Taliban

For the former Mexican drug lord, see Ivn Velzquez ers from Arab countries and Central Asia. Saudi AraCaballero.
bia provided nancial support. Hundreds of thousands of
Not to be confused with Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan.
people were forced to ee to United Front-controlled territory, Pakistan, and Iran.[33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40][41][42]
The Taliban and their allies committed massacres against
The Taliban (Pashto: libn students), alternately spelled Taleban, is an Islamic fundamentalist po- Afghan civilians, denied UN food supplies to 160,000
starving civilians and conducted a policy of scorched
litical movement in Afghanistan. The movement originated in the early 1990s, but was not fully unied un- earth, burning vast areas of fertile land and destroying
of homes during their rule from 1996
til its 1994 capture of Kandahar. Under the leadership tens of thousands
[43][44][45][46][47][48][48]
to
2001.
of Mohammed Omar, the movement spread throughout most of Afghanistan, sequestering power from the
Mujahideen warlords. The Afghan people's weariness
of corrupt and despotic tribal leaders led to considerable
favorability for the Taliban, leading to the 1996 establishment of a central government. As the Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, the Afghan capital was transferred to
Kandahar, and majority control of the country was held
from September 1996 until its demise in December 2001.
Even at its peak, formal diplomatic recognition of the Talibans government was acknowledged by only three nations: Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates. Mohammed Omar remained supreme commander
and spiritual leader of the Taliban until his death in 2013.
Mullah Akhtar Mansoor was elected as his replacement
in 2015.[26]

After the September 11 attacks, the Taliban were overthrown by the American-led invasion of Afghanistan.
Later it regrouped as an insurgency movement to ght the
American-backed Karzai administration and the NATOled International Security Assistance Force (ISAF). The
Taliban have been accused of using terrorism as a specic
tactic to further their ideological and political goals. According to the United Nations, the Taliban and their allies
were responsible for 75% of Afghan civilian casualties in
2010, 80% in 2011, and 80% in 2012.[49][50][51][52][53][54]

1 Etymology

The word Taliban is Pashto, libn, meaning

The Taliban is currently waging war (an insurgency , or students, the plural of lib. This is a loanword from
jihad) limited to interests within Afghanistan.[27][28]
Arabic lib, plus the Persian plural ending -n
While in power, it enforced a strict interpretation of ( the Arabic plural being ullb, whereas
Sharia, or Islamic law, an interpretation of which lead- libn is a dual form with the incongruous meaning, to
Arabic speakers, of two students). Since becoming a
ing Muslims have been highly critical.[29]
loanword in English, Taliban, besides a plural noun referThe Taliban were condemned internationally for events
ring to the group, has also been used as a singular noun
occurring as a result of individuals acting to enforce
referring to an individual. For example, John Walker
Sharia law, which resulted in the brutal treatment of
Lindh has been referred to as an American Taliban,
women.[30][31]
rather than an American Talib. In the English lanThe majority of the Taliban are made up of Afghan guage newspapers of Pakistan, the word Talibans is ofPashtun tribesmen. The Talibans leaders were inu- ten used when referring to more than one Taliban. The
enced by Deobandi fundamentalism, and many also spelling Taliban has come to be predominant over Talestrictly follow the social and cultural norm called ban in English.[55][56]
Pashtunwali.[9][10][3][32]
From 1995 to 2001, the Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence and military are widely alleged by the interna- 2 History
tional community to have provided support to the Taliban. Their connections are possibly through Harkat-ulMujahideen, a militant group founded by Sami ul Haq. 2.1 Background
Pakistan is accused by many international ocials of
continuing to support the Taliban; Pakistan states that it Main article: Talibans rise to power
dropped all support for the group after the September 11
attacks. Al-Qaeda also supported the Taliban with ght- The Taliban movement traces its origin to the Pakistani1

trained mujahideen in northern Pakistan, during the

Soviet war in Afghanistan. When Muhammad Zia-ulHaq became President of Pakistan he feared that the
Soviets were planning to invade Balochistan, Pakistan
so he sent Akhtar Abdur Rahman to Saudi Arabia to
garner support for the Afghan resistance against Soviet
occupation forces. In the meantime, the United States
and Saudi Arabia joined the struggle against the Soviet
Union by providing all the funds.[57] Zia-ul-Haq aligned
himself with Pakistans Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam and later
picked General Akhtar Abdur Rahman to lead the insurgency against the Soviet Union inside Afghanistan.
About 90,000 Afghans, including Mohammad Omar,
were trained by Pakistans ISI during the 1980s.[57]

HISTORY

In addition, Saudi Arabia and Iran as competitors for

regional hegemony supported Afghan militias hostility
towards each other. According to Human Rights Watch,
Iran assisted the Shia Hazara Hezb-i Wahdat forces of
Abdul Ali Mazari, as Iran attempted to maximize Wahdats military power and inuence. Saudi Arabia supported the Wahhabite Abdul Rasul Sayyaf and his Ittihadi Islami faction.[59][61][62] Conict between the two militias soon escalated. A publication by the George Washington University describes:
[O]utside forces saw instability in
Afghanistan as an opportunity to press
their own security and political agendas.[63]

In his interview with ABC News, the ex Pakistani prime

minister and Chief of Army Pervez Musharraf said that
western countries, chiey USA and United Kingdom, had
given aid of about 20 billion dollars during the 1980s to
Pakistan specically for training Taliban personnel and
providing them with arms and ammunition.[58]
After the fall of Soviet-backed regime of Mohammad
Najibullah in 1992, several Afghan political parties
agreed on a peace and power-sharing agreement, the
Peshawar Accord. The accord created the Islamic State
of Afghanistan and appointed an interim government for
a transitional period. According to Human Rights Watch:
The sovereignty of Afghanistan was vested
formally in the Islamic State of Afghanistan, an
entity created in April 1992, after the fall of
the Soviet-backed Najibullah government. ...
With the exception of Gulbuddin Hekmatyar's
Hezb-e Islami, all of the parties... were ostensibly unied under this government in April
1992. ... Hekmatyars Hezb-e Islami, for its
part, refused to recognize the government for
most of the period discussed in this report and
launched attacks against government forces and
Kabul generally. ... Shells and rockets fell
everywhere.[59]

The Taliban emerged in the southern Afghan city of Kandahar

around September 1994.

Due to the sudden initiation of the civil war, working government departments, police units or a system
of justice and accountability for the newly created Islamic State of Afghanistan did not have time to form.
Horric crimes were committed by criminals and individuals inside dierent factions. Rare ceaseres, usually negotiated by representatives of the Islamic States
newly appointed Defense Minister Ahmad Shah Massoud, President Sibghatullah Mojaddedi and later President Burhanuddin Rabbani (the interim government), or
ocials from the International Committee of the Red
Cross (ICRC), commonly collapsed within days.[59] The
Gulbuddin Hekmatyar received operational, nancial and countryside in northern Afghanistan, parts of which was
military support from Pakistan.[60] Afghanistan expert under the control of Defense Minister Massoud remained
Amin Saikal concludes in Modern Afghanistan: A His- calm and some reconstruction took place. The city of
tory of Struggle and Survival:
Herat under the rule of Islamic State ally Ismail Khan also
witnessed relative calm.
Pakistan was keen to gear up for a breakMeanwhile, southern Afghanistan was neither under the
through in Central Asia. ... Islamabad could
control of foreign-backed militias nor the government in
not possibly expect the new Islamic governKabul, but was ruled by local leaders such as Gul Agha
ment leaders... to subordinate their own naSherzai and their militias.
tionalist objectives in order to help Pakistan
realize its regional ambitions. ... Had it not
been for the ISIs logistic support and supply of
2.2 Beginnings
a large number of rockets, Hekmatyars forces
In 1991, the Taliban (a movement originating from
would not have been able to target and destroy
Jamiat Ulema-e-Islam-run religious schools for Afghan
half of Kabul.[61]

2.3

Taliban Emirate against United Front

refugees in Pakistan) also developed in Afghanistan as a

politico-religious force. The most often-repeated story
and the Talibans own story of how Mullah Omar rst mobilized his followers is that in the spring of 1994, neighbors in Singesar told him that the local governor had abducted two teenage girls, shaved their heads, and taken
them to a camp where they were raped. 30 Taliban (with
only 16 ries) freed the girls, and hanged the governor
from the barrel of a tank. Later that year, two militia
commanders killed civilians while ghting for the right to
sodomize a young boy. The Taliban freed him. Mullah
Omar started his movement with fewer than 50 armed
madrassah students in his hometown of Kandahar.[64][65]

3
In a bid to establish their rule over Afghanistan, the Taliban started shelling the capital in early 1995. Amnesty
International, referring to the Taliban oensive, wrote in
a 1995 report:
This is the rst time in several months
that Kabul civilians have become the targets of
rocket attacks and shelling aimed at residential
areas in the city.[72]
The Taliban, however, suered a devastating defeat
against government forces of the Islamic State under
the command of Ahmad Shah Massoud. The Talibans
early victories in 1994 were followed by a series of defeats that resulted in heavy losses which led analysts to
believe that the Taliban movement as such might have
run its course. Pakistan, however, started to provide
stronger military support to the Taliban. On September 26, 1996, as the Taliban with military support by
Pakistan and nancial support by Saudi Arabia prepared
for another major oensive, Massoud ordered a full retreat from Kabul to continue anti-Taliban resistance in
the Hindu Kush mountains instead of engaging in street
battles in Kabul. The Taliban entered Kabul on September 27, 1996, and established the Islamic Emirate of
Afghanistan. Many analysts like Amin Saikal describe
the Taliban as developing into a proxy force for Pakistans
regional interests.[61][68][72][76][77][78]

In the beginning the Taliban numbered in the hundreds, were badly equipped and low on munitions.
Within months however 15,000 students arrived from the
madrassas in Pakistan. The Talibans rst major military
activity was in 1994, when they marched northward from
Maiwand and captured Kandahar City and the surrounding provinces, losing only a few dozen men. When they
took control of Kandahar in 1994, they forced the surrender of dozens of local Pashtun leaders who had presided
over a situation of complete lawlessness and atrocities.
The Taliban also took over a border crossing at Spin Baldak and an ammunition dump from Gulbuddin Hekmatyar. In the course of 1994, the Taliban took control of
12 of 34 provinces not under central government control. Militias controlling the dierent areas often surrendered without a ght. Omars original commanders were
a mixture of former small-unit military commanders and
2.3
madrassa teachers. [66][67][68][69][70]
At the same time most of the militia factions (Hekmatyars Hezb-i Islami, Dostums Junbish-i Milli and Hezbi Wahdat) ghting in the battle for control of Kabul
were defeated militarily by forces of the Islamic States
Defense Minister Ahmad Shah Massoud. Bombardment
of the capital came to a halt and the Islamic State initiated measures to restore law and order to the capital.
Massoud furthermore tried to initiate a nationwide political process with the goal of national consolidation and
democratic elections. Ahmad Shah Massoud, known as
the Lion of Panjshir, had been named the Afghan who
won the Cold War by the Wall Street Journal and had defeated the Soviet Red Army nine times in north-eastern
Afghanistan. Hoping for the Taliban to be allies in bringing stability to Afghanistan, Massoud invited the Taliban to join the consolidation process and to contribute
to stability. Unarmed, Massoud went to talk to a Taliban leaders in Maidan Shar to convince them to join
the initiated political process, so that democratic elections could be held to decide on a future government for
Afghanistan.[40][71][72][73][74][75] The Taliban declined to
join such a political process. When Massoud returned
unharmed to Kabul, the Taliban leader who had received
him as his guest was killed by other senior Taliban for
failing to execute Massoud while the possibility had presented itself.

