AC LabwithoutReadings

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS
LAB MANUAL
(STUDENT COPY)
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

GUDLAVALLERU ENGINEERING COLLEGE
SESHADRI RAO KNOWLEDGE VILLAGE::GUDLAVALLERU
INDEX
S.NO.
NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT
PAGE NO.
USING SOFTWARE (MATLAB, COMMUNICATION TOOL BOX)
1
2
3
Introduction to MATLAB
1-12
Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation

AM-DSBSC Modulation And Demodulation
Frequency Modulation and Demodulation
13-17
18-22
23-25
USING SOFTWARE (MATLAB, SIMULINK)
4
5
6
Introduction to SIMULINK
DSB-SC Modulation and Demodulation
Frequency Modulation
26-35
36-38
39-41
42-43
USING HARDWARE
7
44-50
8
9
10
11
Diode Detector Characteristics

Frequency Modulation And Demodulation
Balanced Modulator
Pre-Emphasis & De-Emphasis
Synchronous Detector
SSB System
Spectrum Analysis of AM And FM Signal Using
51-53
54-58
59-62
63-67
Spectrum Analyzer
77-79
12
13
14
68-71
72-76
ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS (USING SOFTWARE)
1
2
Pulse Width Modulation

Phase Locked Loop
80-81
82-86
ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS (USING HARDWARE)
Characteristics of Mixer
87-90
4
5
6
Phase Locked Loop

Squelch Circuit
Frequency Synthesizer
91-93
94-97
98-100
APPENDIX -A
101-104
APPENDIX -B
105-128
REFERENCES
129
Analog Communication Lab

(Software Experiments)
Simulation Using MATLAB
Analog Communication Lab

(Hardware Experiments)
Additional Experiments
(Using Software)
Additional Experiments
(Using Hardware)
APPENDIX
INTRODUCTION TO MATLAB
The name MATLAB stands for matrix laboratory. MATLAB is a highperformance language for technical computing. It integrates computation,
visualization, and programming in an easy-to-use environment where problems
and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical notation.MATLAB is an
interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems,
especially those with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it
would take to write a program in a scalar noninteractive language such as C or
Fortran.
Typical uses include
Math and computation
Algorithm development
Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping
Data analysis, exploration, and visualization
Scientific and engineering graphics
Application development, including graphical user interface building
To start MATLAB on a Microsoft Windows platform, select the Start ->
Programs -> MATLAB 7.0.1 -> MATLAB 7.0.1, or double-click the MATLAB
shortcut icon on your Windows desktop. The shortcut was automatically created
when you installed MATLAB. If you have trouble starting MATLAB, see
troubleshooting information in the Installation Guide for Windows.
When you start MATLAB, it displays the MATLAB desktop, a set of tools
(graphical user interfaces or GUIs) for managing files, variables, and applications
associated with MATLAB.
ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB
The toolbar in the desktop provides easy access to frequently used operations.
Position the cursor over a button for a second or two and a tooltip appears that
describes the item.
The Command Window is one of the main tools you use to enter data, run
MATLAB functions and other M-files, and display results.
Use the Help browser to search and view documentation and
demonstrations for MATLAB and all other installed MathWorks products.
MATLAB automatically installs the documentation and demos for a product when
you install that product. The Help browser is an HTML browser integrated with
the MATLAB desktop.
To open the Help browser, click the Help button
in the desktop toolbar,
type helpbrowser in the Command Window, or use the Help menu in any tool.
There are two panes:
Working with Matlab:

In MATLAB, a matrix is a rectangular array of numbers. Special meaning
is sometimes attached to 1-by-1 matrices, which are scalars, and to matrices with
only one row or column, which are vectors. MATLAB has other ways of storing
both numeric and nonnumeric data, but in the beginning, it is usually best to think
of everything as a matrix. The operations in MATLAB are designed to be as

natural as possible. Where other programming languages work with numbers
one at a time, MATLAB allows you to work with entire matrices quickly and
easily.
To do work in MATLAB, you type commands at the command prompt.
Often these commands will look like standard arithmetic. Or function calls similar
to many other computer languages. By doing this, you can assign sequences to
variables and then manipulate them many ways. You can even write your own
functions and programs using MATLAB's control structures.
The following
sections will describe the most commonly used commands on MATLAB and give
simple examples using them.
Expressions:
Like most other programming languages, MATLAB provides mathematical
expressions, but unlike most programming languages, these expressions involve
entire matrices. The building blocks of expressions are
Variables
Numbers
Operators
Variables:
MATLAB does not require any type declarations or dimension statements.
When MATLAB encounters a new variable name, it automatically creates the
variable and allocates the appropriate amount of storage. If the variable already
exists, MATLAB changes its contents and, if necessary, allocates new
storage.Variable names consist of a letter, followed by any number of letters,
digits, or underscores. MATLAB uses only the first 31 characters of a variable
name. MATLAB is case sensitive; it distinguishes between uppercase and
lowercase letters. A and a are not the same variable. To view the matrix
assigned to any variable, simply enter the variable name.
You can assign the values to variables by typing in equations. For example, if
you type
>>x=5
MATLAB creates a 1-by-1 matrix named xand stores the value 5 in its single
element. The output produced by the MATLAB
x=
5
MATLAB uses ans for any expression you don't assign to a variable.
For
instance, if you type

>> 5
to MATLAB, MATLAB will return
ans =
5
and assign the value 5 to the variable ans. Thus, ans will always be assigned to
the most recently calculated value you didn't assign to anything else.
Numbers:
MATLAB uses conventional decimal notation, with an optional decimal point and
leading plus or minus sign, for numbers. Scientific notation uses the letter e to
specify a power-of-ten scale factor. Imaginary numbers use either i or j as a
suffix. Some examples of legal numbers are
3 -99
0.0001
9.6397238
1i
-3.14159j
1.60210e-20
6.02252e23
3e5i
All numbers are stored internally using the long format specified by the
IEEE floating-point standard. Floating-point numbers have a finite precision of
roughly 16 significant decimal digits and a finite range of roughly 10-308 to
10+308.
Operators:
Expressions use familiar arithmetic operators and precedence rules.
Symbol
Operation
Addition
Subtraction
Multiplication
Division
Left division
Power
'
Complex conjugate transpose
( )
Specify evaluation order
>>x= 1:4will return

x=
1
You can optionally give the colon a step size. For instance,
>>x=8:-1:5 will give
x=
8
and
>> x = 0:0.25: 1.25will return
x=
0
0.25
0.5
0.75
1.0
1.25
The colon is a subtle and powerful operator, and we'll see more uses of it later.
Flow Control:
MATLAB has several flow control constructs:
if, else, and elseif
switch and case

for
while etc
if, else, and elseif:
The if statement evaluates a logical expression and executes a group of
statements when the expression is true. The optional elseif and else keywords
provide for the execution of alternate groups of statements. An end keyword,
which matches the if, terminates the last group of statements. The groups of
statements are delineated by the four keywords -- no braces or brackets are
involved.
The basic command looks like if a > 0
x=a^2;
end
This command will assign x to be the value of a squared, if a is positive.
Again, note that it has to have an end to indicate which commands are actually
part of the if. In addition, you can define an else clause which is executed if the
condition you gave the if is not true. We could expand our example above to be
if a>0
x = a^2;
else
x = -a^2
end
For this version, if we had already set a to be 2, then x would get the
value 4, but if a was -3, x would be -9. Note that we only need one end, which
comes after all the clauses of the if. Finally, we can expand the if to include
several possible conditions. If the first condition isn't satisfied, it looks for the
next, and so on, until it either finds an else, or finds the end. We could change
our example to get
if a>0
x = a^2;
else if a == 0
x = i;
else
x = -a^2
end
For this command, it will see if a is positive, then if a is not positive, it will check if
a is zero, finally it will do the else clause. So, if a positive, x will be a squared, if
a is 0, x will be i, and if a is negative,
then x will be the negative of a squared. Again, note we only have a single end
after all the clauses.
For:
The for loop repeats a group of statements a fixed, predetermined number of
times. A matching end delineates the statements.
. It is functionally very similar to the for function in C. For example, typing
for i= 1:4
end
will cause MATLAB to make the variable i count from 1 to 4, and print its value
for each step. So, you would see
i=1
i=2
i=3
i=4
Every command must have a matching end statement to indicate which
commands should be executed several times. You can have nested for loops.
For example, typing
Form = 1:3
for n= 1:3
x(m,n)=m+n*i;
end
end
will define x to be the matrix
x=
1.0000 + 1.0000i
1.0000 + 2.0000i
1.0000 + 3.0000i
2.0000 + 1.0000i
2.0000 + 9.0000i
2.0000 + 3.0000i
3.0000 + 1.0000i
3.0000 + 2.0000i
3.0000 + 3.0000i
The indentations in the for structure are optional, but they make it easier to figure
out what the commands are doing.
While:
The while command allows you to execute a group of commands until
some condition is no longer true. These commands appear between the while
and its matching end statement. For instance, if we want to keep squaring x until
it is greater than a million,
we would type
while x < 1000000
x = x^2;
end
Scripts and Functions:
MATLAB is a powerful programming language as well as an interactive
computational environment. Files that contain code in the MATLAB language are
called M-files. You create M-files using a text editor, then use them as you would
any other MATLAB function or command.
There are two kinds of M-files: Scripts, which do not accept input arguments or
return output arguments. They operate on data in the workspace. Functions,
which can accept input arguments and return output arguments. Internal
variables are local to the function.
Scripts:
When you invoke a script, MATLAB simply executes the commands found in the
file. Scripts can operate on existing data in the workspace, or they can create
new data on which to operate. Although scripts do not return output arguments,
any variables that they create remain in the workspace, to be used in subsequent
computations.
Functions:
Functions are M-files that can accept input arguments and return output
arguments. The names of the M-file and of the function should be the same.
Functions operate on variables within their own workspace, separate from the
workspace you access at the MATLAB command prompt.
Procedure:
1. Open the MATLAB software by double clicking its icon
2. MATLAB logo will appear and after few moments Command Prompt will
appear.
3. Go to the File Menu and select a New M- file. (File ?New?M-file) or in the left
hand corner a blank white paper icon will be there. Click it once.
10
4. A blank M- file will appear with a title untitled
11
5. Now start typing your program. After completing, save the M- file with
appropriate name. Toexecute the program Press F5 or go to Debug Menu and
select Run.
6. After execution output will appear in the Command window .If there is an error
then with an
alarm, type of error will appear in red color.
7. Rectify the error if any and go to Debug Menu and select Run.
12
1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim:
A. To generate the amplitude modulated signal(AM wave) by using given
message signal and carrier signals in MATLAB software
B. To demodule the AM wave using envelope detector principle
Hardware and software requirements:
Personal computer(PC)
MATLAB Software 7.0.4
Theory:
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of the carrier voltage varies in
accordance with the instantaneous value of modulating voltage. Let the
modulating voltage be given by expression,
Vm = Vmcoswmt
Where wm is angular frequency of the signal &Vm is the amplitude. Let the
carriervoltage be given by expression,
Vc = Vccoswct
On Amplitude Modulation, The instantaneous value of modulated carrier voltage
is given by,
V = V(t) coswct
V(t)=Vc + kaVmcoswmt
V=Vc[1+ ma coswm t] coswct
Where ma is modulation index and the modulation index is defined as the ratio of
maximum amplitude of modulating signal to maximum amplitude of carrier signal.
ma= Vm / Vc
The demodulation circuit is used to recover the message signal from the
incoming AM wave at the receiver. An envelope detector is a simple and yet
highly effective device that is well suited for the demodulation of AM wave, for
which the percentage modulation is less than 100%.Ideally, an envelop detector
produces an output signal that follows the envelop of the input signal wave form
13
exactly; hence, the name. Some version of this circuit is used in almost all
commercial AM radio receivers.
PROGRAM:
AM without functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
t=linspace(0,0.02,10000);%defining time range for the signal
fc=5000;%frequency of carrier signal
fm=200;%frequency of message signaql
fs=40000;%sampling frequency---------fs>=2(fc+BW)
Am=5;%amplitude of the message signal
Ac=10;%amplitude of the carrier signal
m=Am/Ac%modulation index for the AM wave
wc=2*pi*fc*t;%carrier frequency in radians
wm=2*pi*fm*t;%message frequency in radians
ec=Ac*sin(wc);%carrier signal
em=Am*sin(wm);%messagesignal
y=Ac*(1+m*sin(wm)).*sin(wc);%amplitude modulated signal
z=y.*ec;
%in synchronous detection the AM signal is
multiplied with carrier signal and passed through LPF

