Empirical Study of Features and Classifiers

for Fault Diagnosis in Motorcycles Based on

Acoustic Signals
Veerappa B. Pagi, BEC Bagalkot
Ramesh S. Wadawadagi, BEC Bagalkot
Basavaraj S. Anami, KLEIT Hubli

Presentation overview
Introduction

Motivation & Objectives

Literature review

Features Used

Approach

Classifiers Used

Results

Conclusion

Introduction
Vehicles generate dissimilar sound patterns in different
working conditions.
The sound patterns give a clue of the fault
Sound samples of vehicles with running engines can be
acquired and tested.
Acoustic features of the signal are computed and analyzed to
classify the faults.
It is observed that the diagnostic accuracy depends on usage,
maintenance, environmental and road conditions.
Overall classification accuracy upto 95% is achived, when
tested with various features and classifiers.

Motivation

Non-speech sound recognition revolves around classifying the

musical instruments, environmental sound classification,
machinery fault detection, etc.
Increasing market for two-wheelers in India. Two Wheelers
sales registered growth of 8.09 percent in the financial year
2014-15.
Increasing road accidents due to faults in vehicles: Accident
rate among males (83%).
No databases are available for two-wheeler vehicle sounds.
Reported works classify the vehicles into trucks, wagons, cars,
and two-wheelers. At most fault detection is approached.

TABLE 1 A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF FAULT DIAGNOSIS

TECHNIQUES
Sl.No

Domain

TD

Features

Classifier

Performance
(%)

Rough Set Theory

Decision Table

50.9-100

TD

WignerTrispectrum

LS-SVM

92

TFD

Empirical mode
decomposition (EMD)

IMF-AR, SVM

100

WPA

db4, 8, 20

ANN

91.25 - 99.02

WPA

Entropy of 5 level db4

family

ANN

89.68 - 90.23

WPA

PSD of the STFT

K-NN, SVM

61.7 97.8

FD

Statistical features

NRMSE

90 - 100

FD

One-third-octave freq.
spectrum

BPNN

81.02 - 87.77

WPA

10

TD

11

WPA

Central and invariant contour DTW with Euclidean

moments of DB4 wavelets
distance
PCA, LDA
DWT

98

Bayesian

73.44 - 84.24

ANN

75 - 100

Challenges of the problem

Sensitive to Doppler Effect

Noise produced by moving parts

Noise due to atmospheric variations

Expensive and require extra hardware

Recording in ideal environment is far from real-world

situations

Methodology

Recording environment

Sony ICD-PX720 digital voice recorder, sampling frequency of 44.1 kHz

with 16 bits quantization
Recorder held as per the recording standards

Feature Extraction
l

The segmented fault signature is analyzed using the time-domain,

frequency-domain, time-frequency domain and Wavelet Packet
decomposition.
Time-domain features such as Zero-Crossing Rate (ZCR), Short Time
Energy (STE) and Root Mean Square (RMS) and Mel-frequency
cepstral co-efficents (MFCC) are used to extract features from the
signal.
Mean and standard deviation of the spectral centroid are the
frequency-domain features considered. Some features are extracted
based on the pseudospectral estimate of the signal, which include the
integration of the curve, chaincode, slope of the pseudospectrum and
eigenvectors.
Contour moments and energy distribution in the Wavelet packet
subbands are also used as features.

1) Time domain features

1) Short-time energy:
Where x(m) is the input signal, w(n) is a window function.
2) Zero-crossing rate:
Where w(n) = N/2, 0 n N-1.
3) Root mean square:
Where M is the total number of samples in processing window, x(m)
is the value of the mth sample.

2) Frequency domain features

1)Spectrum Centroid:
Where x(m) is the input signal, w(M) is a window function and L is the
window length.
The spectrum centroid is calculated as given in Equation (5).

3) Contour moments of DB4 wavelets

l The sound samples are subjected to wavelet decomposition using
Daubechies db4 wavelets.
l The decomposition into approximation and detailed coefficients is
carried out till eighth subband.
l The feature vector comprises of four 1D central contour moments
(1, 2, 3 and 5) and their invariants (F1, F2, F3 and F4), which
are computed on approximation coefficients of a wavelet subband.
l The reference feature vector is computed using the mean of the
feature vectors.
l The central moments and their invariants are computed over the
approximation coefficients.

