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Department of Architecture and Design, Universidad CEU San Pablo, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid, Spain
2
Department of Structures, Universidad Politcnica de Madrid, Madrid, Spain
Email: rgonzalezcano@ceu.es, jbecheverria@ceu.es, marina_arce@hotmail.com, sus.hormigos@ceindo.ceu.es.
Abstract- This article presents a study of different housing blocks in the city of Madrid, in which effective
interventions are carried out not only for energy savings within the requirements of the Technical Building Code in
Spain also an installation saving in the short term. Various thicknesses of insulation types are analyzed, evaluating
the resulting energy savings for each case but not without leaving aside the economic aspect of the installation;
obtaining asymptotic values, in which the marginal cost of the investment will not be as variable. Interventions in
lighting are analyzed and the reflection factors of the walls are also studied, showing different behaviors of energy
expenses per square meters of housing, according to different types of luminaries and the lighting system chosen is
presented. A study of the required ventilation levels and their impact on energy use is also made, depending on air
quality desired levels taking into considerations different conditions of outdoor air quality. The article is a
breakthrough in the study of alternative home energy saving and serving as a basis for performance design study in
residential buildings.
Keywords: Spanish Regulation; Sustainability; Energy efficiency; Energy consumption; Economic benefits;
Construction methods.
I. INTRODUCTION
This paper aims to analyse how the national regulations could focus on the ideas of sustainability or energy
efficiency not only in new buildings but in existing ones. Ittries to give a response to the question: must energy
saving measures be huge and equal interventions for every building or should they be small actions which can be
designed according to the specific characteristics of each construction?
It reflects, by analysing several housing blocks, the need of new regulations which guarantee high levels of
sustainability. Nowadays it would suppose significant economic benefits, considering the importance of monetary
reinforcement desirable in the construction sector. This paper provides economic saving data based on the Spanish
building regulation.
Usually, current regulation establish big interventions; at the contrary, this research paper shows small ones
which contribute to high energy savings and low energy demand. This paper aims to demonstrate that current
Spanish building regulations should be designed according to the geometric morphology, use, construction methods
and others, following insulations and illumination factors. It has been concluded that those measures could consist of
introducing insulation inside the air cavity of external walls, replacing internal partitions by cardboard planes,
replacing the existing luminaries with low-consumption ones.
Definition
Climatology
Climatic zone
Enclosure quality
Hydrothermal study
Functional characteristics
Project
Energy system
Project
Therefore, the improvements in external walls, it would guarantee, throughout the time, consumption savings
and a reduction of harmful emissions [7].
This paper studies the influence of the insulation capacity: the maximum thermal resistance of the external
walls and internal partitions, as well as faade wall openings.
It has been studied the energy demand in the building, therefore, the alternative procedure of the simplified
option has been applied, which is based on an indirect control by limiting the thermal parameters of the building
envelope. For this purpose, it has been made a comparison between the values obtained during calculation and those
values that would be obtained modifying the thermal envelope conditions. According to the results obtained, some
improvements are shown in order to reduce both surface condensation risk (inside walls) and energy demand
(because of air infiltration).
The characteristic parameters studied are:
Thermal transmittance of faade walls (UM)
Thermal transmittance of openings (UH)
The TBC indicates the transmittances of constructive elements in relation to the building location. The case
study buildings are located in Madrid, therefore the climatic area (as it is shown in TBC) is D3 and the limit values
to be considered are the following:
Maximum transmittance of faade walls and walls in contact to the ground UMlim:0.66 W/m2K
Maximum transmittance of the ground: USlim: 0.49 W/m2K
Maximum transmittance of roofs: UClim: 0.38 W/m2K
Maximum modified solar factor: ULlim: 0.28
3
Where R1, R2, Rn are the thermal resistance of each layer, and Rsi is the superficial thermal resistance of indoor
air and Rse of the outdoor air, according to the position of the enclosure, direction of the air flow and building
location. In the proposed case study building, it has been considered the following parameters: R se = 0.04 m2K/W
and Rsi = 0.13 m2K/W, because the enclosure is vertical (or it has a slope over the horizontal plane higher than 60).
The thermal resistance of a layer thermally homogeneous layer is defined by the expression: R = e /
In the last expression e corresponds to the thickness of the layer (m). In case of variable thickness, it would be
considered the average thickness. is the thermal conductivity of the layer material obtained from the thermal
values included in the norm UNE EN ISO 10 456:2001[8].
Improvements in both economic and energetic saving are obtained by introducing different insulation
thicknesses in the building walls and internal partitions (plasterboard panel) or by using different types of double
glaze with air gaps of 6.9 and 12 mm.
III. RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
There are three possibilities to introduce insulation in the building envelope:
- On the outdoor surface
- Integrated within the wall
- On the indoor surface
It is known that insulation must be placed on the hot or cold side of the protected space, and also in faades.
There are different ways to be considered about insulation placement [9], those are the following:
- When locating on the external face, the wall would absorb inner energy. On the one hand diminishing
energy consumption decreases. On the other hand the cost of installation is higher due to the high thermal inertia.
- When placing insulation integrated in external walls. This would perform as a thermal barrier between
external and internal flows. The insulation cost could be compensated by means of the starting and during the
permanent functioning of the heating system. According to that, the comfort sensation is almost immediate.
- Insulation located on the internal face of the wall generates a very low thermal inertia with immediate
results. The cost of the start-up and the permanent functioning of the heating system are low and the comfort
sensation is immediate.
In case of refurbishment and knowing the efficiency when introducing insulation, the best options could come
when introducing insulation either integrated within the enclosure wall or on the internal face. However, each
situation has a disadvantage related to the construction process. If introducing insulation in an integrated manner, the
problem would be how to do it, may be by drilling or rebuilding the inner wall. The costs would be high and the
solution would not be possible. On the one hand, in case of introducing insulation on the inner layer the only
problem would come from the fact that the apartments would lose floor area; therefore, it would be the most
effective one. This solution (insulation in walls) avoids heat losses in the building rooms and so, the performance of
the installation becomes more effective. On the other hand, it exists some advantages of external wall insulation over
internal wall insulation; for example, and as general aspects, there is a reduced risk of condensation between the
insulation layer and the masonry wall, the building fabric remains dry and heated from the interior and there is no
impact on internal finishes and room sizes [10]. In terms of the finishing for external wall insulation, the main render
options usually are silicone or mineral based as both of them are vapour permeable; even though, they have some
differences: on the one hand, mineral render has higher level of permeability and fast setting; on the other hand,
silicone render has huge flexibility but it should not be used when the air temperature is at or below 5C or when it is
raining, that is why the most used technique usually is mineral render [11].
A. Insulated thickness
It has been conclude that the procedure that generates more savings consists of replacing windows with others
with air gaps of at least 6 mm, because they are the areas with the largest heat losses (thermal bridges). It should be
taken into account that whenever insulation is added to an existing building there is a danger of creating thermal
bridges at critical points where the coverage may be interrupted [12].
In old buildings where windows have not been replaced; the openings are the places with more energy losses in
the external walls. The replacement of supporting walls of internal partitions is more complicated, and then, savings
become lower.
Figure 1. Economic saving in 5, 10, 25 and 50 years by replacing internal brick by plasterboard panels
It has been studied different cases with an insulated thickness of 0.01m, 0.020m, 0.030m, 0.040m,
0.050m0.060m, 0.070m, 0.080m, 0.090m and 0.1m.
Figure 2. Economic saving in 5, 10, 25 and 50 years by filling the external wall cavity with insulation
Q (%) =
U
(
) T; Q(W) =
/[
+ ( )U
100
Where,
Q is heat loss
U is the thermal transmittance
T is the indoor-outdoor thermal gap
) T
Q (%)
Type
Class
Thickness
(mm)
2.5
5
7.5
10
12.5
15
17.5
20
22.5
25
27.5
30
32.5
35
37.5
40
42.5
45
(1)
EPS(1)
I
CO2(12)
0.034
0.042
0.036
0.034
0.045
0.028
0.034
0.029
0.025
0.04
13.78
24.22
32.41
39.00
44.42
48.49
52.81
56.12
58.99
61.52
63.75
65.73
67.51
69.12