z1=conv(z,exp(-t/0.000795));% the LPF filter response in time domain is given
by exp(-t/RC), the cut off frequency for filter should be fm=200
%F=1/(2*pi*R*C), replacing F=200, and
%assuming R=1k ohm then C=0.795MICROFARAD
%so RC=0.000795
%we will get the demodulated signal by convolving the AM signal with LPF
response
l=10000;
subplot(4,1,1),plot(t(1:l),em(1:l))
14
xlabel('time(sec)');
ylabel('amplitude in volts(V)');
title('MODULATING SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,2),plot(t(1:l/2),ec(1:l/2))
title('CARRIER SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,3),plot(t(1:l),y(1:l))
title('AMPLITUDE MODULATED SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z1(1:l))
title('DEMODULATED SIGNAL');
Model Waveforms:
15
AM with functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
fm=200;%frequency of message signal
y=ammod(em,fc,fs,0,Ac);%amplitude modulated signal
z=amdemod(y,fc,fs,0,Ac);%demodulated AM signal
l=100000;
axis([0 0.02 -20 20])%setting axis dimensions
16
title('AMPLITUDE MODULATED SIGNAL');

subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z(1:l))
Model Waveforms:
Result:
17
2. AM-DSBSC MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim:
A. To generate the AM-DSBSC modulated signal(DSBSC wave) by using
given message signal and carrier signals in MATLAB software
B. To demodule the DSBSC wave using synchronous detector
Theory:
The amplitude-modulated signal is simple to produce but has two practical
drawbacks inapplication to many real communications systems: the bandwidth of
the AM signal is twice that of the modulating signal and most of the power is
transmitted in the carrier, not in the information bearing sidebands. To overcome
these problems with AM, versions on AM have been developed. These other
versions of the AM are used in applications were bandwidth must be conserved
or power used more effectively.
If the carrier could somehow be removed or reduced, the transmitted
signal would consistof two information-bearing sidebands, and the total
transmitted power would be information. When the carrier is reduced, this is
called as double sideband suppressedcarrier AM or DSB-SC. Instead of two
third of the power in the carrier, nearly all being the available power is used in
sidebands.
PROGRAM:
AM-DSBSC without functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
18
fm=1000;%frequency of message signaql

m=Am/Ac;%modulation index for the AM wave
y=em.*ec;
z=y.*ec; %in synchronous detection the AM signal is multiplied with carrier signal
and passed through LPF
z1=conv(z,exp(-t/0.000159));% the LPF filter response in time domain is given by
exp(-t/RC), the cut off frequency for filter should be fm=200
%F=1/(2*pi*R*C), replacing F=200, and
%assuming R=1k ohm then C=0.159MICROFARAD
%so RC=0.000159
%we will get the demodulated signal by
%convolving the AM signal with LPF response
l=100000;
subplot(4,1,1),plot(t(1:l/2),em(1:l/2))
subplot(4,1,3),plot(t(1:l/2),y(1:l/2))
19
title('DSBSC MODULATED SIGNAL');

subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z1(1:l))
Model waveforms:
AM-DSBSC with functions:

clc
clearall
closeall
fm=200;%frequency of message signal
20

y=modulate(em,fc,fs,'amdsb-sc');%amplitude modulated signal
z=demod(y,fc,fs,'amdsb-sc');%demodulated AM signal
l=10000;
axis([0 0.02 -5 5])%setting axis dimensions
title('DSBSC MODULATED SIGNAL');
subplot(4,1,4),plot(t(1:l),z(1:l))
21
Model Waveforms:
Result:
The AM-DSBSC wave is generated for the given message and carrier
signals and the message signal is recovered from the modulated wave using
synchronous detector.
22
3. FREQUENCY MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim:
A. To generate frequency modulated signal and observe the characteristics of
FM wave using MATLAB software.
B. To demodulate a Frequency Modulated signal usingMATLAB software
Theory:
Frequency modulation consists in varying the frequency of the carrier
voltage inaccordance
with the instantaneous
value
of the modulating
voltage.Thus the amplitude ofthe carrier does not change due to frequency
modulation. Let the modulating voltage begiven by expression:
Vm=Vmcoswmt.
Where wmis angular frequency of the signal &Vmis the amplitude. Let the
carriervoltage be given by expression,
On frequency modulation, the instantaneous value of modulated carrier voltage is
given by,
Hence the frequency modulated carrier voltage is given by,
The modulation index is defined as the ratio of frequency deviation to frequency

of modulating signal mf=d/fm where deviation d=(fmax-fmin)/2.
23
FM with functions:
clc
clearall
closeall
Fs = 8000; % Sampling rate of signal
Fc = 100; % Carrier frequency
t = linspace(0,1,10000); % Sampling times
x = sin(2*pi*10*t) % Channel 1
dev = 50; % Frequency deviation in modulated signal
y = fmmod(x,Fc,Fs,dev); % Modulate both channels.
z = fmdemod(y,Fc,Fs,dev); % Demodulate both channels.
subplot(411),plot(t,x)
subplot(412),plot(t,sin(2*pi*Fc*t))
subplot(413),plot(t,y)
title('FREQUENCY MODULATED SIGNAL');
subplot(414),plot(t,z)
24
Model waveforms:
Result:
25
INTRODUCTION TO SIMULINK
Introduction:
Simulink is a software package that enables you to model, simulate, and
analyze systems whose outputs change over time. Such systems are often
referred to as dynamic systems. Simulink can be used to explore the behavior of
a wide range of real-world dynamic systems, including electrical circuits, shock
absorbers, braking systems, and many other electrical, mechanical, and
thermodynamic systems. This section explains how Simulink works.
Simulating a dynamic system is a two-step process with Simulink. First, a
user creates a block diagram, using the Simulink model editor, that graphically
depicts time-dependent mathematical relationships among the system's inputs,
states, and outputs. The user then commands Simulink to simulate the system
represented by the model from a specified start time to a specified stop time.
In general, block and lines can be used to describe many "models of
computations." One example would be a flow chart. A flow chart consists of
blocks and lines, but one cannot describe general dynamic systems using flow
chart semantics.
The term "time-based block diagram" is used to distinguish block
diagrams that describe dynamic systems from that of other forms of block
diagrams. In Simulink, we use the term block diagram (or model) to refer to a
time-based block diagram unless the context requires explicit distinction.
Simulink block diagrams define time-based relationships between signals
and state variables. The solution of a block diagram is obtained by evaluating
these relationships over time, where time starts at a user specified "start time"
and ends at a user specified "stop time." Each evaluation of these relationships is
referred to as a time step. Signals represent quantities that change over time and
are defined for all points in time between the block diagram's start and stop time.
The relationships between signals and state variables are defined by a set of
equations represented by blocks. Each block consists of a set of equations (block
methods). These equations define a relationship between the input signals,
26
output signals and the state variables. Inherent in the definition of a equation is
the notion of parameters, which are the coefficients found within the equation.
Starting Simulink
To start Simulink, you must first start MATLAB. You can then start
Simulink in two ways:
Click the Simulink icon
Enter the simulink command at the MATLAB prompt.
on the MATLAB toolbar.
On Microsoft Windows platforms, starting Simulink displays the Simulink