Taliban Emirate against United Front

Main article: Civil war in Afghanistan (19962001)

2.3.1 Role of the Pakistani military

The Taliban were largely founded by Pakistans
Inter-Services Intelligence (ISI) during 1994. The
I.S.I. used the Taliban to establish a regime in
Afghanistan which would be favorable to Pakistan,
as they were trying to gain strategic depth. Since
the creation of the Taliban, the ISI and the Pakistani
military have given nancial, logistical and military
support.[33][79][80][81][82][83][84][85][86][87][88][89][90][91][92][93]
According to Pakistani Afghanistan expert Ahmed
Rashid, between 1994 and 1999, an estimated 80,000 to
100,000 Pakistanis trained and fought in Afghanistan on
the side of the Taliban. Peter Tomsen stated that up until
9/11 Pakistani military and ISI ocers along with thousands of regular Pakistani armed forces personnel had
been involved in the ghting in Afghanistan.[94][95]
During 2001, according to several international sources,
28,000-30,000 Pakistani nationals, 14,000-15,000
Afghan Taliban and 2,000-3,000 Al-Qaeda militants
were ghting against anti-Taliban forces in Afghanistan
as a roughly 45,000 strong military force. Pakistani

President Pervez Musharraf then as Chief of Army

Sta was responsible for sending thousands of Pakistanis to ght alongside the Taliban and Bin Laden against
the forces of Ahmad Shah Massoud. Of the estimated
28,000 Pakistani nationals ghting in Afghanistan, 8,000
were militants recruited in madrassas lling regular
Taliban ranks. The document further states that the
parents of those Pakistani nationals know nothing
regarding their childs military involvement with the
Taliban until their bodies are brought back to Pakistan.
A 1998 document by the U.S. State Department conrms
that 2040 percent of [regular] Taliban soldiers are
Pakistani. According to the U.S. State Department
report and reports by Human Rights Watch, the other
Pakistani nationals ghting in Afghanistan were regular Pakistani soldiers especially from the Frontier
Corps but also from the army providing direct combat
support.[35][39][40][76][96][97][98]
Human Rights Watch wrote in 2000:
Of all the foreign powers involved in eorts
to sustain and manipulate the ongoing ghting [in Afghanistan], Pakistan is distinguished
both by the sweep of its objectives and the scale
of its eorts, which include soliciting funding for the Taliban, bankrolling Taliban operations, providing diplomatic support as the
Talibans virtual emissaries abroad, arranging
training for Taliban ghters, recruiting skilled
and unskilled manpower to serve in Taliban
armies, planning and directing oensives, providing and facilitating shipments of ammunition and fuel, and ... directly providing combat
support.[35]

HISTORY

U.N. sanctions because of its military aid to the Taliban.

The Taliban also obtained nancial resources from Pakistan. In 1997 alone, after the capture of Kabul by the
Taliban, Pakistan gave $30 million in aid and a further
$10 million for government wages.[102][103][104]
During 2000, British Intelligence reported that the ISI
was taking an active role in several Al-Qaeda training
camps. The ISI helped with the construction of training
camps for both the Taliban and Al-Qaeda. From 1996
to 2001 the Al-Qaeda of Osama Bin Laden and Ayman
al-Zawahiri became a state within the Taliban state. Bin
Laden sent Arab and Central Asian Al-Qaeda militants
to join the ght against the United Front among them his
Brigade 055.[105][106][107][108][109]
After the 9/11 attacks, Pakistan claimed to have ended
its support to the Taliban. But with the fall of Kabul to
anti-Taliban forces in November 2001, ISI forces worked
with and helped Taliban militias who were in full retreat. In November 2001, Taliban, Al-Qaeda combatants
and ISI operatives were safely evacuated from Kunduz
on Pakistan Army cargo aircraft to Pakistan Air Force
bases in Chitral and Gilgit in Pakistans Northern Areas in what has been dubbed the Airlift of Evil Former Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf wrote in his
memoirs that Richard Armitage, the former US deputy
secretary of state, said Pakistan would be bombed back
to the stone-age if it continued to support the Taliban,
although Armitage has since denied using the stone age
phrase.[110][111][112][113][114][115][116][117][118]
The role of the Pakistani military has been described
by international observers as well as by the anti-Taliban
leader Ahmad Shah Massoud as a creeping invasion.
Yet the creeping invasion proved unable to defeat the
severely outnumbered anti-Taliban forces.[94]

On August 1, 1997 the Taliban launched an attack on Pakistan has been accused of continuing to support the
Sheberghan the main military base of Abdul Rashid Dos- Taliban since 9/11, an allegation Pakistan denies.[37][38]
tum. Dostum has said the reason the attack was successful was due to 1500 Pakistani commandos taking part and
2.3.2 Anti-Taliban resistance under Massoud
that the Pakistani air force also gave support.[99]
In 1998, Iran accused Pakistan of sending its air force
to bomb Mazar-i-Sharif in support of Taliban forces
and directly accused Pakistani troops for war crimes at
Bamiyan". The same year Russia said, Pakistan was responsible for the military expansion of the Taliban in
northern Afghanistan by sending large numbers of Pakistani troops some of whom had subsequently been taken
as prisoners by the anti-Taliban United Front.[100][101]
During 2000, the UN Security Council imposed an arms
embargo against military support to the Taliban, with
UN ocials explicitly singling out Pakistan. The UN
secretary-general implicitly criticized Pakistan for its military support and the Security Council stated it was
deeply distress[ed] over reports of involvement in the
ghting, on the Taliban side, of thousands of non-Afghan
nationals. In July 2001, several countries including the
United States, accused Pakistan of being in violation of

Ahmad Shah Massoud and Abdul Rashid Dostum, former enemies, created the United Front (Northern Alliance) against the Taliban that were preparing oensives against the remaining areas under the control of
Massoud and those under the control of Dostum. The
United Front included beside the dominantly Tajik forces
of Massoud and the Uzbek forces of Dostum, Hazara
troops led by Haji Mohammad Mohaqiq and Pashtun
forces under the leadership of commanders such as Abdul
Haq and Haji Abdul Qadir. Notable politicians and
diplomats of the United Front included Abdul Rahim
Ghafoorzai, Abdullah Abdullah and Masood Khalili.
From the Taliban conquest of Kabul in September
1996 until November 2001 the United Front controlled
roughly 30% of Afghanistans population in provinces
such as Badakhshan, Kapisa, Takhar and parts of Parwan,
Kunar, Nuristan, Laghman, Samangan, Kunduz, Ghr

2.3

Taliban Emirate against United Front

ed from the Taliban to the area of Massoud.[35][98][120]

After longstanding battles especially for the northern city National Geographic concluded in its documentary Inof Mazar-i-Sharif, Abdul Rashid Dostum and his Jun- side the Taliban:
bish forces were defeated by the Taliban and their alThe only thing standing in the way of
lies in 1998. Dostum subsequently went into exile. Ahfuture
Taliban massacres is Ahmad Shah
mad Shah Massoud remained the only major anti-Taliban
[98]
Massoud.
leader inside Afghanistan who was able to defend vast
National Geographic, Inside the Taliban
parts of his territory against the Taliban.
and Bamyan.

In the areas under his control Massoud set up democratic

institutions and signed the Womens Rights Declaration. The Taliban repeatedly oered Massoud a position of
In the area of Massoud, women and girls did not have to power to make him stop his resistance. Massoud dewear the Afghan burqa. They were allowed to work and clined. He explained in one interview:
to go to school. In at least two known instances, Massoud
personally intervened against cases of forced marriage.
The Taliban say: 'Come and accept the
post of prime minister and be with us, and
It is our conviction and we believe that
they would keep the highest oce in the
both men and women are created by the
country, the presidentship. But at what cost?!
Almighty. Both have equal rights. Women
The dierence between us concerns mainly
can pursue an education, women can pursue a
our way of thinking about the very principles
career, and women can play a role in society
of the society and the state. We can not
just like men.[40][119]
accept their conditions of compromise, or else
Ahmad Shah Massoud, 2001
we would have to give up the principles of
modern democracy. We are fundamentally
against the system called 'the Emirate of
Massoud is adamant that in Afghanistan
Afghanistan.[121]
women have suered oppression for genera Ahmad Shah Massoud, 2001
tions. He says that 'the cultural environment of
the country suocates women. But the Taliban
exacerbate this with oppression.' His most
The United Front in its Proposals for Peace demanded the
ambitious project is to shatter this cultural
Taliban to join a political process leading towards nationprejudice and so give more space, freedom
wide democratic elections. In early 2001 Massoud emand equality to women they would have the
ployed a new strategy of local military pressure and global
same rights as men.[40]
political appeals. Resentment was increasingly gathering
Pepe Escobar, Massoud: From Warrior to
against Taliban rule from the bottom of Afghan society
Statesman
including the Pashtun areas. Massoud publicized their
Afghan traditions would need a generation or more
to overcome and could only be challenged by education, he said. Humayun Tandar, who took part as an
Afghan diplomat in the 2001 International Conference
on Afghanistan in Bonn, said that strictures of language,
ethnicity, region were [also] stiing for Massoud. That
is why ... he wanted to create a unity which could surpass the situation in which we found ourselves and still
nd ourselves to this day. This applied also to strictures
of religion. Jean-Jos Puig describes how Massoud often led prayers before a meal or at times asked his fellow
Muslims to lead the prayer but also did not hesitate to ask
a Christian friend Jean-Jos Puig or the Jewish Princeton
University Professor Michael Barry: Jean-Jos, we believe in the same God. Please, tell us the prayer before
lunch or dinner in your own language.[40]

cause popular consensus, general elections and democracy worldwide. At the same time he was very wary not
to revive the failed Kabul government of the early 1990s.
Already in 1999 he started the training of police forces
which he trained specically in order to keep order and
protect the civilian population in case the United Front
would be successful.[40][121][122] Massoud stated:
The Taliban are not a force to be considered invincible. They are distanced from the
people now. They are weaker than in the past.
There is only the assistance given by Pakistan,
Osama bin Laden and other extremist groups
that keep the Taliban on their feet. With a halt
to that assistance, it is extremely dicult to
survive.[123]
Ahmad Shah Massoud, 2001

Human Rights Watch cites no human rights crimes for

the forces under direct control of Massoud for the pe- From 1999 onwards a renewed process was set into moriod from October 1996 until the assassination of Mas- tion by the Tajik Ahmad Shah Massoud and the Pashsoud in September 2001. 400,000 to one million Afghans tun Abdul Haq to unite all the ethnicities of Afghanistan.