70.57
71.89
73.10
74.21
11.46
20.56
27.96
34.11
39.28
43.71
47.53
50.86
53.80
56.41
58.74
60.83
62.72
64.43
66.00
67.43
68.75
69.96
13.12
23.19
31.17
37.65
43.01
47.53
51.38
54.70
57.60
60.15
62.41
64.43
66.25
67.88
69.37
70.72
71.96
73.10
13.78
24.22
32.41
39.00
44.42
48.96
52.81
56.12
58.99
61.52
63.75
65.73
67.51
69.12
70.57
71.89
73.10
74.21
10.78
19.46
26.60
32.57
37.65
42.02
45.81
49.14
52.08
54.70
57.05
59.17
61.09
62.84
64.43
65.90
67.25
68.49
16.25
27.96
36.80
43.71
49.25
53.80
57.60
60.83
63.60
66.00
68.10
69.96
71.62
73.10
74.43
75.64
76.74
77.75
13.78
24.22
32.41
29.00
44.42
48.96
52.81
56.12
58.99
61.52
63.75
65.73
67.51
69.12
70.57
71.89
73.10
74.21
15.78
27.26
35.99
42.84
48.37
52.93
56.74
59.99
62.78
65.21
67.34
69.22
70.90
72.40
73.76
74.99
76.11
77.13
17.86
30.30
39.47
46.51
52.08
56.60
60.34
63.49
66.18
68.49
70.51
72.29
73.86
75.27
76.53
77.67
78.70
79.65
11.96
21.37
28.96
35.21
40.45
44.91
48.75
52.08
55.01
57.60
59.91
61.98
63.85
65.54
67.08
68.49
69.79
70.98
(2)
(3)
Extruded Polystyrene
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
HFC Projected
(9)
CO2 Projected
(10)
(11)
(12)
EPB (3)
CG(4)
FP(5)
PR(6)
PnR(7)
0.122
0.062
0.05
0.036
0.059
0.039
4.26
8.18
11.79
15.12
18.22
21.09
23.77
26.27
28.62
30.82
32.89
34.84
36.67
68.41
40.06
41.61
43.09
44.50
8.06
14.92
20.82
25.96
30.47
34.47
38.03
41.22
44.10
46.71
49.09
51.26
53.26
55.10
56.80
58.38
59.84
61.21
9.80
17.86
24.59
30.30
35.21
39.47
43.21
46.51
49.45
52.08
54.46
56.60
58.56
60.34
61.98
63.49
64.89
66.18
13.12
23.19
31.17
37.65
43.01
47.53
51.38
54.70
57.60
60.15
62.41
64.43
66.25
67.88
69.37
70.72
71.96
73.10
8.43
15.56
21.65
26.93
31.53
35.60
39.20
42.43
45.33
47.95
50.33
52.50
54.49
56.32
58.01
59.58
61.03
62.38
12.23
21.80
29.48
35.79
41.06
45.54
49.38
52.71
55.64
58.22
60.52
62.58
64.43
66.11
67.64
69.04
70.32
71.50
(1)
(2)
Expanded clay
(3)
(4)
(5)
Polyester felt
(6)
(7)
It is shown (in tables 2.1. and 2.2.) the increase of energy saving until it reaches a value in which it reaches a
value where it is not useful to continue the increase of the thickness because the saving variation rate per additional
thickness (mm) is mainly negligible. If the thickness cannot be modified, tables 2.1 and 2.2 show which is the most
appropriate insulation taking into account the project decisions or the energy efficiency.
Indoor air quality can be also classified according to the percentage of unsatisfied in indoor spaces (table 5).
Indoor air quality
High
Standard
30
2.5
Once known the necessary air flow for ventilation according to the amount of pollution, the cost in euros can
be established. Figure 4 gives a comparison between the amount of saving that could be obtained depending on the
situation. If there are no smokers in the space, it can be seen that having a bad outdoor air quality can multiply per 4
the ventilation costs if a high indoor air quality is needed.
Figure 4. Economic saving depending on the quality of external and internal air
0
0.00
0.58
0.67
0.72
0.77
0.81
0.85
0.88
0.89
0.92
0.94
0
0.00
0.22
0.27
0.36
0.40
0.43
0.46
0.49
0.50
0.52
0.53
0.5
0.2
0.25
0.37
0.35
0.37
0.42
0.44
0.47
0.50
0.51
0.3
0.16
0.20
0.26
0.30
0.32
0.37
0.40
0.42
0.45
0.47
0.1
0.13
0.18
0.23
0.28
0.29
0.34
0.37
0.40
0.43
0.47
0.5
0.19
0.23
0.28
0.30
0.32
0.37
0.39
0.40
0.42
0.43
0.3
0.16
0.19
0.24
0.28
0.30
0.33
0.36
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.00
0.12
0.16
0.18
0.21
0.23
0.25
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.30
Depending on the type of luminary, power, energy efficiency value, use factor, reflection factor depending on
the wall and ceiling colours, and its lifetime, the performance of the three types of luminaries (previously exposed)
has been studied.
It is important to know that the energy efficiency of a lighting installation in a determined zone is established
by the Value of Energy Efficiency, VEEI, and measured in W/m2 per 100 lux using the following expression:
VEEI = (P 100)/(S
Where:
P: total power installed in lamps plus auxiliary equipment (W)
S: illuminated surface (m2)
Em: medium horizontal illuminance (lux)
Considering the table 2.1., located in the TBC (CTE-DB-HE3: Energy Saving Basic Document in TBC), for
floor areas in communal spaces, the current value for VEEI must be 6W/m2 (it was 7.56W/m2 in previous TBC).