Library Browser.
27
SIMULINK EDITOR:
When you open a Simulink model or library, Simulink displays the model
or library in an instance of the Simulink Editor.
Editor Components:
The Simulink Editor includes the following components.
Menu Bar
The Simulink menu bar contains commands for creating, editing, viewing,
printing, and simulating models. The menu commands apply to the model
displayed in the editor. See Creating a Model and Running Simulations for more
information.
Toolbar
The toolbar allows you to execute Simulink's most frequently used

Simulink commands with a click of a mouse button. For example, to open a
Simulink model, click the open folder icon on the toolbar. Letting the mouse
cursor hover over a toolbar button or control causes a tooltip to appear. The
tooltip describes the purpose of the button or control. You can hide the toolbar by
clearing the Toolbar option on the Simulink View menu.
28
Canvas
The canvas displays the model's block diagram. The canvas allows you to
edit the block diagram. You can use your system's mouse and keyboard to
create and connect blocks, selelect and move blocks, edit block labels, display
block dialog boxes, and so on. See Working with Blocks for more information.
Context Menus
Simulink displays a context-sensitive menu when you click the right mouse
button over the canvas. The contents of the menu depend on whether a block is
selected. If a block is selected, the menu displays commands that apply only to
the selected block. If no block is selected, the menu displays commands that
apply to a model or library as a whole.
Status Bar
The status bar appears only in the Windows version of the Simulink Editor.
When a simulation is running, the status bar displays the status of the simulation,
including the current simulation time and the name of the current solver. You can
display or hide the status bar by selecting or clearing the Status Bar option on the
Simulink View menu.
Building a Model
This example shows you how to build a model using many of the modelbuilding commands and actions you will use to build your own models.
The model integrates a sine wave and displays the result along with the
sine wave. The block diagram of the model looks like this.
29
To create a new model , click the New Model button on the Library
Browser's toolbar.
Simulink opens a new model window.
To create this model, you need to copy blocks into the model from the following
Simulink block libraries:
Sources library (the Sine Wave block)
Sinks library (the Scope block)
Continuous library (the Integrator block)
Signal Routing library (the Mux block)
To copy the Sine Wave block from the Library Browser, first expand the Library
Browser tree to display the blocks in the Sources library. Do this by clicking the
30
Sources node to display the Sources library blocks. Finally, click the Sine Wave
node to select the Sine Wave block.
Here is how the Library Browser should look after you have done this
Now drag a copy of the Sine Wave block from the browser and drop it in the
model window.
Copy the rest of the blocks in a similar manner from their respective
libraries into the model window. You can move a block from one place in the
model window to another by dragging the block. You can move a block a short
distance by selecting the block, then pressing the arrow keys.
With all the blocks copied into the model window, the model should look
something like this.
31
If you examine the blocks, you see an angle bracket on the right of the
Sine Wave block and two on the left of the Mux block. The > symbol pointing out
of a block is an output port; if the symbol points to a block, it is an input port. A
signal travels out of an output port and into an input port of another block through
a connecting line. When the blocks are connected, the port symbols disappear.
Now it's time to connect the blocks. Connect the Sine Wave block to the
top input port of the Mux block. Position the pointer over the output port on the
right side of the Sine Wave block. Notice that the cursor shape changes to
crosshairs.
Hold down the mouse button and move the cursor to the top input port of
the Mux block.
Notice that the line is dashed while the mouse button is down and that the cursor
shape changes to double-lined crosshairs as it approaches the Mux block.
32
Now release the mouse button. The blocks are connected. You can also
connect the line to the block by releasing the mouse button while the pointer is
over the block. If you do, the line is connected to the input port closest to the
cursor's position.
If you look again at the model at the beginning of this section, you'll notice
that most of the lines connect output ports of blocks to input ports of other blocks.
However, one line connects a line to the input port of another block. This line,
called a branch line, connects the Sine Wave output to the Integrator block, and
carries the same signal that passes from the Sine Wave block to the Mux block.
Drawing a branch line is slightly different from drawing the line you just drew. To
weld a connection to an existing line, follow these steps:
1. First, position the pointer on the line between the Sine Wave and the Mux
block.
2. Press and hold down the Ctrl key (or click the right mouse button).Press
the mouse button, then drag the pointer to the Integrator block's input port
or over the Integrator block itself.
33
3. Release the mouse button. Simulink draws a line between the starting point and
the Integrator block's input port.
Finish making block connections. When you're done, your model should look something
like this.
Controlling Execution of a Simulation

The Simulink graphical interface includes menu commands and toolbar buttons
that enable you to start, stop, and pause a simulation.
Starting a Simulation
To start execution of a model, select Start from the model editor's Simulation
menu or click the Start button on the model's toolbar.
34
You can also use the keyboard shortcut, Ctrl+T, to start the simulation.
Note: A common mistake that new Simulink users make is to start a simulation while the
Simulink block library is the active window. Make sure your model window is the active
window before starting a simulation.
Simulink starts executing the model at the start time specified on the
Configuration Parameters dialog box. Execution continues until the simulation reaches
the final time step specified on the Configuration Parameters dialog box, an error occurs,
or you pause or terminate the simulation.
While the simulation is running, a progress bar at the bottom of the model
window shows how far the simulation has progressed. A Stop command replaces the
Start command on the Simulation menu. A Pause command appears on the menu and
replaces the Start button on the model toolbar.
Your computer beeps to signal the completion of the simulation.
Ending a Simulink Session

Terminate a Simulink session by closing all Simulink windows.
Terminate a MATLAB session by choosing one the File menu and Exit
MATLAB.
35
4. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation

Aim:
To generate amplitude modulated wave using simulink and demodulate
the modulated wave.
Software Required:
MATLAB 7.0.4
Simulink
Theory:
Amplitude Modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of
the carrier wave c(t) is varied linearly with the instantaneous amplitude of the
message signal m(t).The standard form of an amplitude modulated (AM) wave is
defined by
s (t ) = Ac [1+ K a m(t ) cos(2f c t )]
Where K a is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.
Basically
amplitude
modulated
signal
is
generated
by
product
modulator.The inputs to the product modulator are message signal and carrier
signal. Demodulation is the process of extracting the baseband message signal
from the carrier so that it may be processed at the receiver. For that purpose
various methods are used like diode detector method, product detector
method, filter detector etc. The same has been implemented on simulink model.
Low pass filter has been implemented to extract the carrier from the modulated
signal. Low pass filter (LPF), filters out the high frequency component and allows
the low frequency component to pass. Since the carrier signal is of relatively
much higher frequency than that of message signal, carrier signal is attenuated
while the message signal is received at the receiver.
36
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
1. open the MATLAB window and then select a simulink
2. select Create a new blank model and open the Simulink Library browser
3. select Signal generator from sources of simulink and drag it to the New
model
4. Select the sine wave as message signal and set the input voltage signal to
5Vp-p and signal frequency to 500Hz
5. Again select the signal generator then sine wave. Give the name as
Carrier signal. Set the carrier voltage 8Vp-p,frequency 1KHz
6. Select constant from commonly used block of simulink
7. Select Add, Product Blocks from Math Operations
8. All the above blocks connect as per the diagram shown to get the
Amplitude modulation signal. observe the output in scope
9. For demodulation select Analog Filter Design block from Filter Designs
Library Links of Simulink
10. Connect the filter output to the scope and observe the results
37
Model Waveform:
Results:
38
5. DSB-SC MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

Aim:
To generate DSB-SC Modulated wave using simulink and demodulate the
modulated signal
Software Required:
MATLAB 7.0.4
SIMULINK
Theory:
In the double-sideband suppressed-carrier transmission (DSB-SC) modulation,
unlike AM, the wave carrier is not transmitted; thus, a great percentage of power
that is dedicated to it is distributed between the sidebands, which imply an
increase of the cover in DSB-SC, compared to AM, for the same power used.
The DSB-SC modulator output as follows
The coherent DSB-SC requires a synchronized local oscillator and works on

following
principle.
A low pass filter filters out the message signal from above.
39
Circuit diagram:
Procedure:
model
4. Select the sine wave as message signal and set the input voltage signal to
5Vp-p and signal frequency to 500Hz
5. Again select the signal generator then sine wave. Give the name as
Carrier signal. Set the carrier voltage 8Vp-p,frequency 1KHz
6. Select Product Block from Math Operations
7. All the above blocks connect as per the diagram shown to get the
Amplitude modulation signal. observe the output in scope
8. For demodulation select Analog Filter Design block from Filter Designs
Library Links of Simulink
9. Connect the filter output to the scope and observe the results
40
Model waveform:
Result:
41
6. Frequency Modulation
Aim:
To generate frequency modulated signal using communication block set of
SIMULINK
Software Required:
MATLAB 7.0.4
SIMULINK
Theory:
In Frequency Modulation (FM), the amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier wave was
modulated in AM, this time the instantaneous frequency of a sinusoidal carrier
wave will be modified proportionally to the variation of amplitude of the message
signal.
The FM signal is expressed as
s (t ) = Ac cos(2f c + sin (2f m t ))
Where AC is amplitude of the carrier signal,
f C is the carrier frequency
is the modulation index of the FM wave
Circuit diagram:
42
Procedure:
model
4. Select FM modulator from Communication Block set of Simulink Library
Browser
5. Observe FM modulated output in scope
Model waveform:
Results:
43
1. Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation

Aim:
1. To generate amplitude modulated wave and determine the percentage
modulation.
2. To Demodulate the modulated wave using envelope detector.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications/Range
Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz
Transistor(BC 107)
Pd = 1W
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Diode(0A79)
Max Current 35mA
Resistors
1K, 2K, 6.8K, 10K
1 each
Capacitor
0.01F
Inductor
130mH
CRO
20MHz
Function Generator
1MHz
Regulated Power Supply
0-30V, 1A
Theory:
Amplitude Modulation is defined as a process in which the amplitude of the
carrier wave c(t) is varied linearly with the instantaneous amplitude of the message
signal m(t).The standard form of an amplitude modulated (AM) wave is defined by
s (t ) = Ac [1 + K a m(t ) cos(2f c t )]
Where
K a is a constant called the amplitude sensitivity of the modulator.

