Velocities for

Depth Conversion and

Depth Imaging
By

Dave Marsden

Actis Geoscience Ltd

221A Victoria Rise
London SW4 0PF
 +44 20 7498 4505
 +44 20 7371 5964
E-mail: dmarsden@actisgeo.com

Certain figures in this manual are copyright and are reproduced with the permission
of the copyright owners; notably the SEG and EAGE. The source of each figure is
noted on the slide where known, and a complete citation appears in the bibliography
and reading list at the end of the manual.

The figures on the cover of the manual (starting bottom left and moving clockwise)
are from:
1. Actis Geoscience Ltd
2. PGS Seres brochure
3. MacKay, S., and Abma, R., 1992, Imaging and velocity estimation with
depth focusing analysis, Geophysics, v. 57, no. 12, p. 1608.
4. Actis Geoscience Ltd
5. D-S brochure

2005 by Dave Marsden Ph.D.

26, Edenhurst Avenue,
London SW6 3PB
All rights reserved. No part of this manual may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright,
Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior written permission of the copyright
owner.

Acknowledgement
The author is particularly indebted to the following organisations for permission to
copy material:
Society of Exploration Geophysicists for figures which originally appeared in
Geophysics, Leading Edge, SEG Annual Meeting Abstracts and Seismic Data
Processing by Oz Yilmaz.
European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers for figures which
originally appeared in Geophysical Prospecting and in The Marmousi
Experience.
To Amoco and Amoco (U.K.) Exploration Company for many illustrations
collected over an eighteen year period.
To Paradigm Geophysical (UK) Ltd for many illustrations.
Other sources of material are acknowledged as appropriate. In a very few instances
the author has made use of illustrations, of unknown origin. Apologies are offered to
the original owners of these data for any offence caused and due acknowledgement
will be made should their true origin come to light.

Foreword
Every effort has been made to check the accuracy of statements, formulae and
figures. These have been drawn from a wide variety of sources and experience. The
author must make it clear that he cannot be held responsible for possible
misunderstandings or errors arising from the use of the material in this manual.
The course material is pitched at two levels. Firstly the author is unaware of any text
book or training course aimed at the seismic interpreter who is usually charged with
making structure maps in depth from seismic data initially recorded in time. Whilst
there are text books that describe methods of velocity measurement and imaging in
depth they are aimed at what one might term technical geophysicists, those with a
strong background in math and physics, and usually involved in seismic processing.
In many companies, and in many parts of the world, seismic interpretation and depth
conversion are done by structural geologists or those with a geological background
and who have very little math beyond that taught in school up to the age of 16 or 18
years of age. This course is aimed specifically at this group of interpreters who have
a geological background.
Secondly, in some companies and some parts of the world, seismic interpreters have
an M.Sc. in Geophysics as a background and for these interpreters there are some
more advanced topics scattered throughout the course that deal with more complex
situations and consequently involve more maths. These advanced topics are largely
beyond methods found in conventional seismic interpretation and mapping softwares.
Many of the exercises are also pitched at these two groups. Many of the main
exercises may be done with no more than a straight edge and calculator by those
unfamiliar with the use of spreadsheets. The majority of these exercises also have a
spreadsheet version. There are also a number of more advanced exercises that can
only be done in spreadsheets. These more advanced exercises either replicate more
obscure but never-the-less important techniques available in the commercial
software or they offer techniques in spreadsheet form for which there are no
commercial software solutions available. In all of the spreadsheets there are hidden
answer sheets which may be revealed from the format>worksheet>unhide menu.
The worksheets have specifically not been formatted since most advanced users
prefer to define their own layout and formatting styles. However, the collection of
worksheets form a library of techniques that may be saved as templates, formatted
as you will and even linked to each other for increased efficiency in project work.