6
While Massoud united the Tajiks, Hazara and Uzbeks
as well as some Pashtun commanders under his United
Front command, the famed Pashtun commander Abdul
Haq received increasing numbers of defecting Pashtun
Taliban as Taliban popularity trended downward. Both
agreed to work together with the exiled Afghan king
Zahir Shah. International ocials who met with representatives of the new alliance, which Pulitzer Prize
winner Steve Coll referred to as the grand PashtunTajik alliance, said, Its crazy that you have this today ... Pashtuns, Tajiks, Uzbeks, Hazara ... They were
all ready to buy in to the process ... to work under the
kings banner for an ethnically balanced Afghanistan.
Senior diplomat and Afghanistan expert Peter Tomsen
wrote: The Lion of Kabul [Abdul Haq] and the Lion
of Panjshir [Ahmad Shah Massoud] ... Haq, Massoud, and Karzai, Afghanistans three leading moderates,
could transcend the Pashtunnon-Pashtun, north-south
divide. The most senior Hazara and Uzbek leader were
also part of the process. In late 2000, Massoud ocially
brought together this new alliance in a meeting in Northern Afghanistan among other things to discuss a Loya
Jirga, or a traditional council of elders, to settle political
turmoil in Afghanistan. That part of the Pashtun-TajikHazara-Uzbek peace plan did eventually materialize. An
account of the meeting by author and journalist Sebastian
Junger says: In 2000, when I was there ... I happened to
be there in a very interesting time. ... Massoud brought
together Afghan leaders from all ethnic groups. They ew
from London, Paris, the USA, all parts of Afghanistan,
Pakistan, India. He brought them all into the northern
area where he was. He held a council of ... prominent
Afghans from all over the world, brought there to discuss
the Afghan government after the Taliban. ... we met all
these men and interviewed them briey. One was Hamid
Karzai; I did not have any idea who he would end up being
... [95][122][124][125][126]
In early 2001, Ahmad Shah Massoud with ethnic leader
from all of Afghanistan addressed the European Parliament in Brussels asking the international community to
provide humanitarian help to the people of Afghanistan.
He stated that the Taliban and Al-Qaeda had introduced
a very wrong perception of Islam" and that without the
support of Pakistan and Bin Laden the Taliban would not
be able to sustain their military campaign for up to a year.
On this visit to Europe he also warned that his intelligence
had gathered information about a large-scale attack on
U.S. soil being imminent. The president of the European
Parliament, Nicole Fontaine, called him the pole of liberty in Afghanistan.[127][128][129][130]
On September 9, 2001, Massoud, then aged 48, was the
target of a suicide attack by two Arabs posing as journalists at Khwaja Bahauddin, in the Takhar Province of
Afghanistan. Massoud, who had survived countless assassination attempts over a period of 26 years, died in a
helicopter taking him to a hospital. The rst attempt on
Massouds life had been carried out by Hekmatyar and

HISTORY

two Pakistani ISI agents in 1975, when Massoud was only

22 years old. In early 2001, Al-Qaeda would-be assassins
were captured by Massouds forces while trying to enter his territory.[62][122][131][132] The funeral, though in a
rather rural area, was attended by hundreds of thousands
of mourning people.
The assassination of Massoud is believed to have a connection to the September 11, 2001 attacks on U.S. soil,
which killed nearly 3000 people, and which appeared to
be the terrorist attack that Massoud had warned against
in his speech to the European Parliament several months
earlier. John P. O'Neill was a counter-terrorism expert
and the Assistant Director of the FBI until late 2001.
He retired from the FBI and was oered the position of
director of security at the World Trade Center (WTC).
He took the job at the WTC two weeks before 9/11.
On September 10, 2001, O'Neill told two of his friends,
We're due. And we're due for something big.... Some
things have happened in Afghanistan. [referring to the assassination of Massoud] I don't like the way things are lining up in Afghanistan.... I sense a shift, and I think things
are going to happen ... soon. O'Neill died on September
11, 2001, when the South Tower collapsed.[133][134]
After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Massouds United Front troops and United Front troops of
Abdul Rashid Dostum (who returned from exile) ousted
the Taliban from power in Kabul with American air support in Operation Enduring Freedom. From October to
December 2001, the United Front gained control of much
of the country and played a crucial role in establishing the
post-Taliban interim government under Hamid Karzai.

2.4 U.S.-led
NATO
invasion
of
Afghanistan,
Taliban overthrow
and insurgency
Main article: War in Afghanistan (2001present)

2.4.1 Prelude
After the September 11 attacks on the U.S. and the
PENTTBOM investigation, the United States made the
following demands of the Taliban,[135]
1. Deliver to the U.S. all of the leaders
of Al-Qaeda
2. Release all foreign nationals that have
been unjustly imprisoned
3. Protect foreign journalists, diplomats,
and aid workers
4. Close immediately every terrorist training camp
5. Hand over every terrorist and their supporters to appropriate authorities

2.4

U.S.-led NATO invasion of Afghanistan, Taliban overthrow and insurgency

On September 22, the United Arab Emirates, and later

Saudi Arabia, withdrew recognition of the Taliban as
Afghanistans legal government, leaving neighbouring
Pakistan as the only remaining country with diplomatic
ties. On October 4, the Taliban agreed to turn bin Laden
over to Pakistan for trial in an international tribunal that
operated according to Islamic Sharia law, but Pakistan
blocked the oer as it was not possible to guarantee his
safety. On October 7, the Taliban ambassador to Pakistan
oered to detain bin Laden and try him under Islamic
law if the U.S. made a formal request and presented the
Taliban with evidence. A Bush administration ocial,
speaking on condition of anonymity, rejected the Taliban
oer, and stated that the U.S. would not negotiate their
demands.[144][145][146]
2.4.2 Coalition attack

Taliban border guard in 2001

6. Give the United States full access to terrorist training camps for inspection
The U.S. petitioned the international community to back
a military campaign to overthrow the Taliban. The U.N.
issued two resolutions on terrorism after the September
11 attacks. The resolutions called on all states to "[increase] cooperation and full implementation of the relevant international conventions relating to terrorism and
specied consensus recommendations for all countries.
The Security Council did not authorize military intervention in Afghanistan of any kind, and nowhere in the U.N
resolutions did it say military operations in Afghanistan
were justied or conformed to international law. Despite
this, NATO approved a campaign against Afghanistan as
self-defense against armed attack.[136][137]
The Taliban ambassador to Pakistan, Abdul Salem Zaeef, responded to the ultimatum by demanding convincing evidence that Bin Laden was involved in the attacks, stating our position is that if America has evidence and proof, they should produce it. Additionally,
the Taliban insisted that any trial of Bin Laden be held
in an Afghan court. Zaeef also claimed that 4,000
Jews working in the Trade Center had prior knowledge
of the suicide missions, and 'were absent on that day.'"
This response was generally dismissed as a delaying tactic, rather than a sincere attempt to cooperate with the
ultimatum.[138][138][139][140][140][141][142][143]

The Taliban were removed from power in October 2001 by a

unied eort of United Islamic Front (Northern Alliance) ground
forces, small U.S. Special Operations teams and U.S. air support.

On October 7, less than one month after the September 11 attacks, the U.S., aided by the United Kingdom,
Canada, and other countries including several from the
NATO alliance, initiated military action, bombing Taliban and Al-Qaeda-related camps.[147][148] The stated intent of military operations was to remove the Taliban
from power, and prevent the use of Afghanistan as a
terrorist base of operations.[149]
The CIAs elite Special Activities Division (SAD) units
were the rst U.S. forces to enter Afghanistan (noting
that many dierent countries intelligence agencies were
on the ground or operating within theatre before SAD,
and that SAD are not technically military forces, but civilian paramilitaries). They joined with the Afghan United
Front (Northern Alliance) to prepare for the subsequent
arrival of U.S. Special Operations forces. The United
Front (Northern Alliance) and SAD and Special Forces
combined to overthrow the Taliban with minimal coalition casualties, and without the use of international conventional ground forces. The Washington Post stated in
an editorial by John Lehman in 2006:

HISTORY

What made the Afghan campaign a landmark in the U.S. Militarys history is that it
was prosecuted by Special Operations forces
from all the services, along with Navy and Air
Force tactical power, operations by the Afghan
Northern Alliance and the CIA were equally
important and fully integrated. No large Army
or Marine force was employed.[150]
On October 14, the Taliban oered to discuss handing
over Osama bin Laden to a neutral country in return for
a bombing halt, but only if the Taliban were given evidence of bin Ladens involvement.[151] The U.S. rejected
this oer, and continued military operations. Mazar-iSharif fell to United Front troops of Ustad Atta MohamDevelopment of a then-small Taliban insurgency up until 2006,
mad Noor and Abdul Rashid Dostum on November 9,
the year which saw an escalation in Taliban attacks
triggering a cascade of provinces falling with minimal resistance.
In November 2001, before the capture of Kunduz by
United Front troops under the command of Mohammad
Daud Daud, thousands of top commanders and regular
ghters of the Taliban and Al-Qaeda, Pakistani InterServices Intelligence agents and military personnel, and
other volunteers and sympathizers in the Kunduz airlift,
dubbed the Airlift of Evil by US military forces around
Kunduz and subsequently used as a term in media reports, were evacuated and airlifted out of Kunduz by
Pakistan Army cargo aircraft to Pakistan Air Force air
bases in Chitral and Gilgit in Pakistans Northern Areas.[113][152][153][154][155][156]

isted that soldiers in Afghanistan had lost inuence and

power to other groups, including potentially the Taliban.
A notable sign was rioting in May after a street accident
in the city of Kabul.[157][158]
The continued support from tribal and other groups in
Pakistan, the drug trade, and the small number of NATO
forces, combined with the long history of resistance
and isolation, indicated that Taliban forces and leaders were surviving. Suicide attacks and other terrorist methods not used in 2001 became more common.
Observers suggested that poppy eradication, which destroys the livelihoods of rural Afghans, and civilian deaths
caused by airstrikes encouraged the resurgence. These
observers maintained that policy should focus on hearts
and minds and on economic reconstruction, which could
prot from switching from interdicting to diverting poppy
productionto make medicine.[159][160]

On the night of November 12, the Taliban retreated south

from Kabul. On November 15, they released eight Western aid workers after three months in captivity. By
November 13, the Taliban had withdrawn from both
Kabul and Jalalabad. Finally, in early December, the Taliban gave up Kandahar, their last stronghold, dispersing
In September 2006, Pakistan recognized the Islamic
without surrendering.
Emirate of Waziristan, an association of Waziristani
chieftains with close ties to the Taliban, as the de facto se2.4.3 Resurgence
curity force for Waziristan. This recognition was part of
the agreement to end the Waziristan War, which had exacted a heavy toll on the Pakistan Army since early 2004.
Some commentators viewed Islamabad's shift from war to
diplomacy as implicit recognition of the growing power
of the resurgent Taliban relative to American inuence,
with the U.S. distracted by the threat of looming crises in
Iraq, Lebanon, and Iran.

Afghan Taliban ghters overran an Afghan military base and

paraded its troops through the bazaar in Kajaki in northern Helmand province.