The demodulation circuit is used to recover the message signal from the
incoming AM wave at the receiver. An envelope detector is a simple and yet highly
effective device that is well suited for the demodulation of AM wave, for which the
percentage modulation is less than 100%.Ideally, an envelop detector produces an
44
output signal that follows the envelop of the input signal wave form exactly; hence, the
name. Some version of this circuit is used in almost all commercial AM radio receivers.
The Modulation Index is defined as, m =
( Emax E min )
( E max + E min )
Where Emax and Emin are the maximum and minimum amplitudes of the
modulated wave.
Circuit Diagrams:
For modulation:
Fig.1. AM modulator
45
For demodulation:
Fig.2. AM demodulator
Procedure:
1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig.1.
2. Switch on + 12 volts VCC supply.
3. Apply sinusoidal signal of 1 KHz frequency and amplitude 2 Vp-p as modulating
signal, and carrier signal of frequency 11 KHz and amplitude 15 Vp-p.
4. Now slowly increase the amplitude of the modulating signal up to 7V and note down
values of Emax and Emin.
5. Calculate modulation index using equation
6. Repeat step 5 by varying frequency of the modulating signal.
7. Plot the graphs: Modulation index vs Amplitude & Frequency
8. Find the value of R from f m =
1
taking C = 0.01F
2RC
9. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.2.

10. Feed the AM wave to the demodulator circuit and observe the output
11. Note down frequency and amplitude of the demodulated output waveform.
12. Draw the demodulated wave form .,m=1
Observation Table:
Table 1:
S.No.
fm =
Vm(Volts)
fc =
Emax(volts)
Ac=
Emin (Volts)
%m
(m x100)
1
2
3
46
Table 2:
S.No.
Am=
fm(KHz)
Emax(volts)
fc =
Ac =
Emin(Volts)
%m
(m x100)
1
2
3
Model Waveforms and graphs:
47
48
49
Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the power supply
2. Observations should be done carefully.
Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. What is the effect of Am and Ac on Amplitude modulated Signal?

2. What is the resonant frequency of the tank circuit?
3. What is the roll of the diode in demodulator circuit?
50
2. Diode Detector Characteristics

Aim:
To demodulate the modulated wave and to observe the characteristics of diode
detector.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Quantity
Diode(0A79)
Max Current 35mA
Resistor
10K
Capacitor
0.1F
CRO
20MHz
AM/FM Generator
0.1MHz-110MHz
0-30V, 1A
Component/Equipment
Theory:
The AM signal is applied to a basic half-wave rectifier circuit consisting of diode
and resistor. The diode conducts when the positive half of the AM signals occur. During
the negative half cycles, the diode is reverse-biased and no current flows through it. As a
result, the voltage across resistor is a series of positive pulses whose amplitude varies
with the modulating signal. To recover the original modulating signal a capacitor is
connected across resistor. Its value is critical to good performance. The result is that the
carrier is absent there by leaving the original modulating signal.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.1. Diode detector
51
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as per Fig.1.
2. Set the input amplitude modulated wave from AM generator.
3. Observe the modulating signal changes by varying the amplitudes of the AM
signal.
4. Note down the Amplitude of the demodulated wave.
5. Plot a graph between Emax Vs Detector wave amplitude as shown in Fig.2
Sample readings:
TABLE 1: Reading of diode detector
S.No.
Emax(mV)
Emin (mV)
Detector O/P
(mV)
1
2
3
4
5
Model Graphs:
Fig.2. Characteristics of Diode detector
52
Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. Classify Amplitude modulation detector or demodulators.
2. Why envelope detector is most popular in commercial receiver circuits?
53
3. Frequency Modulation and Demodulation

Aim:
a. To generate frequency modulated signal and determine the modulation index
and bandwidth for various values of amplitude and frequency of modulating
signal.
b. To demodulate a Frequency Modulated signal using FM detector.
Apparatus required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
IC 566
IC 8038
Quantity
Operating voltage Max-24 Volts
Operating current-Max.12.5 mA
Power dissipation 750mW
Supply voltage - 18V or 36V total

Power dissipation -1400mw
IC 565
Supply voltage - 12V

15 K , 10 K , 1.8 K ,
1,2,1
39 K , 560
2,2
470 pF, 0.1F
2,1
100pF , 0.001F
1,1 each
CRO
100MHz
Function Generator
1MHz
0-30 v, 1A
Resistors
Capacitors
Theory:
The process, in which the frequency of the carrier is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, is called Frequency Modulation.
The FM signal is expressed as
s (t ) = Ac cos(2f c + sin (2f m t ))

Where AC is amplitude of the carrier signal, f C is the carrier frequency
is the modulation index of the FM wave

54
Circuit Diagrams:
Fig.1. FM Modulator Using IC 566
By using IC 8038:
Fig.2. FM Modulator Circuit
55
Fig.3. FM Demodulator Circuit
Procedure:
Modulation:
1. The circuit is connected as per the circuit diagram shown in Fig.2( Fig.1 for IC 566)
2. Without giving modulating signal observe the carrier signal at pin no.2 (at pin no.3 for
IC 566). Measure amplitude and frequency of the carrier signal. To obtain carrier
signal of desired frequency, find value of R from f = 1/ (2RC) taking C=100pF.
3. Apply the sinusoidal modulating signal of frequency 4KHz and amplitude 3Vp-p at
pin no.7. ( pin no.5 for IC 566)
Now slowly increase the amplitude of modulating signal and measure
fmin and
maximum frequency deviation f at each step. Evaluate the modulating index (mf =
) using f / fm where f = |fc - fmin|. Calculate Band width. BW = 2 ( + 1)fm = 2(f +
fm )
4. Repeat step 4 by varying frequency of the modulating signal.
56
Demodulation:
1. Connections are made as per circuit diagram shown in Fig.3
2. Check the functioning of PLL (IC 565) by giving square wave to input and
observing the output
3. Frequency of input signal is varied till input and output are locked.
4. Now modulated signal is fed as input and observe the demodulated signal
(output) on CRO.
5. Draw the demodulated wave form.
Observation Table:
Table: 1 fc =
S.No.
f m(KHz)
Tmax (sec)
f min(KHz)
f(KHz)
fmin(KHz)
f (KHz)
BW (KHz)
1
2
Table 2:
S.No.
fm =
fc =
Am (Volts)
T (sec)
BW(KHZ)
01
02
Model Waveforms:
57
Precautions:
2. observations should be done carefully
Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. Effect of the modulation index on FM signal?
2. In commercial FM broadcasting, what is highest value of frequency deviation and
audio frequency to be transmitted?
58
4. Balanced Modulator
Aim:
To generate AM-Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) signal.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Wide frequency response up to 100 MHz
IC 1496
Internal power dissipation 500mw(MAX)
Resistors
Capacitors
Variable Resistor
(Linear Pot)
Quantity
6.8K
10 K, 3.9 K
2 each
1K ,51 K
3 each
0.1 F
0-50K
CRO
100MHz
Function Generator
1MHz
0-30 v, 1A
Theory:
Balanced modulator is used for generating DSB-SC signal.
A balanced
modulator consists of two standard amplitude modulators arranged in a balanced

configuration so as to suppress the carrier wave. The two modulators are identical
except the reversal of sign of the modulating signal applied to them.
59
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.1. Balanced Modulator Circuit
Procedure:
2. An Carrier signal of 1Vp-p amplitude and frequency of 83 KHz is applied as carrier to
pin no.10.
3. An AF signal of 0.5Vp-p amplitude and frequency of 5 KHz is given as message
signal to pin no.1.
4. Observe the DSB-SC waveform at pin no.12.
60
Observation Table:
Signal
AMPLITUDE (Volts)
Frequency (Hz)
Message signal
Carrier signal
DSB-SC Signal
Model Waveforms:
61
Precautions:
1. Check the connections before giving the supply
2. Observations should be done carefully
Results:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. What is the efficiency of the DSB-SC modulating system?
2. What are the applications of balanced modulator?
3. What is the effect of amplitude of message on DSB-Sc signal?
62
5. Pre-Emphasis & De-Emphasis