Velocities for Depth Conversion and Imaging

Contents
1. Introduction the macrovelocity model
Course objective, course outline, basic concepts.
2. Definitions 1
Average velocity, average interval velocity, Backus average velocity/effective
medium velocity, instantaneous velocity, pseudo velocity, RMS velocity.
Exercises.
3. Well velocities
Checkshot/VSP, BHC sonic log, long spaced sonic logs, full waveform sonic
log, dipole logs Calibrated sonic/velocity log, Pseudo velocity, core measurements.
Quality control
Exercise.
4. Analytic functions from checkshots
Average velocity functions, optimum functions, instantaneous velocity
functions for single layer, hybrid functions, interval velocity functions, instantaneous
velocity functions for multiple layers, slowness functions, common pitfalls.
Exercises.
5. Velocity models from logs
Integrating the sonic log, blocking logs. Velocity logs v. checkshots,
extrapolation, combining logs, geological factors affecting function parameters.
Exercises.
6. Definitions 2
Root mean square velocity, heterogeneity factor, root mean square interval
velocity, moveout velocity, normal moveout velocity, stacking velocity, bias, interval
stacking velocity, average stacking velocity, migration velocity, refraction velocity.
Exercises.
7. Raytracing
Raytrace v. wave-equation modelling, wavefronts and raypaths, reflection,
refraction, rules, reciprocity, zero-offset (normal incidence) raytracing, image ray
modelling, common midpoint, common reflection point.
8. Seismic velocities 1
The hierarchy of seismically derived velocities: refraction velocity, stacking
velocity, 3D three parameter velocity analysis, DMO, horizon velocity analysis.
Exercises.
9. Stacking velocity
Dip and subsurface structure, near surface structure - statics, factors affecting
accuracy of picking, variation with maximum offset, sources of uncertainty.
Exercise.
10. Interval Velocity Model
Dip correction, bias correction, interpolation. Errors, noise, editing, filtering,
smoothing, normalisation, stacking value matching.
Exercise.
11. Time Migration
Post stack time migration, image ray, migration velocity, algorithms, imaging
problems, prestack time migration, imaging problems.
Exercise.

12. Depth Conversion

Dynamic corrections for near surface velocity anomalies, volume models:
using analytical functions, one function, multiple functions. Grid models: kriging
'stacking' (i.e. seismic) velocities, calibrating stacking velocities, instantaneous
velocity functions from seismic velocities. Tying well control, residual calibration.
Quality control, forward modelling.
Exercises.
13. Depth Conversion Uncertainty
Error analysis: misties, from kriging, quantitative analysis of function
parameter errors, cross validation. Stochastic depth conversion, probability maps.
Exercises.
14. Map Migration
Image ray migration, normal incidence migration. .
Exercises.
15. Coherency Inversion
Non-hyperbolic moveout, Deregowski loop, modelling gathers, modelling
common offsets, interval velocity analysis, model based stack.
16. Depth Migration Velocity
Post stack depth migration, velocity analysis, prestack depth migration,
common offset migration, shot record migration, image gather, plane wave migration,
common angle gather, iterative profile migration, velocity/depth ambiguity from
surface, refraction velocities, residual velocity analysis, depth focusing analysis,
tomography.
17. Interpretive Processing
From stacking velocity analysis to prestack depth migrated image
examples.
Exercises.
18. Anisotropy
P-wave anisotropy parameters, core measurements, seismic wavefront,
moveout and stacking velocity, depth conversion error, anisotropic velocity analysis,
time migration, prestack depth migration.
Shear wave anisotropy, azimuthal rotation, fast and slow sections.
Ocean bottom surveys, common conversion point gather, velocity analysis,
imaging.
19. Strategies
Exercise.
A strategy for reducing exploration cycle time, reducing cost, reducing risk
and saving $.
20. Appendix
I Velocity Definitions. Comprehensive listing of velocity definitions.
21. Appendix
II Depth Conversion Functions. Functions for velocity modelling and depth
conversion.
22. Appendix
Kriging
23. References