Other commentators viewed Islamabads shift from

war to diplomacy as an eort to appease growing
discontent.[161] Because of the Talibans leadership structure, Mullah Dadullahs assassination in May 2007 did not
have a signicant eect, other than to damage incipient
relations with Pakistan.[162]

By 2009, a strong resistance was created, known as Operation Al Faath, the Arabic word for victory taken from
Main article: Taliban insurgency
the Koran,[163][164][165] in the form of a guerrilla war. The
Before the summer 2006 oensive began, indications ex- Pashtun tribal group, with over 40 million members (in-

3.1

Massacre campaigns

cluding Afghans and Pakistanis) had a long history of resistance to occupation forces, so the Taliban may have
comprised only a part of the insurgency. Most postinvasion Taliban ghters were new recruits, mostly drawn
from local madrasas.
In December 2009, Asia Times Online reported that the
Taliban had oered to give the US legal guarantees
that it would not allow Afghanistan to be used for attacks on other countries, and that the US had given no
response.[166]
2.4.4

Targeted killings

Main article: Targeted killing

The United States has conducted targeted killings against
Taliban leaders, mainly using Special Forces, and
sometimes unmanned aerial vehicles. British forces
also used similar tactics, mostly in Helmand Province,
Afghanistan. During Operation Herrick, British special
forces assassinated at least fty high and local Taliban
commanders in targeted killings in Helmand Province,
which received both positive and negative coverage in the
British media.[167]
The Taliban also used targeted killings. In 2011 alone,
they killed notable anti-Taliban leaders, such as former
Afghan President Burhanuddin Rabbani, the police chief
in northern Afghanistan, the commander of the elite antiTaliban 303 Pamir Corps, Mohammad Daud Daud, and
the police chief of Kunduz, Abdul Rahman Saidkhaili.
All of them belonged to the Massoud faction of the
United Front. According to Guantanamo Bay charge
sheets, the United States Department of Defense believes the Taliban may maintain a 40-man undercover unit
called Jihad Kandahar, which is used for undercover
operations, including targeted killings.[168]

2.5

Goals

9
they all lead back to the [Taliban] Ministry of Defense or
to Mullah Omar himself. These are the same type of
war crimes as were committed in Bosnia and should be
prosecuted in international courts, one UN ocial was
quoted as saying. The documents also reveal the role of
Arab and Pakistani support troops in these killings. Bin
Ladens so-called 055 Brigade was responsible for masskillings of Afghan civilians. The report by the United
Nations quotes eyewitnesses in many villages describing Arab ghters carrying long knives used for slitting
throats and skinning people. The Talibans former ambassador to Pakistan, Mullah Abdul Salam Zaeef, in late
2011 stated that cruel behaviour under and by the Taliban
had been necessary.[39][44][45][170]
In 1998, the United Nations accused the Taliban of denying emergency food by the UNs World Food Programme
to 160,000 hungry and starving people for political and
military reasons.[171] The UN said the Taliban were
starving people for their military agenda and using humanitarian assistance as a weapon of war.
On August 8, 1998 the Taliban launched an attack on
Mazar-i Sharif. Of 1500 defenders only 100 survived
the engagement. Once in control the Taliban began to
kill people indiscriminately. At rst shooting people in
the street, they soon began to target Hazaras. Women
were raped, and thousands of people were locked in containers and left to suocate. This ethnic cleansing left an
estimated 5,000 to 6,000 dead. At this time ten Iranian
diplomats and a journalist were killed. Iran assumed the
Taliban had murdered them, and mobilized its army, deploying men along the border with Afghanistan. By the
middle of September there were 250,000 Iranian personnel stationed on the border. Pakistan mediated and the
bodies were returned to Tehran towards the end of the
month. The killings of the Diplomats had been carried
out by Sipah-e-Sahaba a Pakistani Sunni group with close
ties to the ISI. They burned orchards, crops and destroyed
irrigation systems, and forced more than 100,000 people
from their homes with hundreds of men, women and children still unaccounted for.[91][118][172][173][174]

In a major eort to retake the Shomali plains from

The military goals of the Taliban during the period 1995
the United Front, the Taliban indiscriminately killed
to 2001 was to return the order of Abdur Rahman (the
civilians, while uprooting and expelling the population.
Iron Emir) by the re-establishment of a state with Pashtun
Among others, Kamal Hossein, a special reporter for the
dominance within the northern areas.[169]
UN, reported on these and other war crimes. In Istalif,
which was home to more than 45,000 people, the Taliban
gave 24 hours notice to the population to leave, then com3 Human rights abuses
pletely razed the town leaving the people destitute.[48][175]

3.1

Massacre campaigns

In 1999 the town of Bamian was taken, hundreds of

men, women and children were executed. Houses were
razed and some were used for forced labor. There was
a further massacre at the town of Yakaolang in January
2001. An estimated 300 people were murdered, along
with two delegations of Hazara elders who had tried to
intercede.[3][176]

According to a 55-page report by the United Nations,

the Taliban, while trying to consolidate control over
northern and western Afghanistan, committed systematic
massacres against civilians. UN ocials stated that there
had been 15 massacres between 1996 and 2001. They
By 1999, the Taliban had forced hundreds of thousands
also said, that "[t]hese have been highly systematic and

10

HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES

of people from the Shomali Plains and other regions con- Taliban commanders freed women that were being held
ducting a policy of scorched earth burning homes, farm by Arab members of al-Qaeda in a camp.[177]
land and gardens.[48]

3.3 Oppression of women

3.2

Human tracking

Several Taliban and al-Qaeda commanders ran a network

of human tracking, abducting women and selling them
into sex slavery in Afghanistan and Pakistan.[177] Time
magazine writes: The Taliban often argued that the restrictions they placed on women were actually a way of
revering and protecting the opposite sex. The behavior
of the Taliban during the six years they expanded their
rule in Afghanistan made a mockery of that claim.[177]

Taliban religious police beating a woman in Kabul on August 26,

2001.[178]

Taliban Militia securing Air India Flight 814 at Kandahar Airport.

The targets for human tracking were especially women

from the Tajik, Uzbek, Hazara and other ethnic groups in
Afghanistan. Some women preferred to commit suicide
over slavery, killing themselves. During one Taliban and
al-Qaeda oensive in 1999 in the Shomali Plains alone,
more than 600 women were kidnapped.[177] Arab and
Pakistani al-Qaeda militants with local Taliban forces,
forced them into trucks and buses.[177] Time magazine
writes: The trail of the missing Shomali women leads
to Jalalabad, not far from the Pakistan border. There,
according to eyewitnesses, the women were penned up
inside Sar Shahi camp in the desert. The more desirable
among them were selected and taken away. Some were
trucked to Peshawar with the apparent complicity of Pakistani border guards. Others were taken to Khost, where
bin Laden had several training camps. Ocials from relief agencies say, the trail of many of the vanished women
leads to Pakistan where they were sold to brothels or into
private households to be kept as slaves.[177]
However, not all Taliban commanders engaged in human
tracking. Many Taliban were opposed to the human
tracking operations conducted by al-Qaeda and other
Taliban commanders. Nuruludah, a Taliban commander,
is quoted as saying that in the Shomali Plains, he and 10
of his men freed some women who were being abducted
by Pakistani members of al-Qaeda. In Jalalabad, local

To PHRs knowledge, no other regime

in the world has methodically and violently
forced half of its population into virtual house
arrest, prohibiting them on pain of physical
punishment.[179]
Physicians for Human Rights, 1998

The Taliban were condemned internationally for their

brutal repression of women. In 2001 Laura Bush in a radio address condemned the Talibans brutality to women.
In areas they controlled the Taliban issued edicts which
forbade women from being educated, girls were forced
to leave schools and colleges. Those who wished to leave
their home to go shopping had to be accompanied by a
male relative, and were required to wear the burqa, a traditional dress covering the entire body except for a small
screen to see out of. Those who appeared to disobey were
publicly beaten. Sohaila, a young woman who was convicted of walking with a man who was not a relative, was
charged with adultery. She was publicly ogged in Ghazi
Stadium and received 100 lashes. The religious police
routinely carried out inhumane abuse on women. Employment for women was restricted to the medical sector,
because male medical personnel were not allowed to treat
women and girls. One result of the banning of employment of women by the Taliban was the closing down in
places like Kabul of primary schools not only for girls
but for boys, because almost all the teachers there were
women. Taliban restrictions became more severe after
they took control of the capital. In February 1998, religious police forced all women o the streets of Kabul, and
issued new regulations ordering people to blacken their
windows, so that women would not be visible from the
outside.[80][180][181][182][183][184][185][186][187]

11

3.4

Terrorism against civilians

they would work with immunisation volunteers so long as

polio workers are unbiased and harmonised with the
According to the United Nations, the Taliban were re- regional conditions, Islamic values and local cultural trasponsible for 76% of civilian casualties in Afghanistan in ditions. [195][195][196][197][198][199]
2009, 75% in 2010 and 80% in 2011.[52][188]
According to Human Rights Watch, the Talibans bombings and other attacks which have led to civilian casualties 4 Ideology
sharply escalated in 2006 when at least 669 Afghan
civilians were killed in at least 350 armed attacks, most
4.1 Overview
of which appear to have been intentionally launched at
non-combatants. By 2008, the Taliban had increased its
The Taliban initially enjoyed goodwill from Afghans
use of suicide bombers and targeted unarmed civilian aid
weary of the warlords corruption, brutality, and incessant
workers, such as Gayle Williams.[189][190][191]
ghting.[200] However, this popularity was not universal,
The United Nations reported that the number of civilians particularly among non-Pashtuns.
killed by both the Taliban and pro-government forces in
The Talibans extremely strict and anti-modern ideology
the war rose nearly 50% between 2007 and 2009. The
has been described as an innovative form of sharia comhigh number of civilians killed by the Taliban is blamed
bining Pashtun tribal codes,[201] or Pashtunwali, with
in part on their increasing use of improvised explosive
radical Deobandi interpretations of Islam favored by JUI
devices (IEDs), for instance, 16 IEDs have been planted
and its splinter groups. Also contributing to the mix was
[192]
in girls schools by the Taliban.
the militant Islamism and extremist jihadism of Osama
In 2009, Colonel Richard Kemp, formerly Commander bin Laden.[202] Their ideology was a departure from the
of British forces in Afghanistan and the intelligence co- Islamism of the anti-Soviet mujahideen rulers they reordinator for the British government, drew parallels be- placed who tended to be mystical Sus, traditionalists, or
tween the tactics and strategy of Hamas in Gaza to those radical Islamicists inspired by the Muslim Brotherhood
of the Taliban. Kemp wrote:
(Ikhwan).[203]
Like Hamas in Gaza, the Taliban in
southern Afghanistan are masters at shielding
themselves behind the civilian population and
then melting in among them for protection.
Women and children are trained and equipped
to ght, collect intelligence, and ferry arms
and ammunition between battles. Female
suicide bombers are increasingly common.
The use of women to shield gunmen as they
engage NATO forces is now so normal it is
deemed barely worthy of comment. Schools
and houses are routinely booby-trapped.
Snipers shelter in houses deliberately lled
with women and children.[193][194]
Richard Kemp, Commander of British
forces in Afghanistan

Under the Taliban regime, Sharia law was interpreted

to forbid a wide variety of previously lawful activities
in Afghanistan. These prohibitions have included pork,
many types of consumer technology, alcohol, most forms
of art such as paintings or photography, and female
sport.[204] Men were forbidden to shave their beards, and
required to wear a head covering.[205]

Many of these activities were hitherto lawful in

Afghanistan. Critics complained that most Afghans followed a dierent, less strict, and less intrusive interpretation of Islam. The Taliban did not eschew all traditional
popular practices. For example, they did not destroy the
graves of Su pirs (holy men), and emphasized dreams
as a means of revelation.[206] They also frequently used
the pre-Islamic Pashtun tribal code, Pashtunwali in deciding certain social matters, which often contradicted the
Qu'ran. Such is the case with the Pashtun practice of dividing inheritances equally among sons, even though the
states that women are to receive one-half
The Taliban has often targeted health ocials that work Qur'an clearly[207][208]
a
mans
share.
to immunise children against polio due to fears of the
vaccine, including the fear that it is used to gather in- The Taliban have been described as both anti-nationalist
telligence about their organisation. Polio vaccines were and Pushtun nationalist. According to journalist Ahmed
banned in the North Waziristan region of Pakistan in June Rashid, at least in the rst years of their rule, they adopted
2012 and in December 2012, Taliban assassins killed four Deobandi and Islamist anti-nationalist beliefs, and opfemale UN polio-workers in Pakistan because they were posed tribal and feudal structures, eliminating tradithought to be spies. The Afghan government was forced tional tribal or feudal leaders from leadership roles.[209]
to suspend vaccination eorts to eliminate polio from the According to Ali A. Jalali and Lester Grau, the TalNuristan province in March 2013 because of a large Tal- iban received extensive support from Pashtuns across
iban inuence in the province. Taliban leaders changed the country who thought that the movement might retheir stance on polio vaccination in early May 2013, say- store their national dominance. Even Pashtun intellecing the vaccine is the only way to prevent polio and that tuals in the West, who diered with the Taliban on many