Aim:
I) To observe the effects of pre-emphasis on given input signal.
ii) To observe the effects of De-emphasis on given input signal.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Quantity
fT = 300 MHz
Transistor (BC 107)
Pd = 1W
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Resistors
10 K, 7.5 K, 6.8 K
1 each
10 nF
0.1 F
CRO
20MHZ
Function Generator
1MHZ
0-30V, 1A
Capacitors
Theory:
The noise has a effect on the higher modulating frequencies than on the lower
ones. Thus, if the higher frequencies were artificially boosted at the transmitter and
correspondingly cut at the receiver, an improvement in noise immunity could be
expected, there by increasing the SNR ratio. This boosting of the higher modulating
frequencies at the transmitter is known as pre-emphasis and the compensation at the
receiver is called de-emphasis.
63
Circuit Diagrams:
For Pre-emphasis:
Fig.1. Pre-emphasis circuit
For De-emphasis:
Fig.2. De-emphasis circuit
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per circuit diagram as shown in Fig.1.
2. Apply the sinusoidal signal of amplitude 20mV as input signal to pre emphasis
circuit.
3. Then by increasing the input signal frequency from 500Hz to 20KHz, observe
the output voltage (vo) and calculate gain (20 log (vo/vi).
4. Plot the graph between gain Vs frequency.
64
5. Repeat above steps 2 to 4 for de-emphasis circuit (shown in Fig.2). by applying

the sinusoidal signal of 5V as input signal
Sample readings:
Table1: Pre-emphasis
Vi =
Frequency(KHz)
Vo(mV)
Gain in dB(20 log Vo/Vi)
Vo(Volts)
Gain in dB(20 log Vo/Vi)
0.5
1
2
4
5
6
7
10
15
Table2: De-emphasis
Frequency(KHz)
Vi =
0.150
1
2
3
5
65
Graphs:
66
Precautions:
2. Observation should be done carefully
Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
1.
What is the value of time constant used in commercial pre-emphasis

circuit?
2. For which modulated signals pre-emphasis and de-emphasis circuits are

used.
3. On what parameters fc depends?
4. Explain the pre-emphasis and de-emphasis characteristics?
67
6. Synchronous Detector
Aim:
To demodulate the DSB-SC signal.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Maximum voltage - 30 V
IC 1496
power dissipation 500 mw
Resistors
Capacitors
Quantity
100 ,6.8 K , , 22 K
1 each
3.9 K
4.7 K
1K
0.0047 F
1 F
Theory:
The message signal m(t) is recovered from a DSB-SC wave s(t) by first
multiplying s(t) with locally generated carrier wave and then low-pass filtering as shown
in the block diagram in Fig.1
It is assumed that the local oscillator output in the detector is exactly coherent or
synchronized, in both frequency and phase; with the carrier wave c(t) used to generate
s(t).This method of demodulation is known as coherent detection or synchronous
detection.
Fig.1. Block diagram of synchronous detector
68
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.2 Synchronous detector Circuit
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.2
2. Apply the RF signal of frequency 83 KHz at pin no.1.
3. Apply modulated (DSB-SC) signal at pin no.8.
4. Observe the synchronous detector output at the pin no.12 on the oscilloscope
(CRO).
Observation Table:
Signal
Amplitude (V)
Frequency(KHz)
Carrier signal
83
Output signal
0.5
69
Model Wave Forms:
Precautions:
Result:
Inferences:
70
Questions:
1. Write the applications of synchronous detector?
2. What are the drawbacks of synchronous detector?
3. What is the Effect of Carrier signal on output signal?
71
7. SSB System
Aim:
To generate the SSB modulated wave.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Specifications
Quantity
SSB system trainer board
---
CRO
30MHz
Component/Equipment
Theory:
An SSB signal is produced by passing the DSB signal through a highly selective
band pass filter. This filter selects either the upper or the lower sideband. Hence
transmission bandwidth can be cut by half if one sideband is entirely suppressed. This
leads to single-sideband modulation (SSB). In SSB modulation bandwidth saving is
accompanied by a considerable increase in equipment complexity.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig. 1 Single Side Band system

72
Procedure:
1. Switch on the trainer and measure the output of the regulated power supply i.e.,
12V and -8V.
2. Observe the output of the RF generator using CRO. There are 2 outputs from the
RF generator, one is direct output and another is 90o out of phase with the direct
output.
The output frequency is 100 KHz and the amplitude is 0.2VPP.
(Potentiometers are provided to vary the output amplitude).

3. Observe the output of the AF generator, using CRO. There are 2 outputs from the
AF generator, one is direct output and another is 90o out of phase with the direct
output. A switch is provided to select the required frequency (2 KHz, 4KHz or 6
KHz). AGC potentiometer is provided to adjust the gain of the oscillator (or to set the
output to good shape). The oscillator output has amplitude 10VPP. This amplitude
can be varied using the potentiometers provided.
4. Measure and record the RF signal frequency using frequency counter. (or CRO).
5. Set the amplitudes of the RF signals to 0.1 Vp-p and connect direct signal to one
balanced modulator and 90o phase shift signal to another balanced modulator.
6. Select the required frequency (2KHz, 4KHz or 6KHz) of the AF generator with the
help of switch and adjust the AGC potentiometer until the output amplitude is 10
VPP (when amplitude controls are in maximum condition).
7. Measure and record the AF signal frequency using frequency counter (or CRO).
8. Set the AF signal amplitudes to 8 Vp-p using amplitude control and connect to the
balanced modulators.
9. Observe the outputs of both the balanced modulators simultaneously using Dual
trace oscilloscope and adjust the balance control until desired output wave forms
(DSB-SC).
10. To get SSB lower side band signal, connect balanced modulator output (DSB_SC)
signals to subtract or.
11. Measure and record the SSB signal frequency.
12. Calculate theoretical frequency of SSB (LSB) and compare it with the practical
value.
LSB frequency = RF frequency AF frequency
13. To get SSB upper side band signal, connect the output of the balanced modulator to
the summer circuit.
73
14. Measure and record the SSB upper side band signal frequency.
15. Calculate theoretical value of the SSB(USB) frequency and compare it with practical
value. USB frequency = RF frequency + AF frequency
Observations:
Signal
Amplitude (volts)
Frequency (KHz)
Message signal
Carrier signal
SSB (LSB)
SSB (USB)
Model Waveforms:
74
75
Precautions:
2. Observations should be done carefully.
Results:
Inferences:
Question:
1. What are difficulties in practical implementation of SSB-C system?
2. Why SSB-SC is not used in broadcasting?
76
8. Spectrum Analysis of AM and FM Signal Using

Spectrum Analyzer
Aim:
To observe the spectrum of AM and FM signals and obtain the power levels in
dBm of fundamental frequency components by using spectrum Analyzer.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the Component/Equipment
Specifications
Quantity
Spectrum analyzer
LPT-2250 Spectrum analyzer
AM/FM generator
0.1MHz-110MHz
CRO
30MHz
Theory:
A spectrum analyzer provides a calibrated graphical display on its CRT with
frequency on the horizontal axis and amplitude on the vertical axis. Displayed as vertical
lines against these coordinates are sinusoidal components of which the input signal in
composed. The height represents the absolute magnitude, and horizontal location
represents the frequency. This instrument provide a display of the frequency spectrum
over a given frequency band.
Block diagram:
Fig.1 Block Diagram of Spectrum Analyzer
77
Procedure:
1. AM signal is given to the spectrum analyzer.
2. Adjust the zero marker to carrier frequency and measure spectrum of AM.
3. For different values of fc and fm, observe the spectrum of AM.
4. Now remove AM signal and give FM signal to the spectrum analyzer.
5. Adjust the zero marker to carrier frequency and observe spectrum of FM.
6. Plot the spectrums of FM and AM.
Observation Table:
Table1: Readings for AM signal
S.No.
fc (MHz)
fm (KHz)
(fm+ fc ) (MHz)
(fc - fm) (MHz)
fm (KHz)
(fm+ fc ) (MHz)
(fc - fm) (MHz)
1
Table2: Readings for FM signal
S.No.
fc (MHz)
Model Graphs:
Fig.2 AM spectrum
Fig. 3 FM spectrum
78
Precautions:
1. Check the probe connections.
Inferences:
Results:
Questions:
1. Distinguish between CRO and Spectrum analyzer?
2. What are the functions of span/div control and reference level control?
79
1. PULSE WIDTH MODULATION

Aim:
To write a MATLAB program to simulate the PWM wavefor the given
message signal
Theory:
Pulse width modulation (PWM) encodes a signal into periodic pulses of
equal magnitude but varying width. The width of a pulse at a given point in time is
proportional to the amplitude of the message signal at that time. For example, the
large value of the message yields a narrow pulse.
To implement the PWM, the message signal is compared with the
sawtooth carrier. When the message signal is greater than the carrier, the
comparator output becomes highand vice versa; the heights and lows can be
represented by +1 or-1 respectively.The comparator output will be the pulse
width modulated signal.
Program:
%PWM wave generation
clc;
clearall;
closeall;
t=0:0.001:2;
s=sawtooth(2*pi*10*t+pi);
m=0.75*sin(2*pi*1*t);
n=length(s);
for i=1:n
if (m(i)>=s(i))
pwm(i)=0;
80
elseif (m(i)<=s(i))
pwm(i)=1;
end
end
subplot(211),plot(t,m,'-r',t,s,'-b');axis([0 2 -1.5 1.5]);
title('message signal with sawtoothcoparison')
ylabel('voltage(V)');
subplot(212),plot(t,pwm,'-k')
axis([0 2 -0.5 1.5]);
title('PWM wave');
ylabel('voltage(V)');
Model Waveforms:
81
2. PHASE LOCKED LOOP

Aim:
To write the MATLAB program to simulate the operation of PLL circuit.
Theory:
Phase-locked loop (PLL) is a feedback loop which locks two waveforms with
same frequency but shifted in phase. The fundamental use of this loop is in
comparing frequencies of two waveforms and then adjusting the frequency of the
waveform in the loop to equal the input waveform frequency. A block diagram of
the PLL is shown in Figure 1. The heart of the PLL is a phase comparator which
along with a voltage controlled oscillator (VCO), a filter and an amplifier forms the
loop.
Figure 1: Basic Phase-Locked Loop