4) The slope of a pseudospectrum

5) Chain code of a pseudospectral segment

Where 1 i 128

6) Feature reduction using Eigen vectors

The 128-digit chain code is transformed into a matrix of
size 16 x 8. The average of adjacent values in each row
is taken to reduce the order of matrix into 8 x 8. The
eigenvector of the reduced matrix is computed resulting
in a feature vector of size 8.

7) Integration of pseudospectral segments

The trapezoidal rule approximates the region under the
graph of the function f(x) as a trapezoid and calculating
its area, as given by Equation (8).

8) Wavelet Packet Energy

The coefficients are computed recursively for n levels of
decomposition. Further, WPD produces 2n different sets of
coefficients as opposed to (n +1) sets for the DWT. The
percentage energy values of the first eight subbands form the
feature vector.

9) Statistical features
The statistical features of the first eight subbands of db4 wavelet
decomposition is used as the feature vector. The feature vector
consists of the mean of the 1st subband, the median of the 2 nd
subband, variance of 3rd subband, standard deviation of 4th
subband, minimum of 5th subband, maximum of 6th subband,
mode of 7th subband and harmonic mean of 8th subband.

10) Feature extraction using MFCC

l Mel-frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCCs) are derived from
a cepstral representation of the sound signal.
l The MFCCs are computed by taking the Fourier transform of a
signal.
l Then the powers of the spectrum are mapped onto the Mel
scale.
l The logs of the powers at each of the Mel-frequencies is
determined.

Classifier: ANN

Classifier: k-Means

Dynamic Time Warping (DTW)

The minimal distance matrix between the two sequences is

computed using dynamic programming as in Equation (11).
The global warp cost of the two sequences is defined as given in
Equation (12).

k-NN classifier

The three stages of operation

l
l
l

Fault detection stage

Subsystem identification stage
Fault source localization stage

MATLAB version 7.11.0.584 (R2010b) is used for

effective implementation.
Disjoint sets of n percentage (n%) of the total samples is
used for training, m percentage (m%) for validation and
the remaining samples are used for testing.

Faults and database

Faults type

Valve Setting problem (VS),

Crank Fault (CF),
Cylinder Kit problem (CK),
Timing Chain problem (TC)
Muffler Leakage (ML) and
Silencer Leakage (SL)

886 sound samples, including healthy and faulty

motorcycles

Results of stage 1: Fault detection stage

Results of stage 2: Faulty subsystem identification

Results of Stage 3: Fault localization in subsystem

Conclusion
l

The sound signals having lower

experimentation,

mainly

due

to

SNRs are used in

work

in

real-world

environments.
l

The classification accuracies are in the range of 70 to 100% for

all the stages.

The kNN classifier is adjudged to be the most suitable for this

application due to its lower computational complexity.

The work finds applications in fault source localization of

machinery, vehicles, musical instruments based on acoustic
signals.

Important references

J. D. Wu, E.C. Chang, S.Y. Liao, J.M. Kuo & C.K. Huang, Fault classification of a
scooter engine platform using wavelet transform and artificial neural network, Proc.
Int. Conf. Engineers and Computer Scientists, IMECS 2009, Hong Kong, March 18-20,
Vol.1, 2009, pp58-63.
Wei Liao, Pu Han & Xu Liu, Fault diagnosis for engine based on EMD and wavelet
packet BP neural network, 3rd Int. Symp. Intelligent Information Technology
Application, 2009, pp672-676.
Jian-Da Wu, Jian-Bin Chain, Chen-Wei Chung, & Hao Yu, Fault Analysis of Engine
Timing Gear and Valve Clearance Using Discrete Wavelet and a Support Vector
Machine, Int. Journal of Computer Theory and Engineering, Vol.4, No.3, June 2012,
pp386-390.
Jian-Da Wu & Chiu-Hong Liu, Investigation of engine fault diagnosis using discrete
wavelet transform and neural network, Elsevier J. Expert Systems with Applications,
35, 2008, pp12001213.
Zhang Junhong & Han Bing, Analysis of engine front noise using sound intensity
techniques, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, Vol.19, 2005, pp213-221.

Thanks

Auto experts of Bagalkot city

Principal of our college

My research guide

My colleague

Anonymous reviewers of our research papers