12

IDEOLOGY

issues, expressed support for the movement on purely eth- 4.3 Explanation of ideology
nic grounds.[210]
The author Ahmed Rashid suggests that the devastation
Like Wahhabi and other Deobandis, the Taliban do not
and hardship of the Soviet invasion and the following peconsider Shii to be Muslims. The Shia in Afghanistan
riod inuenced Taliban ideology.[216] It is said that the
consist mostly of the Hazara ethnic group which totaled
Taliban did not include scholars learned in Islamic law
almost 10% of Afghanistans population.[211]
and history. The refugee students, brought up in a totally
The Taliban were averse to debating doctrine with other male society, not only had no education in mathematics,
Muslims. The Taliban did not allow even Muslim re- science, history or geography, but also had no traditional
porters to question [their] edicts or to discuss interpreta- skills of farming, herding, or handicraft-making, nor even
tions of the Qur'an.[212]
knowledge of their tribal and clan lineages.[216] In such an
The Taliban strictly enforced its ideology in major cities environment, war meant employment, peace meant unlike Herat, Kabul, and Kandahar. In rural areas the Tal- employment. Dominating women simply armed maniban had little direct control, and promoted village jirgas, hood. For their leadership, rigid fundamentalism was a
so it did not enforce its ideology as stringently in rural matter not only of principle, but also of political survival.
Taliban leaders repeatedly told Rashid that if they gave
areas.[213]
women greater freedom or a chance to go to school, they
would lose the support of their rank and le.[217]

4.2

Bamyan Buddhas

In 1999, Mullah Omar issued a decree protecting the

Buddha statues at Bamyan, two 6th-century monumental statues of standing buddhas carved into the side of a
cli in the Bamyan valley in the Hazarajat region of central Afghanistan. He did this because Afghanistan had
no Buddhists, so idolatry would not be a problem. But in
March 2001, the statues were destroyed by the Taliban of
Mullah Omar, following a decree stating: all the statues
around Afghanistan must be destroyed.[214]
Yahya Massoud, brother of the anti-Taliban and resistance leader Ahmad Shah Massoud, recalls the followNovember 1999 public execution in Kabul of a mother of ve
ing incident after the destruction of the Buddha statues
who was found guilty of killing her husband with an axe while
at Bamyan:
he slept.[218][219][220]
It was the spring of 2001. I was in
Afghanistans Panjshir Valley, together with
my brother Ahmad Shah Massoud, the leader
of the Afghan resistance against the Taliban,
and Bismillah Khan, who currently serves as
Afghanistans interior minister. One of our
commanders, Commandant Momin, wanted us
to see 30 Taliban ghters who had been taken
hostage after a gun battle. My brother agreed
to meet them.
I remember that his rst question concerned the centuries-old Buddha statues that
were dynamited by the Taliban in March of that
year, shortly before our encounter. Two Taliban combatants from Kandahar condently
responded that worshiping anything outside
of Islam was unacceptable and that therefore
these statues had to be destroyed. My brother
looked at them and said, this time in Pashto,
'There are still many sun- worshippers in this
country. Will you also try to get rid of the sun
and drop darkness over the Earth?'"'[215]

4.4 Criticisms
The Taliban were criticized for their strictness toward
those who disobeyed their imposed rules. Many Muslims complained that most Taliban rules had no basis in
the Qur'an or sharia. Mullah Omar's title as Amir alMu'minin was criticized on the grounds that he lacked
scholarly learning, tribal pedigree, or connections to the
Prophets family. Sanction for the title traditionally required the support of all of the countrys ulema, whereas
only some 1,200 Pashtun Taliban-supporting Mullahs had
declared Omar the Amir. No Afghan had adopted the
title since 1834, when King Dost Mohammed Khan assumed the title before he declared jihad against the Sikh
kingdom in Peshawar. But Dost Mohammed was ghting
foreigners, while Omar had declared jihad against other
Afghans.[221]
Another criticism was that the Taliban called their 20%
tax on truckloads of opium "zakat", which is traditionally
limited to 2.5% of the zakat-payers disposable income
(or wealth).[221]

5.2

Organization

13

Extremism within Islam goes back to the 7th century

right. We want to recreate the time of the
to the Kharijites. From their essentially political posiProphet, and we are only carrying out what
tion, they developed extreme doctrines that set them apart
the Afghan people have wanted for the past 14
from both mainstream Sunni and Shia Muslims. The
years.[227]
Kharijites were particularly noted for adopting a radical
approach to Takr, whereby they declared other Muslims They modeled their decision-making process on the Pashto be unbelievers and therefore deemed them worthy of tun tribal council (jirga), together with what they believed
death.[222][223][224]
to be the early Islamic model. Discussion was followed by
a building of a consensus by the believers.[228] Before
capturing Kabul, there was talk of stepping aside once a
government of good Muslims took power, and law and
5 Governance
order were restored.

5.1

Overview

See also: List of Taliban Leaders

The Taliban, de jure, controlled 85% of Afghanistan.
De facto the areas under its direct control were mainly
Afghanistans major cities and highways. Tribal khans
and warlords had de facto direct control over various
small towns, villages, and rural areas.[225]

As the Talibans power grew, decisions were made by

Mullah Omar without consulting the jirga and without
consulting other parts of the country. He visited the capital, Kabul, only twice while in power. Instead of an election, their leaders legitimacy came from an oath of allegiance ("Bay'ah"), in imitation of the Prophet and the rst
four Caliphs. On April 4, 1996, Mullah Omar had the
Cloak of the Prophet Mohammed taken from its shrine
for the rst time in 60 years. Wrapping himself in the
relic, he appeared on the roof of a building in the center
of Kandahar while hundreds of Pashtun mullahs below
shouted "Amir al-Mu'minin!" (Commander of the Faithful), in a pledge of support. Taliban spokesman Mullah
Wakil explained:
Decisions are based on the advice of the
Amir-ul Momineen. For us consultation is not
necessary. We believe that this is in line with
the Sharia. We abide by the Amirs view even
if he alone takes this view. There will not be
a head of state. Instead there will be an Amir
al-Mu'minin. Mullah Omar will be the highest
authority, and the government will not be able
to implement any decision to which he does not
agree. General elections are incompatible with
Sharia and therefore we reject them.[229]

The Taliban were very reluctant to share power, and

since their ranks were overwhelmingly Pashtun they ruled
as overlords over the 60% of Afghans from other ethnic groups. In local government, such as Kabul city
council[226] or Herat,[230] Taliban loyalists, not locals,
dominated, even when the Pashto-speaking Taliban could
not communicate with the roughly half of the population
Taliban police patrolling the streets of Herat in a pickup truck
who spoke Dari or other non-Pashtun tongues.[230] Critics complained that this lack of local representation in
Rashid described the Taliban government as a secret so- urban administration made the Taliban appear as an occiety run by Kandaharis ... mysterious, secretive, and cupying force.[231]
dictatorial.[226] They did not hold elections, as their
spokesman explained:

5.2 Organization
The Sharia does not allow politics or political parties. That is why we give no salaries to
ocials or soldiers, just food, clothes, shoes,
and weapons. We want to live a life like the
Prophet lived 1400 years ago, and jihad is our

Consistent with the governance of early Muslims was the

absence of state institutions or a methodology for command and control that is standard today even among nonWesternized states. The Taliban did not issue press re-

14

6 ECONOMY
1998 had control of the major airports and border crossings which allowed them to establish a monopoly on all
trade. By 2001 the per capita income of the 25 million
population was under $200, and the country was close
to total economic collapse. As of 2007 the economy
had begun to recover, with estimated foreign reserves
of three billion dollars and a 13% increase in economic
growth.[110][185][235][236][236][237][238]

Afghan Taliban ghters at a training camp in the eastern Afghan

province of Paktia.

leases, policy statements, or hold regular press conferences. The outside world and most Afghans did not even
know what their leaders looked like, since photography
was banned.[232] The regular army resembled a lashkar
or traditional tribal militia force with only 25,000 men (of
whom 11,000 were non-Afghans).
Cabinet ministers and deputies were mullahs with a
"madrasah education. Several of them, such as the Minister of Health and Governor of the State bank, were primarily military commanders who left their administrative posts to ght when needed. Military reverses that
trapped them behind lines or led to their deaths increased
the chaos in the national administration.[233] At the national level, all senior Tajik, Uzbek and Hazara bureaucrats were replaced with Pashtuns, whether qualied or
not. Consequently, the ministries by and large ceased
to function.[231]

Opium in Taliban safehouse in Helmand

Under the Transit treaty between Afghanistan and Pakistan a massive network for smuggling developed. It had
an estimated turnover of 2.5 billion dollars with the Taliban receiving between $100 and $130 million per year.
These operations along with the trade from the Golden
Crescent nanced the war in Afghanistan and also had
the side eect of destroying start up industries in Pakistan. Ahmed Rashid also explained that the Afghan
the largest ofThe Ministry of Finance had neither a budget nor qual- Transit Trade agreed on by Pakistan was [239][240][241]
cial
source
of
revenue
for
the
Taliban.
ied economist or banker. Mullah Omar collected and
dispersed cash without bookkeeping.
Between 1996 and 1999 Mullah Omar reversed his opinions on the drug trade, apparently as it only harmed kars.
The Taliban controlled 96% of Afghanistans poppy elds
5.3 Conscription
and made opium its largest source of taxation. Taxes on
opium exports became one of the mainstays of Taliban
Main article: Taliban conscription
income and their war economy. According to Rashid,
drug money funded the weapons, ammunition and fuel
According to the testimony of Guantanamo captives be- for the war. In the New York Times, the Finance Minister
fore their Combatant Status Review Tribunals, the Tal- of the United Front, Wahidullah Sabawoon, declared the
iban, in addition to conscripting men to serve as soldiers, Taliban had no annual budget but that they appeared to
spend US$300 million a year, nearly all of it on war. He
also conscripted men to sta its civil service.[234]
added that the Taliban had come to increasingly rely on
three sources of money: poppy, the Pakistanis and bin
Laden.[241]

Economy

See also: Economy of Afghanistan

The Kabul money markets responded positively during
the rst weeks of the Taliban occupation. But the Afghani
soon fell in value. They imposed a 50% tax on any
company operating in the country, and those who failed
to pay were attacked. They also imposed a 6% import tax on anything brought into the country, and by

In an economic sense it seems however he had little

choice, as the war of attrition continued with the Northern Alliance the income from continued opium production was all that prevented the country from starvation.
By 2000 Afghanistan accounted for an estimated 75%
of the worlds supply and in 2000 grew an estimated
3276 tonnes of opium from poppy cultivation on 82,171
hectares. At this juncture Omar passed a decree banning the cultivation of opium, and production dropped
to an estimated 74 metric tonnes from poppy cultivation

7.1

Pakistan

on 1,685 hectares. Many observers say the ban - which

came in a bid for international recognition at the United
Nations - was only issued in order to raise opium prices
and increase prot from the sale of large existing stockpiles. The year 1999 had yielded a record crop and had
been followed by a lower but still large 2000 harvest. The
tracking of accumulated stocks by the Taliban continued in 2000 and 2001. In 2002, the UN mentioned the
existence of signicant stocks of opiated accumulated
during previous years of bumper harvests. In September 2001 before the 11 September attacks against the
United States the Taliban allegedly authorized Afghan
peasants to sow opium again.[241][242][243][244]
There was also an environmental toll to the country,
heavy deforestation from the illegal trade in timber with
hundreds of acres of pine and cedar forests in Kunar
Province and Paktya being cleared. Throughout the country millions of acres were denuded to supply timber to
the Pakistani markets, with no attempt made at reforestation, which has led to signicant environmental damage.
By 2001, when the Afghan Interim Administration took
power the countrys infrastructure was in ruins, Telecommunications had failed, the road network was destroyed
and Ministry of Finance buildings were in such a state of
disrepair some were on the verge of collapse. On July
6, 1999 former president Bill Clinton signed into eect
executive order 13129. This order implemented a complete ban on any trade between America and the Taliban
regime and on August 10 they froze 5000,000 in Ariana assets. On December 19, 2000 UN resolution 1333
was passed. It called for all assets to be frozen and for all
states to close any oces belonging to the Taliban. This
included the oces of Ariana Afghan Airlines. In 1999
the UN had passed resolution 1267 which had banned
all international ights by Ariana apart from preapproved
humanitarian missions.[245][246][247][248][249][250][251][252]

International relations

During its time in power, the Taliban regime, or Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan, gained diplomatic recognition from only three states: the United Arab Emirates,
Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia, all of which provided substantial aid. The other nations including the United Nations recognized the government of the Islamic State of
Afghanistan (parts of whom were part of the United
Front (Northern Alliance) as the legitimate government
of Afghanistan.