If the two frequencies are different the output of the phase comparator varies and
changes the input to the VCO to make its output frequency equal to the input
waveform frequency. The locking of the two frequencies is a nonlinear process
but linear approximation can be used to analyse PLL dynamics. In getting the
PLL to lock the proper selection of the filter is essential and it needs some
attention. If the filter design is understood from control theory point-of-view then
82
the design becomes quite simple. In this short note we will discuss only the
fundamentals of the PLL and how you can use nonlinear simulation and
linearised approximation to get a better understanding of the PLL.
Program:
clc;
closeall;
clearall;
reg1 =0;
reg2 =0;
reg3 = 0;
eta =sqrt(2)/2;
theta =2*pi*1/100;
Kp = [(4*eta*theta)/(1+2*eta*theta+theta^2)];
Ki = [(4*theta^2)/(1+2*eta*theta+theta^2)];
d_phi_1 = 1/20;
n_data = 100;
for nn =1:n_data
phi1= reg1 +d_phi_1;
phi1_reg(nn) = phi1;
s1 =exp(j*2*pi*reg1);
s2 =exp(j*2*pi*reg2);
s1_reg(nn) =s1;
s2_reg(nn) =s2;
t =s1*conj(s2);
phi_error =atan(imag(t)/real(t))/(2*pi);
phi_error_reg(nn) = phi_error;
sum1 =Kp*phi_error + phi_error*Ki+reg3;
reg1_reg(nn) =reg1;
reg2_reg(nn) = reg2;
reg1 =phi1;
83
reg2=reg2+sum1;
reg3 =reg3+phi_error*Ki;
phi2_reg(nn) =reg2;
end
figure(1)
plot(phi1_reg);
holdon
plot(phi2_reg,'r');
holdoff;
gridon;
title('phase plot');
xlabel('Samples');
ylabel('Phase');
figure(2)
plot(phi_error_reg);
title('phase Error of phase detector');
gridon;
xlabel('samples(n)');
ylabel('Phase error(degrees)');
figure(3)
plot(real(s1_reg));
holdon;
plot(real(s2_reg),'r');
holdoff;
gridon;
title('Input signal & Output signal of VCO');
xlabel('Samples');
ylabel('Amplitude');
axis([0 n_data -1.1 1.1]);
84
Input &Output Signals Of VCO:
Phase plot:
85
Phase error of phase detector:
Result:
86
3. Characteristics of Mixer
Aim:
To obtain the characteristics of a mixer circuit.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
Quantity
fT = 300 MHz
Transistors (BC 107)
Pd = 1W
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Resistors
1 K , 6.8 K, 10K
1 each
Capacitor
0.01F
Inductor
1mH
CRO
20MHZ
Function Generator
1MHz
0-30v, 1A
Theory:
The mixer is a nonlinear device having two sets of input terminals and one set of
output terminals. Mixer will have several frequencies present in its output, including the
difference between the two input frequencies and other harmonic components.
87
Circuit Diagram:
FIG.1. Mixer Circuit
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram as shown in Fig.1. Assume C=0.1F
and calculate value of L1 using f=
1
where f=7KHz
2 L1C1
2. Apply the input signals at the appropriate terminals in the circuit.

3. Note down the frequency of the output signal, which is same as difference frequency
of given signals.
Observation Table:
Signal
Amplitude (Volts)
Frequency(KHz)
Input signal1
Input signal 2
Output signal
88
Waveforms:
89
Precautions:
1.Check the connections before giving the supply
2.Observations should be done carefully
Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. How can we use mixer circuit to generate AM signal?
2. What are the applications of mixer?
3. In which region BJT will be operated?
4. What is the roll of LC circuit?
90
4. Phase Locked Loop

Aim:
To verify the capture range and lock range for given PLL IC LM 565
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Component/Equipment
IC LM 565
Resistors
Capacitors
CRO
Function Generator
Supply voltage 12V
Power dissipation 1400mw
Quantity
12 K
10pF
0.01F
20MHZ
0- 1MHz
0-30v, 1A
Theory:
The best frequency demodulator is the phase locked loop(PLL). A PLL is a frequency or
phase sensitive feedback control circuit. It used not only in frequency demodulation but
also in frequency synthesizers. All PLLs have three basic elements as illustrated in
Fig.1. A phase detector or mixer is used to compare the input or reference signal with
the output of a
Fig.1. Block diagram of PLL
91
VCO. The VCO frequency is varied by the dc output voltage from a low pass filter. It is
the output of the phase detector that the low pass filter uses to produce dc control
voltage. This dc control voltage is called the error signal and is also the feedback in this
circuit and will control the VCO.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.2 PLL Circuit diagram
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig. 2.
2. Obtain the free running frequency fo without giving any input signal.
3. Apply the square wave as input signal at pin no.2 and then vary the input signal
frequency. When input signal is locked with VCO output in forward direction then
note down the value of input signal frequency (fC1). Again increase the input
signal frequency and observe the frequency at which the PLL becomes unlocked,
note down the value of input signal frequency (fL2).
4. Again the frequency of input is reduced in backward direction and note down the
frequency of the input signal (fc2) at which input signal is locked with VCO output.
92
And the frequency of input signal is still reduced, note down the frequency of
input signal (fL1) at which the PLL becomes unlocked.
5. Now by using formulae given calculate lock range and capture range and verify
them experimentally.
Observation Table:
Theoretical(KHz)
Practical(KHz)
fo
fL
fC
Formulae and Calculations:

fo (free running frequency) = 1.2/4R1C1 = 1.2/4x1.2K x 0.1F = 2.5 KHz
fL = lock range = 8fo/V, = 8x2500/24 = 833 Hz
[where V=+V-(-V)= 12-(-12)=24 volts]
Theoretical lock range is, f= fo fL= 2.50.833=1.667KHZ to 3.333KHz
1
2
fL
fC = capture range =
= 60.7Hz
2 R1C1
Precautions:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. Write the application of PLL?
2. What is the capture range of PLL.
3. What is the effect of R1 and C1 values and Vcc on output signal?
93
5. Squelch Circuit
Aim:
To Study the performance characteristics of Squelch Circuit .
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Quantity
fT = 300 MHz
Component/Equipment
Transistor(BC107)
Pd = 1W
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Resistor
10K, 56K, 1K,2.2K,
1,1,1,2
Capacitor
10F
CRO
20MHz
Function generator
0-1MHz
0-30V, 1A
Theory:
A squelch circuit also known as a mute circuit. It is designed to keep the receiver
audio turned off until an RF signal appears at the receiver input. The Squelch circuit
provides a means of keeping the audio amplifier turned off during the time that noise is
received in the background when an RF signal appears at the input, the audio amplifier
is enabled. There are two types of squelch circuits used in communication receivers;
they are (i). Amplitude squelch circuit (ii). Noise squelch circuit.
94
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.1 Squelch Circuit
Procedure:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in Fig.1
2. Set the input signal (say 180mv, 1 KHz) using function generator.
3. Vary the voltage of AGC in different steps and observe corresponding signal
output Voltages (Vo) in CRO and tabulate them.
4. Plot the graph between AGC voltage Vs Gain(dB) as shown in Fig.2
95
Observation Table:
TABLE 1: Readings of a squelch circuit
S.No.
AGC(volts)
Vo (mV)
Gain=Vo/Vi
Gain in
dB=20log(Vo/Vi)
1
2
3
4
5
6
Graphs:
Fig.2. Characteristics of Squelch circuit
Result:
Inferences:
96
Questions:
1. What is the function of Squelch circuit?
2. What is Amplitude squelch or Gate squelch circuit?
3. What is true noise squelch?
97
6. Frequency Synthesizer
Aim:
To construct a frequency synthesizer circuit.
Apparatus Required:
Name of the
Quantity
Component/Equipment
fT = 300 MHz
Transistor(BC107)
Pd = 1W
Ic(max) = 100 mA
Supply voltage :12V
IC 565
Power dissipation :1400mw

Max supply Voltage 5.25V
IC 7490
Power supply current 15mA
Resistor
2k, 4.7k, 10k, 20k(pot)
1each
Capacitor
10F, 0.001F, 0.01F
1each
CRO
0-20MHz
Function generator
0-1MHz
0-30V, 1A
Theory:
The frequency divider is inserted between the VCO and the phase comparator of PLL.
Since the output of the divider is locked to the input frequency fin, the VCO is actually
running at a multiple of the input frequency . The desired amount of multiplication can be
obtained by selecting a proper divide by N network ,where N is an integer. To obtain
the output frequency fOUT=5fIN, a divide by N = 5 network is needed. One must
determine the input frequency range and then adjust the free running fOUT of the VCO by
means of R1 (20kpot) and C1 (10F) so that the output frequency of the divider is
midway within the predetermined input frequency range. The output of the VCO now
98
should be 5fIN. The output of the VCO now should be adjusted from 1.5 KHz to 15 KHz
by varying potentiometer R1 .this means that the input frequency fin range has to be with
in 300Hz to 3KHz. In addition, the input wave form may be applied to inputs pin2 or pin3.
Input output waveforms forms for fOUT= 5fIN. A small capacitor typically 1000pf is
connected between pin7 and pin8 to eliminate possible oscillations. Also, capacitor C2
should be large enough to stabilize the VCO frequency.
Circuit Diagram:
Fig.1 Frequency synthesizer circuit
Procedure:
2. Measure the free running frequency of PLL (IC565) at pin no.4 with the input
signal set to zero volt.
3. Compare the output with the calculated theoretical value 0.25/RTCT.
4. Set the input signal (say 2 Vp-p, 1KHz square wave form ) using function
generator.
5. Vary the frequency by adjusting the 20K Potentiometer till the PLL(IC565)is
locked.
6. Measure (frequency counter) the frequency of the output signal. It must be 5
times the input signal frequency.
7. Observe and note down the waveform and frequency of various signals using
CRO .
99
Observation Table:
TABLE 1: Readings of a Frequency Synthesizer
S.No.
f i/p (KHz)
f o/p (KHz)
1.
2.
Model Wave forms:
Fig.2 Output Wave Forms
Result:
Inferences:
Questions:
1. How to achieve fout = 2 fin ?
2. What is the effect of C1 on the output frequency?
100
Appendix A
Component/
Specifications
Pin diagram
Equipment
fT= 300 MHz
IC(max)= 100 mA
Transistor
Pd=1W,VCEO=45V
BC 107
hfe (min) = 40
hfe (max) = 450
Operating voltage Max-24 Volts
Operating temperature range
0.70oC
Operating current-Max.12.5 mA
Max. operating frequency 1 MHz
NE 566
The external resistance for

frequency adjustment R1 must have
a value between 2K and 20k
The bias voltage (VC) applied to the
control terminal (pin 5) should be in
the range V+ VC V+ (V+
supply voltage)
Simultaneous outputs sine wave
Square wave and Triangle
Low distortion 1%
High linearity 01%
Wide frequency range of operation
0.001 Hz to 1.0Mhz
Variable duty cycle 2% to 98%
IC 8038
Supply voltage - 18V or 36V total