Without exceeding the light levels indicated in TBC
Table 7. Maximum installed power
Use of the building
Maximum installed power (W/m2)
Administrative
12
Parking
5
Commercial
15
Educational
15
Sanitary
15
Restoration
18
Auditory, theatre, cinema
15
Public residential
12
Others
10
Buildings with a lighting level above 600 lux
25
VEEI values are shown in the next table of the TBC
Table 8. VEEI according to different areas of activity
Differentiated activity areas
Limit of VEEI values
Administrative
3.0
Transport platforms stations
3.0
12
3.0
3.5
3.5
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
4.0
5.0
5.0
5.0
6.0
6.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
8.0
10.0
2.5
E value (lux) is established by the regulation UNE12462_1 where required lighting levels are established and it
can be determined by the following expression:
= (n )/(S
)
Where,
Etables=EUNE
: Using coefficient (from the premises k index and from the reflectance values of walls and ceilings)
fm : Maintenance factor
L : Flux luminaire
Table 9. k index and lighting system
Lighting system
k index in the premise
Direct, semi-direct, direct-indirect and general k = (ab) / (h(a+b))
diffuse lighting
Indirect and semi-indirect lighting
k = (3ab) / (2(h+0.85)(a+b))
a, length of the premise
b, width of the premise
h, height of the premise
In figure 5 can be seen the economic saving in Watts per square meter to produce 100 lux, which can be
obtained by LED lighting in comparison with another type of luminaries.
It can be seen that for a reflection factor in the walls of 0.2 of LED lighting it is obtained a VEEI value of
approximately 4.8. With the other luminaries VEEI value is increased in a 12.5% (5.4), 21% (5.8), 33% (6.4) and
75% (8.4).
13
The lamp that stands out most regarding power is the one that also exceeds the energy efficiency standards:
power per m2 to produce 100 lux. Therefore, the logical decision would be to assume that the luminary replacement,
which requires a minimal work, becomes a solution of large energy savings throughout the time (the saving is not
immediate), without diminishing the minimum required power.
D. Energy certification in buildings
From July 2007, TBC obligates to certify buildings energetically. It consists of a legal requirement that all new
buildings must accomplish. From two years onwards it will be applied to existing buildings. Nearly 30% of primary
energy consumption comes from buildings. This is why new European regulations focus on the energy consumption
of constructions.
Regulations show classifications of new constructions according to their efficiency degree, the estimated
consumption and associated CO2 emissions. Different categories go from the most efficient, A, to the less efficient,
G, and B, C, D, E, F in between.
The objective of building certification is to encourage promoters to build more efficiently and cheer up
building refurbishment to low energy consumption.
Thus, every building would get a Certificate of Energy Efficiency. This target has been included in both TBC
and the regulation of thermal installations in buildings [14]. Nevertheless, at the moment it is only compulsory for
new buildings, whereas it is considered a more urgent task its application in pre-existent buildings.
TBC indicates that several parameters must be included, within the architectural projects, which are difficult to
control lately, instead of facing the problem in the other way round. As an alternative of limiting the global
transference coefficient of buildings, it should limit the building energy consumption according to its use, location,
floor area and others.
Whether it is considered that the final aim was the limitation of the energy demand, it would be possible to
achieve low energy consumption from diverse and varied constructive solutions.
The main problem of energy efficiency regulations is that due to the fact that buildings are complex, when
trying to model and compare them, it is easy to establish several simplifications. Therefore, in order to obtain the
building rating two different methodologies have been proposed:
- The use of software such as LIDER and CALENER. Computer programs have so many limitations and
eventually generate buildings without architectural values, as they are projected following standard solutions and
rigid patterns concerning design.
14
REFERENCES
[1] Tcnico, Bibliografa Bsica Normativa General-Cdigo. De La Edificacin (CTE).
[2] CTE. Historia, available at: http://www.codigotecnico.org/web/cte/historia/ (accessed 13 April, 2015)
[3] ALLEN, Edward. Como Funciona Un Edificio. Editorial Gustavo Gili, 1982.
[4] BRUNSGAARD, C., HEISELBERG, P., KNUDSTRUP, M., & LARSEN, T. S. (2012). Evaluation of the
indoor environment of comfort houses: Qualitative and quantitative approaches. Indoor and Built Environment,
21(3), 432-451. doi:10.1177/1420326X11431739
[5] HALLIDAY, Sandy. Sustainable Construction. Routledge, 2008. 25-27
[6] HALLIDAY, Sandy. Sustainable Construction. Routledge, 2008. 38-42
[7] CLARK, William H.; and GMEZ, Claudio M. Anlisis y Gestin Energtica De Edificios: Mtodos, Proyectos
y Sistemas De Anlisis De Ahorro Energtico. MacGraw-Hill, 1998.
[8] UNE EN ISO 10 456:2001 Regulation. 9-15
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