7.1

Pakistan

Main article: Quetta Shura

The vast majority of the Talibans rank and le and
most of the leadership, though not Mullah Omar, were

15
Koranic students who had studied at madrasas set up
for Afghan refugees, usually by JUI. Maulana Fazal-urRehman, JUIs leader, was a political ally of Benazir
Bhutto. After Bhutto became prime minister, Rehman
had access to the government, the army and the ISI,
whom he inuenced to help the Taliban.[253]
Pakistans ISI supported the previously unknown Kandahari student movement, the Taliban, as the group conquered Afghanistan in the 1990s.[254][255][256]
Human Rights Watch writes, Pakistani aircraft assisted
with troop rotations of Taliban forces during combat operations in late 2000 and ... senior members of Pakistans intelligence agency and army were involved in
planning military operations.[257] Pakistan provided military equipment, recruiting assistance, training, and tactical advice.[258] Ocially Pakistan denied supporting the
Taliban militarily.
Author Ahmed Rashid claims that the Taliban had unprecedented access among Pakistans lobbies and interest groups. He also writes that they at times were able to
play o one lobby against another and extend their inuence in Pakistan even further.[259] By 199899, Talibanstyle groups in Pakistans Pashtun belt, and to an extent in
Pakistan-administered Kashmir, were banning TV and
videos ... and forcing people, particularly women, to
adapt to the Taliban dress code and way of life.[260]
After the attacks of September 11, 2001, and the U.S.
operation in Afghanistan the Afghan Taliban leadership
is claimed to have ed to Pakistan where they regrouped
and created several shuras to coordinate their insurgency
in Afghanistan. On February 8, 2009, U.S. commander
of operations in Afghanistan General Stanley McChrystal and other ocials said that the Taliban leadership was
in Quetta, Pakistan, though the Pakistani government, an
ocial U.S. ally, denied this.[261]
A range of ocials inside and outside Pakistan have
stepped up suggestions of links between the ISI and terrorist groups in recent years. In fall 2006, a leaked report by a British Defense Ministry think tank charged,
Indirectly Pakistan (through the ISI) has been supporting terrorism and extremism--whether in London on 7/7
[the July 2005 attacks on Londons transit system], or in
Afghanistan, or Iraq. In June 2008, Afghan ocials accused Pakistans intelligence service of plotting a failed
assassination attempt on President Hamid Karzai; shortly
thereafter, they implied the ISIs involvement in a July
2008 Taliban attack on the Indian embassy. Indian ocials also blamed the ISI for the bombing of the Indian
embassy. Numerous U.S. ocials have also accused the
ISI of supporting terrorist groups including the Afghan
Taliban. U.S. Defense Secretary Robert Gates said to
a certain extent, they play both sides. Gates and others suggest the ISI maintains links with groups like the
Afghan Taliban as a strategic hedge to help Islamabad
gain inuence in Kabul once U.S. troops exit the region.
U.S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Sta Admiral Mike

16
Mullen in 2011 called the Haqqani network (the Afghan
Talibans most destructive element) a veritable arm of
Pakistans ISI. He further stated, Extremist organizations serving as proxies of the government of Pakistan
are attacking Afghan troops and civilians as well as US
soldiers. [36][36][262]

7 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS
and 2 bomb making factories of terrorists were destroyed in North Waziristan Agency as the operation
continues.[272][273][274]

7.2 Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan (Pakistani

Taliban)
From 2010, a report by a leading British institution also
claimed that Pakistans intelligence service still today has
a strong link with the Taliban in Afghanistan. Published
by the London School of Economics, the report said that
Pakistans Inter-Services Intelligence agency (ISI) has an
ocial policy of support for the Taliban. It said the ISI
provides funding and training for the Taliban, and that
the agency has representatives on the so-called Quetta
Shura, the Talibans leadership council. It is alleged that
the Quetta Shura is exiled in Quetta. The report, based
on interviews with Taliban commanders in Afghanistan,
was written by Matt Waldman, a fellow at Harvard University.[261][263][264]

Main articles: Islamic Emirate of Waziristan, War in

North-West Pakistan, Battle of Wana and Tehrik-iTaliban Pakistan

Before the creation of the Tehrik-i-Taliban (Pakistan),

some of their leaders and ghters were part of the 8,000
Pakistani militants ghting in the War in Afghanistan
(1996-2001) and the War in Afghanistan (2001-present)
against the United Islamic Front and NATO forces.[39]
Most of them hail from the Pakistani side of the Af-Pak
border regions. After the fall of the Afghan Taliban in
late 2001 most Pakistani militants including members of
Pakistan appears to be playing a double-game of astodays TTP ed home to Pakistan.
tonishing magnitude, the report said. The report also
linked high-level members of the Pakistani government After the creation of the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan in
with the Taliban. It said Asif Ali Zardari, the Pakistani 2007, headed by Baitullah Mehsud, its members have ofpresident, met with senior Taliban prisoners in 2010 and cially dened goals to establish their rule over Pakistans
promised to release them. Zardari reportedly told the Federally Administered Tribal Areas. They engage the
detainees they were only arrested because of American Pakistani army in heavy combat operations. Some intelpressure. The Pakistan governments apparent duplicity ligence analysts believe that the TTPs attacks on the Pak and awareness of it among the American public and po- istani government, police and army strained the TTPs relitical establishment could have enormous geopolitical lations with the Afghan Taliban.[275][276][277]
implications, Waldman said. Without a change in Pak- The Afghan Taliban and the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan
istani behaviour it will be dicult if not impossible for dier greatly in their history, leadership and goals alinternational forces and the Afghan government to make though they share a common interpretation of Islam and
progress against the insurgency. Afghan ocials have are both predominantly Pashtun.[276] The Afghan Taliban
long been suspicious of the ISIs role. Amrullah Saleh, have no aliation with the Tehrik-i-Taliban Pakistan and
the former director of Afghanistans intelligence service, routinely deny any connection to the TTP. The New York
told Reuters that the ISI was part of a landscape of de- Times quoted a spokesman for the Afghan Taliban stating
struction in this country.[265]
that:
Pakistan on the other hand has strongly denied all links
with Taliban or any terrorist groups with the argument
that Pakistan is the biggest victim of the War on terror
with a loss of 35,000 lives including policemen, soldiers
and mostly civilians. Pakistans military ocials called
such allegations highly biased and factually inaccurate.
The military spokesperson said that not a single bullet or
nancial support had been given to Taliban. Pakistans
foreign minister further claried that if Pakistan had recruited some people for intelligence purposes, it did not
mean that Pakistan supported them. United States along
with the accusations of supporting Taliban has also called
Pakistan as an indispensable ally. Pakistan has also reportedly warned United States that it may lose a key ally
due to such accusations.[266][267][268][269][270][271]
On June 15, 2014 Pakistan army launches operation
Zarb-e-Azb in North Waziristan to remove and rootout Taliban from Pakistan. In this operation 327
hardcore terrorists had been killed while 45 hideouts

We don't like to be involved with them, as

we have rejected all aliation with Pakistani
Taliban ghters ... We have sympathy for them
as Muslims, but beside that, there is nothing
else between us.[278]
It is alleged that Afghan Taliban relied on support by the
Pakistani army in the past and are still supported by them
today in their campaign to control Afghanistan. Regular Pakistani army troops fought alongside the Afghan
Taliban in the War in Afghanistan (19962001). Major leaders of the Afghan Taliban including Mullah
Omar, Jalaluddin Haqqani and Siraj Haqqani are believed to enjoy safe haven in Pakistan. In 2006 Jalaluddin
Haqqani was allegedly called a 'Pakistani asset' by a senior ocial of Inter-Services Intelligence. Pakistan denies any links with Haqqani or other terrorist groups.
Haqqani himself has denied any links with Pakistan as
well.[40][41][76][279][280][281][282][283]

7.4

al-Qaeda

17

Afghan Taliban leader Mullah Omar asked the Tehriki-Taliban Pakistan in late 2008 and early 2009 to stop
attacks inside Pakistan, to change their focus as an organization and to ght the Afghan National Army and
ISAF forces in Afghanistan instead. In late December
2008 and early January 2009 he sent a delegation, led by
former Guantanamo Bay detainee Mullah Abdullah Zakir, to persuade leading members of the TTP to put aside
dierences with Pakistan.[278]
Some regional experts state the common name Taliban
may be more misleading than illuminating.[276] Gilles
Dorronsoro, a scholar of South Asia currently at the
Carnegie Endowment for International Peace in Wash- Pakistani journalist Hamid Mir interviewing al-Qaeda leader
Osama bin Laden in Afghanistan, November 2001.
ington says:
The fact that they have the same name
causes all kinds of confusion.[276]

The so-called Brigade 055 was also responsible for massacres against civilians in other parts of Afghanistan.[39]
As the Pakistani Army began oensives against the Pak- From 1996 to 2001, the organization of Osama Bin
istani Taliban, many unfamiliar with the region thought Laden and Ayman al-Zawahiri had become a virtual state
incorrectly that the assault was against the Afghan Tal- within the Taliban state.
iban of Mullah Omar which was not the case.[276]
Taliban-al-Qaeda connections were also strengthened by
The Pakistani Taliban were put under sanctions by U.N. the reported marriage of one of bin Ladens sons to
Security Council for terrorists attacks in Pakistan and the Omars daughter. While in Afghanistan, bin Laden may
2010 Times Square car bombing attempt.[277]
have helped nance the Taliban.[288][289]

7.3

Malakand Taliban

Malakand Taliban is a militant outt led by Su Muhammad and his son in law Molvi Fazalullah. Su Muhammad is in Pakistani government custody, however, Molvi
Fazalullah is believed to be in Afghanistan. In the last
week of May 2011, eight security personnel and civilians
fell victim to four hundred armed Taliban who attacked
Shaltalo check post in Dir, a frontier District of Khyber
Pakhtunkhwa, located few kilometers away from Afghan
border. Although, they have been linked with Waziristanbased Tehreek-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), the connection
between these two groups was of symbolic nature.[284]

7.4

After the 1998 U.S. embassy bombings in Africa, bin

Laden and several al-Qaeda members were indicted in
U.S. criminal court. The Taliban rejected extradition requests by the U.S., variously claiming that bin Laden had
gone missing, or that Washington cannot provide any
evidence or any proof that bin Laden is involved in terrorist activities and that without any evidence, bin Laden
is a man without sin... he is a free man. [290][291][292][293]
Evidence against bin Laden included courtroom testimony and satellite phone records. Bin Laden in turn,
praised the Taliban as the only Islamic government in
existence, and lauded Mullah Omar for his destruction of
idols such as the Buddhas of Bamyan.[294][295][296]
At the end of 2008, the Taliban was in talks to sever all
ties with al-Qaeda.[297]

al-Qaeda

In 2011, Alex Strick van Linschoten and Felix Kuehn at

New York Universitys Center on International CooperaIn 1996, bin Laden moved to Afghanistan from Sudan. tion claimed that the two groups did not get along at times
He came without invitation, and sometimes irritated Mul- before the September 11 attacks, and they have continued
lah Omar with his declaration of war and fatwas against to ght since on account of their dierences.[298]
citizens of third-party countries, but relations between the In July 2012, an anonymous senior-ranking Taliban comtwo groups improved over time, to the point that Mullah mander stated that Our people consider al-Qaeda to be
Omar rebued his groups patron Saudi Arabia, insulting a plague that was sent down to us by the heavens. Some
Saudi minister Prince Turki while reneging on an earlier even concluded that al-Qaeda are actually the spies of
promise to turn bin Laden over to the Saudis.[285][286]
America. Originally, the Taliban were naive and ignoBin Laden was able to forge an alliance between the Taliban and al-Qaeda. The al-Qaeda-trained 055 Brigade integrated with the Taliban army between 1997 and 2001.
Several hundred Arab Afghan ghters sent by bin Laden
assisted the Taliban in the Mazar-e-Sharif slaughter.[287]

rant of politics and welcomed al-Qaeda into their homes.