Power dissipation 750mW
Input current (pins 4 and 5 )
25mA
operating temperature range: 55oC
101
to +125oC
Operating temperature range 0o to
+70oC
Wide frequency response up to 100
MHz
Dual-in-line package
Carrier feed through
LM 1496
(sinusoidal) 60mvrms 40Vrms

(square wave) -300mVPP (20150mVrms)
Internal power dissipation 500
mw(MAX)
Maximum voltage - 30 V
Bias current 12mA
Supply voltage
12V
Power dissipation
1400mw
Operating temperature range 55o to

+125oC
LM 565
VCO maximum operating frequency

500KHz (Co = 2.7PF)
VCO sensitivity (fo=-10KHz) --- 6600
Hz/V
Phase detector sensitivity KD, 0.68
V/radian
Consists of
RF generator : -
100 KHz
:Phase shift 90o isavailable

SSB Trainer
Board
RF generator and 0o phase shifted

signal is also available
__
Balanced modulator using MC

1496
Synchronous detector using MC
102
1496
Radio Receiver MW 550kHz to 1.5mHz
Measurement
Trainer
Consists of
__
1. Internal AM generator
2. Internal AF generator
3. Internal RF generator
Frequency:
LPT-2250
Frequency range: 30 KHz to 1.15
Spectrum
analyzer
GHz
__
Frequency resolution: 1KHz

Amplitude:
Input level +20dBm(max.atten.)
Display range 75 dB usable
Ref. level range -30dBm to
+20dBm
AM-FM
generator
Frequency range: 100 KHz to 110

MHz (CW mode)
Frequency indication: Digital 4 digit
Frequency accuracy:+/-1 digit (4
digit max.)
RF output:75 mV(rms) max. into
75 ohms
__
Output control: 0dB/20dB and fine

control
Int.Mod.Freuqency:1KHz
External: Frequency -50Hz to
20KHz
Level 15V p-p max.
103
Supply Voltage 22V

Power Dissipation 500mW
Differential input voltage 30V
A741
Input voltage 15V

Operating Temperature -55o to
+125oC
Storage Temperature range -55o to
+150oC
N-channel Depletion JFET
Max Voltage 30V
BFW10
Idss :8mA
Min Temperature -40oC
Max Temperature 150oC
Ge-Diode
Max Voltage 45V
OA79
Max Current 35mA
Min Supply Voltage 4.75V

Output current high -0.4mA
7486
Output current low 80mA

Temperature range 0o to +70oC
Min Supply Voltage 4.75V
Output current high -0.4mA
Output current low 80mA
Temperature range 0o to +70oC
7490
Power supply current 15mA
104
Appendix B
PLOT(X,Y):
Plots vector Y versus vector X. If X or Y is a matrix, then the vector is
plotted versus the rows or columns of the matrix, whichever line up. If X is a
scalar and Y is a vector, length(Y) disconnected points are plotted.
SUBPLOT(m,n,p) or SUBPLOT(mnp):
Breaks the Figure window into an m-by-n matrix of small axes, selects the
p-th axes for for the current plot, and returns the axis handle. The axes are
counted along the top row of the Figure window, then the second row, etc. For
example,
SUBPLOT(2,1,1), PLOT(income)
SUBPLOT(2,1,2), PLOT(outgo)
plots income on the top half of the window and outgo on the bottom half. If the
current axes is nested in a uipanel the panel is used as the parent for the subplot
instead of the current figure.
LINSPACE(a,b,n):
The linspace function generates linearly spaced vectors. It is similar to the
colon operator ":", but gives direct control over the number of points.
y = linspace(a,b,n) generates a row vector y of n points linearly spaced between
and including a and b.
AXIS([xmin xmax ymin ymax]):
Controls axis scaling and appearance.
AXIS([XMIN XMAX YMIN YMAX]) sets scaling for the x- and y-axes on the
current plot.
105
AMMOD(x,Fc,Fs,ini_phase,carramp):
Uses the message signal x to modulate a carrier signal with frequency Fc
(Hz) using amplitude modulation. The carrier signal and x have sample frequency
Fs (Hz). The modulated signal has initial phase specified by ini_phase.
AMDEMOD(Y,Fc,Fs,INI_PHASE,CARRAMP):Demodulates
the
amplitude
modulated signal Y from the carrier frequency Fc (Hz). Y and Fc have sample
frequency Fs (Hz).The modulated signal Y has specified initial phase, and
specified carrier amplitude.
MODULATE(x,fc,fs,'method'):
Modulate the real message signal x with a carrier frequency fc and
sampling frequency fs, using one of the options listed below for 'method'. Fs must
satisfy Fs > 2*Fc + BW, where BW is the bandwidth of the modulated signal.
Method
Description
am or amdsb-sc
Amplitude modulation, double sideband suppressed

carrier
'amssb'
Amplitude modulation single side-band
'fm'
Frequency modulation
'pm'
Phase modulation
'pwm'
Pulse width modulation
'ppm'
Pulse position modulation
106
DEMOD(y,fc,fs,'method'):
Demodulates the carrier signal Y with a carrier frequency Fc and sampling
frequency Fs, using the demodulation scheme in METHOD.
FMMOD(X,Fc,Fs,FREQDEV):
Uses the message signal X to modulate the carrier frequency Fc (Hz) and
sample frequency Fs (Hz), where Fs > 2*Fc. FREQDEV (Hz) is the frequency
deviation of the modulated signal.
Method
Description
am or amdsb-sc
Amplitude
demodulation,
double
sideband
suppressed carrier
'amssb'
Amplitude demodulation single side-band
'fm'
Frequency demodulation
'pm'
Phase demodulation
'pwm'
Pulse width demodulation
'ppm'
Pulse position demodulation
107
SIMULINK:
BLOCK NAME
Sine / cosine Wave
LIBRARY
DESCRIPTION
Simulink--
Generates sine/cosine
Sources
wave
with
amplitude,
required
frequency
and phase
constant
scope
Simulink--
Generates
constant
Sources
value
Simulink--
Sinks
Used to display the

signals
Add,subtract,multiply,divide Simulink--
Math
Signal generator
Mathematical
operations
operators
Simulink--
Generates
Sources
sine/square/triangular
waves with required
amplitude, frequency
and phase
Analog passband
Communications
Generates various
modulation
blockset--
Analog
analog modulation
passband
waves
modulation
108
Sine wave:
We can generate the sine wave in two ways one is by using the directly sinewave
block and other way is by using the signal generator block
Sine wave block:
Symbol
The Sine Wave block provides a sinusoid. The block can operate in either timebased or sample-based mode.
Sine type
Type of sine wave generated by this block, either time- or sample-based. Some
of the other options presented by the Sine Wave dialog box depend on whether
you select time-based or sample-based as the value of Sine type parameter.
109
Time
Specifies whether to use simulation time as the source of values for the sine
wave's time variable or an external source. If you specify an external time source,
the block displays an input port for the time source.
Amplitude
The amplitude of the signal. The default is 1.
Bias
Constant value added to the sine to produce the output of this block.
Frequency
The frequency, in radians/second. The default is 1 rad/s. This parameter
appears only if you choose time-based as the Sine type of the block.
Samples per period
Number of samples per period. This parameter appears only if you choose
sample-based as the Sine type of the block.
Phase
The phase shift, in radians. The default is 0 radians. This parameter appears
only if you choose time-based as the Sine type of the block.
Number of offset samples
The offset (discrete phase shift) in number of sample times. This parameter
appears only if you choose sample-based as the Sine type of the block.
110
Sample time
The sample period. The default is 0. If the sine type is sample-based, the
sample time must be greater than 0. See Specifying Sample Time in the online
documentation for more information.
Interpret vector parameters as 1-D
If selected, column or row matrix values for the Sine Wave block's numeric
parameters result in a vector output signal; otherwise, the block outputs a signal
of the same dimensionality as the parameters. If this option is not selected, the
block always outputs a signal of the same dimensionality as the block's numeric
parameters.
Signal generator:
The Signal Generator block can produce one of three different waveforms:
sine wave, square wave, and sawtooth wave. The signal parameters can be
expressed in Hertz (the default) or radians per second. This figure shows each
signal displayed on a Scope using default parameter values.
Symbol
The block's Amplitude and Frequency parameters determine the amplitude and
frequency of the output signal. The parameters must be of the same dimensions
after scalar expansion.
111
Wave form
The wave form: a sine wave, square wave, or sawtooth wave. The default is a
sine wave. This parameter cannot be changed while a simulation is running.
Time
Specifies whether to use simulation time as the source of values for the
waveform's time variable or an external signal. If you specify an external time
source, the block displays an input port for the time source.
Amplitude
The signal amplitude. The default is 1.
Frequency
The signal frequency. The default is 1.
Units
The signal units: Hertz or radians/sec. The default is Hertz.
112

