse1S,17. It also calls for more and better
training for school counsellors, since they, and other school personnel, have been

identified

potentially helpful resources

for

assisting children

about

inappropriate
by adults40,-IJ,7,1,19,lS,9.
These data, indicating that school counsellors are more likely to suspect child
sexual abuse than report it to the appropriate authorities, have implications for mandatory
reporting. The question is then posed, will mandatory reporting be sufficient impetus
for school counsellors to encourage greater levels of reporting by them? As Nelson
says,... reducing or preventing child sexual abuse is dependent upon both professionals
and the public finding out and facing up to its full scale nature however grim the truth.
In conclusion, school counsellors are in a unique position to aid in the battle against
child sexual abuse. However, the results of the present study suggest that they lack
confidence in their ability to identify and work with children who have been sexually
abused. Consequently, the development and implementation of training programmes
to increase school counsellors skills and knowledge of child sexual abuse seem to be
crucial in fighting this crime against children. Because of the significant deficits found
here in counsellors professional responses to child sexual abuse, it seems necessary,
as

treatment

then, for future research

to address the type, nature and duration of support school

counsellors need in this area, including emotional factors, which may well intervene in
the process. Further research could address the range of policies that could identify
quality of relationships and inter-professional partnerships with other helping
professionals and government organisations such as the Department of Families,
Department of Health, Childrens Commission, police, social workers, private counsellors,
and, of course, school teachers, in order to promote whole school approaches to
enhancing the welfare of all children.

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