But al-Qaeda abused our hospitality. He went on to further claim that about 70% of the Taliban are angry with
al-Qaeda, revealing the icy relationship between the two
groups.[299][300]

18

7.5

7 INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS

Iran

Iran has historically been an enemy of the Taliban. In

early August 1998, after attacking the city of Mazar,
Taliban forces killed several thousand civilians and 10
Iranian diplomats and intelligence ocers in the Iranian consulate. Alleged radio intercepts indicate Mullah Omar personally approved the killings.[301] In the following crisis between Iran and the Taliban, the Iranian
government amassed up to 200,000 regular troops on the
Afghan-Iranian border.[302] War was eventually averted.

U.S. responded by launching cruise missiles on suspected

terrorist camps in Afghanistan, killing over 20 though
failing to kill bin Laden or even many Al-Qaeda. Mullah Omar condemned the missile attack and American
President Bill Clinton. Saudi Arabia expelled the Taliban envoy in protest over the refusal to turn over bin
Laden, and after Mullah Omar allegedly insulted the
Saudi royal family.In mid-October the U.N. Security
Council voted unanimously to ban commercial aircraft
ights to and from Afghanistan, and freeze its bank accounts worldwide.[311][312][313]

Many U.S. senior military ocials such as Robert

Gates,[303] Stanley McChrystal,[304] David Petraeus[305]
and others believe that Irans Islamic Revolutionary
Guard Corps nowadays is involved in helping the Taliban
to a certain extent. Reports in which NATO states accused Iran of supplying and training some Taliban insurgents started coming forward since 2004/2005.
We did interdict a shipment, without
question the Revolutionary Guard's core Quds
Force, through a known Taliban facilitator.
Three of the individuals were killed... 48
122 millimetre rockets were intercepted with
their various components... Iranians certainly
view as making life more dicult for us
if Afghanistan is unstable. We don't have
that kind of relationship with the Iranians.
Thats why I am particularly troubled by the
interception of weapons coming from Iran.
But we know that its more than weapons; its
money; its also according to some reports,
training at Iranian camps as well.[306]
General David Petraeus, Commander of
US-NATO forces in Afghanistan, March 16,
2011

7.6

United States

The United States never recognized the Taliban government in Afghanistan. However, Ahmed Rashid states that
the U.S. indirectly supported the Taliban through its ally
in Pakistan between 1994 and 1996 because Washington viewed the Taliban as anti-Iranian, anti-Shia and proWestern. Washington furthermore hoped that the Taliban
would support development planned by the U.S.-based
oil company Unocal. For example, it made no comment
when the Taliban captured Herat in 1995, and expelled
thousands of girls from schools. In late 1997, American
Secretary of State Madeleine Albright began to distance
the U.S. from the Taliban, and the American-based oil
company Unocal withdrew from negotiations on pipeline
construction from Central Asia.[307][308][309][310]

US soldiers burn a suspected Taliban safehouse.

Adjusting its counterinsurgency strategy, in October

2009, the U.S announced plans to pay Taliban ghters
to switch sides.[314]
On November 26, 2009, in an interview with CNN's
Christiane Amanpour, President Hamid Karzai said there
is an urgent need for negotiations with the Taliban,
and made it clear that the Obama administration had
opposed such talks. There was no formal American
response.[315][316]

In December 2009, Asian Times Online reported that the

Taliban had oered to give the US legal guarantees that
they would not allow Afghanistan to be used for attacks on
other countries, and that there had been no formal Amer[166]
One day before the August 1998 capture of Mazar, bin ican response.
Laden aliates bombed two U.S. embassies in Africa, On December 6, U.S ocials indicated that they have not
killing 224 and wounding 4,500, mostly Africans. The ruled out talks with the Taliban. Several days later it was

7.9

United Nations and NGOs

19

reported that Gates saw potential for reconciliation with

the Taliban, but not with Al-Qaeda. Furthermore, he said
that reconciliation would politically end the insurgency
and the war. But he said reconciliation must be on the
Afghan governments terms, and that the Taliban must be
subject to the sovereignty of the government.[317][318]

Following the hijacking, India drastically increased its

eorts to help Massoud, providing an arms depot in
Dushanbe, Tajikistan. India also provided a wide range
of high-altitude warfare equipment, helicopter technicians, medical services, and tactical advice. According to
one report, Indian military support to anti-Taliban forces
In 2010, General McChrystal said his troop surge could totaled US$70 million, including ve Mil Mi-17 helicopters, and US$8 million worth of high-altitude equiplead to a negotiated peace with the Taliban.[319]
ment in 2001. India extensively supported the new administration in Afghanistan, leading several reconstruction projects and by 2001 had emerged as the countrys
7.7 United Kingdom
largest regional donor.[331][332][333][334][335][336]
After the 9/11 attacks, the United Kingdom froze the
Talibans assets in the U.K., nearly $200 million by
early October 2001. The U.K. also supported the U.S.
decision to remove the Taliban, both politically and
militarily.[320][321]
The UN agreed that NATO would act on its behalf, focusing on counter-terrorist operations in Afghanistan after
the Taliban had been defeated. The United Kingdom
took operational responsibility for Helmand Province, a
major poppy-growing province in southern Afghanistan,
deploying troops there in the summer of 2006, and
encountered resistance by re-formed Taliban forces allegedly entering Afghanistan from Pakistan. The Taliban turned towards the use of improvised explosive devices.[322]

In the wake of recent terrorist attacks in India, there have

been growing concerns about fundamentalist organisations such as the Taliban seeking to expand their activities into India. During the 2011 ICC Cricket World Cup
which was co-hosted in India, Pakistani Interior Minister Rehman Malik and Interpol chief Ronald Noble revealed that a terrorist bid to disrupt the tournament had
been foiled; following a conference with Noble, Malik
said that the Taliban had begun to base their activities in
India with reports from neighboring countries exposing
their activities in the country and a Sri Lankan terrorist
planning to target cricketers was arrested in Colombo. In
2009, the Times of India called for India to reassess its
Taliban threat.[337][338][339][340]

During 2008 the United Kingdom announced plans to pay 7.9 United Nations and NGOs
Taliban ghters to switch sides or lay down arms; the proceeding year the U.K. government supported negotiations A major issue during the Talibans reign was its relations
with the United Nations (UN) and non-governmental orwith the Taliban.[323][324]
ganizations (NGOs). Twenty years of continuous warfare
had devastated Afghanistans infrastructure and econ7.8 India
omy. There was no running water, little electricity,
few telephones, functioning roads or regular energy supIndia is one of the Talibans most outspoken critics. India plies. Basic necessities like water, food, housing and
did not recognize the Taliban regime in Afghanistan and others were in desperately short supply. In addition,
instead maintained close strategic and military ties with the clan and family structure that provided Afghans with
the Northern Alliance so as to contain the rise of Tal- a social/economic safety net was also badly damaged.
iban during the 1990s. India was one of the closest allies Afghanistans infant mortality was the highest in the
of former Afghan president Mohammad Najibullah and world. A full quarter of all children died before they
strongly condemned his public execution by the Taliban. reached their fth birthday, a rate several times higher
Pakistan and Kashmir-based militant groups thought to than most other developing countries.[212][341][342]
have ties with the Taliban have historically been involved International charitable and/or development organisain the Kashmir insurgency targeted against Indian secu- tions (NGOs) were extremely important to the supply
rity forces.[325][326][327][328]
of food, employment, reconstruction, and other services.
In December 1999, Indian Airlines Flight 814 en route
from Kathmandu to Delhi was hijacked and taken to
Kandahar. The Taliban moved its militias near the
hijacked aircraft, supposedly to prevent Indian special
forces from storming the aircraft, and stalled the negotiations between India and the hijackers for days. The
New York Times later reported that there were credible
links between the hijackers and the Taliban. As a part of
the deal to free the plane, India released three militants.
The Taliban gave a safe passage to the hijackers and the
released militants.[329][330]

With one million plus deaths during the years of war,

the number of families headed by widows had reached
98,000 by 1998. Thus Taliban restrictions on women
were sometime a matter not only of human rights, but
of life and death. In Kabul, where vast portions of the
city had been devastated from rocket attacks, more than
half of its 1.2 million people beneted in some way from
NGO activities, even for water to drink. The civil war
and its never-ending refugee stream continued throughout the Talibans reign. The Mazar, Herat, and Shomali
valley oensives displaced more than three-quarters of a

20

10

REFERENCES

million civilians, using "scorched earth" tactics to prevent announced support for President Karzais latest attempt
them from supplying the enemy with aid.[343][344][345]
to negotiate peace with the Taliban.[352][353][354][355]
Despite the aid, the Talibans attitude toward the UN
and NGOs was often one of suspicion, in place of gratitude or even tolerance. The UN operates on the basis of international law, not Sharia, and the UN did not
recognize the Taliban as the legitimate government of
Afghanistan. Additionally, most foreign donors and aid
workers, were non-Muslims. As the Talibans Attorney
General Maulvi Jalil-ullah Maulvizada put it:
Let us state what sort of education the
UN wants. This is a big indel policy which
gives such obscene freedom to women which
would lead to adultery and herald the destruction of Islam. In any Islamic country where
adultery becomes common, that country is destroyed and enters the domination of the indels because their men become like women
and women cannot defend themselves. Anyone who talks to us should do so within Islams
framework. The Holy Koran cannot adjust
itself to other peoples requirements, people
should adjust themselves to the requirements
of the Holy Koran.[346]
Taliban decision-makers, particularly Mullah Omar, seldom if ever talked directly to non-Muslim foreigners, so
aid providers had to deal with intermediaries whose approvals and agreements were often reversed.[231] Around
September 1997 the heads of three UN agencies in Kandahar were expelled from the country after protesting
when a female attorney for the UN High Commissioner
for Refugees was forced to talk from behind a curtain so
her face would not be visible.[347]
When the UN increased the number of Muslim women
sta to satisfy Taliban demands, the Taliban then
required all female Muslim UN sta traveling to
Afghanistan to be chaperoned by a mahram or a blood
relative.[348] In July 1998, the Taliban closed all NGO
oces by force after those organizations refused to
move to a bombed-out former Polytechnic College as
ordered.[349] One month later the UN oces were also
shut down.[350] As food prices rose and conditions deteriorated, Planning Minister Qari Din Mohammed explained the Talibans indierence to the loss of humanitarian aid:
We Muslims believe God the Almighty will
feed everybody one way or another. If the foreign NGOs leave then it is their decision. We
have not expelled them.[351]
In 2009, a top U.N ocial called for talks with Taliban
leaders. In 2010, the U.N lifted sanctions on the Taliban,
and requested that Taliban leaders and others be removed
from terrorism watch lists. In 2010 the U.S. and Europe