If selected, column or row matrix values for the Amplitude and Frequency
parameters result in a vector output signal.
Constant
The Constant block generates a real or complex constant value. The block
generates scalar (1x1 2-D array), vector (1-D array), or matrix (2-D array) output,
depending on the dimensionality of the Constant value parameter and the setting
of the Interpret vector parameters as 1-D parameter.
Symbol
The output of the block has the same dimensions and elements as the Constant
value parameter. If you specify a vector for this parameter, and you want the
block to interpret it as a vector (i.e., a 1-D array), select the Interpret vector
parameters as 1-D parameter; otherwise, the block treats the Constant value
parameter as a matrix (i.e., a 2-D array).
113
Constant value
Specify the constant value output by the block. You can enter any MATLAB
expression in this field, including the Boolean keywords, true or false, that
evaluates to a matrix value. The Constant value parameter is converted from its
data type to the specified output data type offline using round-to-nearest and
saturation.
If you select this check box, the Constant block outputs a vector of length N if
the Constant value parameter evaluates to an N-element row or column vector,
i.e., a matrix of dimension 1xN or Nx1.
Sample time
Specify the interval between times that the Constant block's output can change
during simulation (e.g., as a result of tuning its Constant value parameter). The
default sample time is inf, i.e., the block's output can never change. This setting
speeds simulation and generated code by avoiding the need to recompute the
block's output. See Specifying Sample Time in the online documentation for more
information.
Scope
The Scope block displays its input with respect to simulation time. The Scope
block can have multiple axes (one per port); all axes have a common time range
with independent y-axes. The Scope allows you to adjust the amount of time and
the range of input values displayed. You can move and resize the Scope window
and you can modify the Scope's parameter values during the simulation.
Symbol
114
When you start a simulation, Simulink does not open Scope windows, although it
does write data to connected Scopes. As a result, if you open a Scope after a
simulation, the Scope's input signal or signals will be displayed.
If the signal is continuous, the Scope produces a point-to-point plot. If the signal
is discrete, the Scope produces a stair-step plot.
The Scope provides toolbar buttons that enable you to zoom in on displayed
data, display all the data input to the Scope, preserve axis settings from one
simulation to the next, limit data displayed, and save data to the workspace. The
toolbar buttons are labeled in this figure, which shows the Scope window as it
appears when you open a Scope block.
115
Number of axes
Set the number of y-axes in this data field. With the exception of the floating
scope, there is no limit to the number of axes the Scope block can contain. All
axes share the same time base (x-axis), but have independent y-axes. Note that
the number of axes is equal to the number of input ports.
Time range
Change the x-axis limits by entering a number or auto in the Time range field.
Entering a number of seconds causes each screen to display the amount of data
that corresponds to that number of seconds. Enter auto to set the x-axis to the
duration of the simulation. Do not enter variable names in these fields.
Sum (Add or subtract)
The Sum block performs addition or subtraction on its inputs. This block can add
or subtract scalar, vector, or matrix inputs. It can also collapse the elements of a
single input vector.
Symbol
116
The Sum block first converts the input data type(s) to the output data type using
the specified rounding and overflow modes, and then performs the specified
operations.
List of signs
Enter as many plus (+) and minus (-) characters as there are inputs. Addition
is the default operation, so if you only want to add the inputs, enter the number of
input ports. For a single vector input, "+" or "-" will collapse the vector using the
specified operation.
You can manipulate the positions of the input ports on the block by inserting
spacers (|) between the signs in the List of signs parameter. For example, "++|--"
creates an extra space between the second and third input ports.
117
Sample time (-1 for inherited)

Specify the time interval between samples. To inherit the sample time, set this
parameter to -1. See Specifying Sample Time in the online documentation for
more information.
Product(multiply or divide)
The Product block performs multiplication or division of its inputs.
Symbol
This block produces outputs using either element-wise or matrix multiplication,

depending on the value of the Multiplication parameter. You specify the
operations with the Number of inputs parameter. Multiply(*) and divide(/)
characters indicate the operations to be performed on the inputs.
Number of inputs
118
Enter the number of inputs or a combination of "*" and "/" symbols. See
Description above for a complete discussion of this parameter.
Multiplication
Specify element-wise or matrix multiplication. See Description above for a
complete discussion of this parameter.
Sample time (-1 for inherited)
Specify the time interval between samples. To inherit the sample time, set this
parameter to -1. See Specifying Sample Time in the online documentation for
more information.
DSB AM (Amplitude modulation and de-modulation)
Modulation
The DSB AM Modulator Passband block modulates using doublesideband amplitude modulation. The output is a passband representation of the
modulated signal. Both the input and output signals are real sample-based scalar
signals.
Symbol
if the input is u(t) as a function of time t, then the output is
where: k is the Input signal offset parameter.

fc is the Carrier frequency parameter.
is the Initial phase parameter.
119
Input signal offset

The offset factor k. This value should be greater than or equal to the absolute
value of the minimum of the input signal.
Carrier frequency (Hz)
The frequency of the carrier.
Initial phase (rad)
The initial phase of the carrier.
De-modulation
The DSB AM Demodulator Passband block demodulates a signal that was
modulated using double-sideband amplitude modulation. The block uses the
envelope detection method. The input is a passband representation of the
signals.
Symbol
120
In the course of demodulating, this block uses a filter whose transfer function is
described by the Lowpass filter numerator and Lowpass filter denominator
parameters.
Offset factor
The same as the Input signal offset parameter in the corresponding DSB AM
Modulator Passband block.
The frequency of the carrier in the corresponding DSB AM Modulator
Passband block.
Initial phase (rad)
The initial phase of the carrier in radians.
Lowpass filter numerator
The numerator of the lowpass filter transfer function. It is represented as a
vector that lists the coefficients in order of descending powers of s.
Lowpass filter denominator
121
The denominator of the lowpass filter transfer function. It is represented as a

vector that lists the coefficients in order of descending powers of s. For an FIR
filter, set this parameter to 1.
Sample time
The sample time of the output signal.
DSB-SC AM (DSB-SC modulation and de-modulation)
Modulation
The DSBSC AM Modulator Passband block modulates using double-sideband
suppressed-carrier
amplitude
modulation.
The
output
is
passband
representation of the modulated signal. Both the input and output signals are real
sample-based scalar signals.
Symbol
If the input is u(t) as a function of time t, then the output is
where fc is the Carrier frequency parameter and is the Initial phase parameter.
122

Initial phase (rad)
Demodulation
The DSBSC AM Demodulator Passband block demodulates a signal that was
modulated using double-sideband suppressed-carrier amplitude modulation. The
input is a passband representation of the modulated signal. Both the input and
output signals are real sample-based scalar signals.
Symbol
In the course of demodulating, this block uses a filter whose transfer function is
parameters.
123

The carrier frequency in the corresponding DSBSC AM Modulator Passband
block.

Initial phase (rad)
124

Sample time
The sample time of the output signal.
FM (DSB-SC modulation and de-modulation)
Modulation
The FM Modulator Passband block modulates using frequency modulation. The
output is a passband representation of the modulated signal. The output signal's
frequency varies with the input signal's amplitude. Both the input and output
signals are real sample-based scalar signals.
Symbol
If the input is u(t) as a function of time t, then the output is
where:
fc is the Carrier frequency parameter.
is the Initial phase parameter.
Kc is the Modulation constant parameter.
125

Initial phase (rad)
Modulation constant (Hertz per volt)
The modulation constant Kc.
Sample time
The sample time of the output signal. It must be a positive number.
Symbol interval
Typically set to Inf.
De-modulation
The FM Demodulator Passband block demodulates a signal that was modulated
using frequency modulation. The input is a passband representation of the
signals.
126
Symbol
In the course of demodulating, the block uses a filter whose transfer function is
parameters.
The block uses a voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) in the demodulation. The
Initial phase parameter gives the initial phase of the VCO.

The carrier frequency in the corresponding FM Modulator Passband block.
Initial phase (rad)
127
The initial phase of the VCO in radians.

Modulation constant (Hertz per volt)
The modulation constant in the corresponding FM Modulator Passband block.
Sample time
The sample time in the corresponding FM Modulator Passband block.
128
REFERENCES:
Communication Systems Engineering - by John G. Proakis and

Masoud Salehi, Pearson education
Electronic Communication Systems - by kennedy, McGraw Hill
Publ.
Communication Systems - by B.P.Lathi, BS Pub.
Electronic Commmunication Syatems By Kennedy, Davis
Mc Graw Hill Publ.
MATLAB User manual 7.0.4
129

AC LabwithoutReadings

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

AC LabwithoutReadings

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

NAME OF THE EXPERIMENT

USING SOFTWARE (MATLAB, COMMUNICATION TOOL BOX)

Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation

USING SOFTWARE (MATLAB, SIMULINK)

Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation

Diode Detector Characteristics

ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS (USING SOFTWARE)

Pulse Width Modulation

ADDITIONAL EXPERIMENTS (USING HARDWARE)

Phase Locked Loop

Analog Communication Lab

Analog Communication Lab

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

in the desktop toolbar,

Working with Matlab:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

of everything as a matrix. The operations in MATLAB are designed to be as

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

instance, if you type

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Complex conjugate transpose

Specify evaluation order

>>x= 1:4will return

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

switch and case

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

4. A blank M- file will appear with a title untitled

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

1. AMPLITUDE MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

%in synchronous detection the AM signal is

multiplied with carrier signal and passed through LPF

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

title('AMPLITUDE MODULATED SIGNAL');

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

2. AM-DSBSC MODULATION AND DEMODULATION

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

fm=1000;%frequency of message signaql

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

title('DSBSC MODULATED SIGNAL');

AM-DSBSC with functions:

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

Ac=10;%amplitude of the carrier signal

ANALOG COMMUNICATIONS LAB