8 See also
Colonel Imam
History of Afghanistan (1992present)
Opium production in Afghanistan
Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs
Taliban propaganda
Talibanization
United Nations Oce on Drugs and Crime
List of Taliban Leaders

9 Bibliography
Griths, John C. (2001), Afghanistan: A History of
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Rashid, Ahmed (2000), Taliban: Militant Islam, Oil
and Fundamentalism in Central Asia, New Haven:
Yale University Press, ISBN 0-300-08340-8

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[1] http://www.digitaljournal.com/article/347009 To rule
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[2] Deobandi Islam: The Religion of the Taliban U. S. Navy
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[3] Maley, William (2001).
Fundamentalism Reborn?
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978-1-85065-360-8.
[4] http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/print/opr/t236/
e0895The Talibans primary religious and ideological
inuence is a form of Deoband Islam.
[5] Rashid, Taliban (2000)
[6] Why are Customary Pashtun Laws and Ethics Causes for
Concern? | Center for Strategic and International Studies. Csis.org. 2010-10-19. Retrieved 2014-08-18.
[7] Understanding taliban through the prism of Pashtunwali
code. CF2R. 2013-11-30. Retrieved 2014-08-18.
[8] Afghan Taliban. National Counterterrorism Center. Retrieved 7 April 2015.

21
Mullah Omar: Taliban choose deputy Mansour as
successor, BBC News, July 30, 2015

[9] Giustozzi, Antonio (2009). Decoding the new Taliban: insights from the Afghan eld. Columbia University Press.
p. 249. ISBN 978-0-231-70112-9.
[10] Clements, Frank A. (2003). Conict in Afghanistan: An
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[12] Taliban and the Northern Alliance.
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US Gov Info.

[13] 9/11 seven years later: US 'safe,' South Asia in turmoil There are now some 62,000 foreign soldiers in
Afghanistan, including 34,000 US troops, and some
150,000 Afghan security forces. They face an estimated
7,000 to 11,000 insurgents, according to US commanders.
Retrieved 2010-08-24.
[14] Hamilton, Fiona; Coates, Sam; Savage, Michael (201003-03). MajorGeneral Richard Barrons puts Taleban
ghter numbers at 36000. The Times (London).
[15] Despite Massive Taliban Death Toll No Drop in Insurgency. Voice of America. Akmal Dawi. Retrieved 201407-17.
[16] Giustozzi, Antonio (2009). Decoding the new Taliban: insights from the Afghan eld. Columbia University Press.
p. 274. ISBN 978-0-231-70112-9.
[17] Pakistan militants preparing for Afghanistan civil war.
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[18] Afghan militant ghters 'may join Islamic State'". BBC.
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[21] ISIS reportedly moves into Afghanistan, is even ghting
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[22] ISIS, Taliban announced Jihad against each other.
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[23] Taliban leader: allegiance to ISIS haram". Rudaw. 13
April 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2015.
[24] Afghanistans warlord vice-president spoiling for a ght
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[25] Ibrahimi, Niamatullah. 2009. Divide and Rule: State
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[26]

Analysis: Who are the Taleban?". BBC News.

2000-12-20.
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2010-08-27.

[27] Barnett Rubin. article. published by the Center on International Cooperation Nov 02, 2015 (originally published
within Al Jazeera). Retrieved 2015-11-11.("...The Taliban ... have repeatedly said that their jihad is limited to
their own country...)
[28] J. Eggers - published by RAND Corporation [Retrieved
2015-11-11]
[29] Abrams, Dennis (2007). Hamid Karzai. Infobase Publishing. p. 14. ISBN 978-0-7910-9267-5. As soon as it
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30

12

EXTERNAL LINKS

[343] Quoting the ICRC. Blackwell-synergy.com. 2005-1221. Retrieved 2012-09-02.

Taliban Conict collected news and commentary at

BBC News

[344] Rashid 2000, p. 72.

[345] Rashid 2000, pp. 64, 78.

Taliban collected news and commentary at The

Guardian

[346] Maulvi Jalil-ullah Maulvizada, June 1997 interview with

Ahmed Rashid; Rashid 2000, pp. 111112.

Taliban collected news and commentary at The New

York Times

[347] Rashid 2000, p. 65.

Works by or about Taliban in libraries (WorldCat

catalog)

[348] Rashid 2000, p. 71.

[349] Aid agencies pull out of Kabul The building had neither
electricity or running water.
[350] Rashid 2000, pp. 7172.
[351] Agence France-Presse, Taliban reject warnings of aid
pull-out, 1998-07-16.
[352] UN ocial calls for talks with taliban leaders. sify.com.
Retrieved 2010-08-27.
[353] Farmer, Ben (2010-01-25). UN: lift sanctions on Taliban to build peace in Afghanistan. The Daily Telegraph
(London). Retrieved 2010-04-09.
[354] UN Reduce Taliban names on terror list. United Press
International. 2010-01-25. Retrieved 2010-08-27.
[355] Asia News. english.aljazeera.net. 2010-01-26. Retrieved 2010-08-27.

11

Further reading

Afghan Women and the Taliban: An Exploratory Assessment (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism The Hague 2014)

12

External links

Taliban in Oxford Islamic Studies Online

Talibans website (English)
How Do I Get in Touch With a Terrorist Slate. October 2009
The Talibans Secret Photos
Future Opioids: Afghanistan, Opium and the Taliban
The National Security Archive The September
11th Sourcebooks Volume VII: The Taliban File
September 2003
The Taliban Diaries by Shaukat Qadir, Daily Times,
2009-06-20
Taliban collected news and commentary at Al
Jazeera English

Insurgency
Return Of The Taliban from PBS Frontline, October
2006
Held by The Taliban: A Reporting Trip Becomes a
Kidnapping from The New York Times, 20082009
Military Raids, Backing of Corrupt Government
Undermining Stated US Goals in Afghanistan
video report by Democracy Now!

31

13
13.1

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13.2

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Images

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File:ANA_soldier_shows_opium_captured_in_an_alleged_Taliban_safe_house_in_Helmand.jpg
Source:
https://upload.
wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a6/ANA_soldier_shows_opium_captured_in_an_alleged_Taliban_safe_house_in_Helmand.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.arcent.army.mil/cflcc_today/2009/may/may08_13.asp Original artist: Sean K. Harp
File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Aerial_view_of_a_section_of_Kandahar_in_2013.jpg
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1b/
Aerial_view_of_a_section_of_Kandahar_in_2013.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.flickr.com/photos/usace-tas/
8712299609/ Original artist: Karla Marshall
File:Afghan_Taliban_mujaheddin.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5b/Afghan_Taliban_mujaheddin.jpg License: PD-US Contributors:
http://www.longwarjournal.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/ckcenupvaaq5zeg.jpg Original artist:
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
File:Allah-green.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4e/Allah-green.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Converted to SVG from Image:Islam.png, originally from en:Image:Ift32.gif, uploaded to the English Wikipedia by Mr100percent on
4 February 2003. Originally described as Copied from Public Domain artwork. Original artist: ?
File:Basmala.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/Basmala.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Creator: ( previous version Baba66)
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Edit-clear.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The
Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the le, specically: Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).
File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC0
Contributors: http://openclipart.org/detail/24112/flag-of-afghanistan-by-anonymous-24112 Original artist:
User:Zscout370
File:Flag_of_Hezbe_Wahdat.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7e/Flag_of_Hezbe_Wahdat.svg License:
CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: MrPenguin20
File:Flag_of_Jamiat-e_Islami.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f2/Flag_of_Jamiat-e_Islami.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work, vectorization of a JPEG draw by a afghan. Original artist: Falerstico
File:Flag_of_Taliban.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Flag_of_Taliban.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: The text is the Shahadah; compare Image:Flag of Jihad.svg, Image:Hamas ag2.png, Image:Flag of Saudi Arabia.svg Original
artist: Based on Taliban ag (Flag of Afghanistan 1997-2001) at FOTW (instead of direct copy of text from Saudi Arabian ag).
File:Flag_of_the_Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant2.svg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/
Flag_of_the_Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant2.svg License: Public domain Contributors: This le was derived from: Flag of
Islamic State of Iraq.svg
Original artist: The Islamic State
File:Flag_of_the_National_Islamic_Movement_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7e/Flag_
of_the_National_Islamic_Movement_of_Afghanistan.svg License: Fair use Contributors: Made by MrPenguin20. Based on ag visible
here. Original artist: ?
File:GIs_burn_a_house_described_as_a_Taliban_safehouse.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/
GIs_burn_a_house_described_as_a_Taliban_safehouse.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: afghanistan Original artist: U.S. Army
photo by Sta Sgt. Justin Holley
File:Hamid_Mir_interviewing_Osama_bin_Laden.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a5/Hamid_Mir_
interviewing_Osama_bin_Laden.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.canadafreepress.com/ Original artist: Hamid Mir
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Deoband.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Bakrbinaziz
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Unknown (possibly AP or government of India)
Original artist: ?
File:NATO_flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Flag_of_NATO.svg License: Public domain Contributors: www.nato.int Original artist:
Vectorized by Mysid and uploaded to Flag of NATO.svg
File:Neotaliban_insurgency_2002-2006_en.png Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/80/Neotaliban_
insurgency_2002-2006_en.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Antonio Giustozzi: Koran, Kalashnikov, and Laptop: The Neo-Taliban Insurgency in Afghanistan. Columbia University Press, New York
2009, ISBN 978-0-231-70010-8, S.2-4 Original artist: Sommerkom
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Original artist: ?

34

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TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

File:SF_Sgt_Mario_Vigil_with_SF_and_NA_forces_west_of_Konduz_in_November_2001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.

org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/SF_Sgt_Mario_Vigil_with_SF_and_NA_forces_west_of_Konduz_in_November_2001.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://news.soc.mil/releases/News%20Archive/2009/January/090106-04.html Original artist: United States Army
File:Taliban-Torkham-2001.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/Taliban-Torkham-2001.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: bluuurgh
File:Taliban-herat-2001_retouched.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Taliban-herat-2001_
retouched.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: bluuurgh
File:Taliban_beating_woman_in_public_RAWA.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Taliban_
beating_woman_in_public_RAWA.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://rawa.org/beating.htm (Archived at the Wayback
Machine) Original artist: RAWA
File:Taliban_execute_Zarmeena_in_Kabul_in1999_RAWA.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/
Taliban_execute_Zarmeena_in_Kabul_in1999_RAWA.jpg License: CC BY 3.0 Contributors: http://www.rawa.org/ Original artist:
Revolutionary Association of the Women of Afghanistan (RAWA)
File:Taliban_training_video,_2014.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/17/Taliban_training_video%2C_2014.
png License: PD-US Contributors:
http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2015/08/taliban-touts-camp-in-paktia-province.php Original artist:
Islamic Emirate of Afghanistan
File:Wikinews-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: This is a cropped version of Image:Wikinews-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Simon 01:05, 2 August 2006 (UTC)
Updated by Time3000 17 April 2007 to use ocial Wikinews colours and appear correctly on dark backgrounds. Originally uploaded by
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Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
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domain Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk contribs),
based on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber

13.3

Content license

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