Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Chenje
Insets, from top to bottom:
R. Giling/Still Pictures
O. Karasek/Still Pictures
R. Giling/Still Pictures
M. Hamblin/WWI/Still Pictures
O. Karasek /Still Pictures
J. Schytte/Still Pictures
J. Schytte/Still Pictures
J. Etchart/Still Pictures
AEO
COLLABORATING CENTRES
http://www.adie-prgie.net
http://www.cedare.org.eg
http://www.nesda.kabissa.org
http://www.coi-info.org
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Editors
Munyaradzi Chenje
Charles Sebukeera
Mohamed-Katerere
Christopher O. Ambala
Velma Kiome
Valerie Rabesahala
Editorial
Janet Waiyaki
AEO-2 Support Team
Collaborating Centre
Ivar Baste
Representatives
Marion Cheatle
Peter Acquah
Hugo Ahlenius
Johannes Akiwumi
Jacquie Chenje
Salif Diop
Marianne Folgen
Angele Luh
Mauritius
Lead Authors
Patrick Mmayi
Russell Arthurton
Abdel Monem
Hans Beekman
John Mugwe
Reinette Biggs
Nick Nuttall
Munyaradzi Chenje
Mohamed Sessay
Chris Huggins
Skou Tour
Patricia Kameri-Mbote
Mick Wilson
Kwame Korateng
UNEP GRID-Nairobi
Wolfgang Kper
Kassim Kulindwa
Cover design
Nathaniel Makoni
Audrey Ringler
Nelson Manda
Jennifer C. Mohamed-Katerere
Funding support
Washington Ochola
bounford.com
Kevin Pietersen
Ossama Salem
Robert J. Scholes
Charles Sebukeera
Njeri Wamukonya
Process.
CONTENTS
FOREWORD
xxii
PREFACE
xxiii
INTRODUCTION
xxiv
Background
xxiv
xxiv
Structure
xxv
Analytical Approach
xxviii
Introduction
Demographic change
Social change
Economic change
Technological change
13
17
18
21
24
26
27
28
Integrated approach
29
30
32
34
35
36
38
39
Infrastructure development
42
Conclusion
42
vii
viii
48
48
Inventory of resources
48
Endowment opportunities
51
58
61
64
Eastern Africa
64
Northern Africa
66
Southern Africa
68
Western Africa
70
72
Conclusion
74
CHAPTER 3: LAND
78
Regional Synthesis
78
Overview of resources
78
82
91
Sub-Regional Sections
98
Central Africa
98
Eastern Africa
100
Northern Africa
104
Southern Africa
106
Western Africa
109
110
Conclusion
112
CHAPTER 4: FRESHWATER
119
Regional Synthesis
119
Overview of resources
120
122
125
129
132
Central Africa
132
Eastern Africa
134
Northern Africa
139
Southern Africa
143
Western Africa
146
148
150
155
155
Overview of resources
155
157
160
Sub-Regional Overviews
165
Central Africa
165
Eastern Africa
167
Northern Africa
171
Southern Africa
176
Western Africa
182
186
Conclusion
191
196
196
196
196
206
Sub-Regional Overview
209
Central Africa
209
Eastern Africa
211
Northern Africa
213
Southern Africa
216
Western Africa
219
221
Conclusion
223
CHAPTER 7: BIODIVERSITY
226
Regional Synthesis
226
Inventory of resources
226
231
Environmental services
233
237
238
240
Central Africa
240
Eastern Africa
242
Northern Africa
245
Southern Africa
247
Western Africa
249
252
255
262
Introduction
262
Building Interlinkages
263
266
266
269
270
272
273
ix
275
275
278
280
286
287
288
288
289
Emerging partnerships
290
291
Conclusion
295
300
Introduction
300
State-and-trends
301
301
303
GM food aid
305
307
309
309
Food security
310
Chemical use
312
Biodiversity
312
314
Ethics
315
Responses
316
317
318
Integrative approaches
318
319
Regional responses
322
Sub-regional approaches
322
323
324
324
324
Risk management
326
Research priority-setting
326
327
Capacity-building
327
Conclusion
328
331
Introduction
331
State-and-trends
332
Potential growth
332
334
336
336
337
338
Tourism
339
Health
339
High costs
340
341
342
Making choices
343
Building partnerships
343
343
344
345
Conclusion
347
350
351
351
Trade
353
354
355
355
Agriculture
355
356
357
Control of diseases
359
360
Chemical exposure
362
Impacts on biodiversity
363
Management Challenges
364
365
366
366
367
International trade
369
370
National legislation
370
370
372
xi
xii
375
376
377
377
378
381
384
386
386
389
392
395
Conflict timber
397
398
400
403
404
SECTION 4: OUTLOOK
CHAPTER 13: THE FUTURE TODAY
412
Introduction
412
Developing scenarios
413
413
413
415
415
416
416
417
Driving Forces
419
Demographics
419
Health
421
Economic drivers
421
Social issues
423
Culture
424
Technology
424
425
426
427
428
Land
428
Freshwater
439
Atmosphere
444
449
Sub-Regional Scenarios
454
Eastern Africa
454
Central Africa
458
Northern Africa
462
Western Africa
469
473
477
482
484
484
Atmosphere
487
Land
488
Freshwater
491
494
497
Biodiversity
499
502
504
Chemicals
505
507
510
Policy interlinkages
512
Conclusion
514
519
524
525
ABBREVIATIONS
529
CONTRIBUTORS
534
INDEX
538
xiii
xiv
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INTRODUCTION
Figure 1: DPSIR framework
xxix
xxx
4
9
Figure 3: World Health Organization estimated mortality attributable to climate change by the year 2000
10
13
18
19
37
CHAPTER 2: ATMOSPHERE
Figure 1: Map of rainfall zones
49
51
55
60
63
67
Figure 7: Standardized mean rainfall anomalies and El Nio Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)
68
71
74
CHAPTER 3: LAND
Figure 1: Eco-regions
79
79
92
Figure 4: Land use and land cover for Eastern African countries (1994)
101
104
Figure 6: Northern Africa countries: agricultural area (as per cent of land area)
105
107
109
Figure 9: Western Indian Ocean countries: agricultural areas (as a percentage of total land area)
111
CHAPTER 4: FRESHWATER
Figure 1: Africas water resources
121
122
Figure 3: Water supply and sanitation coverage in rural and urban settings between 1990 and 2002 for Africa
123
128
Figure 5: A chronology of change: natural and anthropogenic factors affecting Lake Chad
133
139
144
156
157
Figure 3: International tourism receipts in African coastal countries, 1990 and 2003
158
Figure 4: Travel and tourism economies as percentages of Gross Domestic Product 2005 for selected SIDS and Gambia
158
159
Figure 6: Reported marine fish catches in Central African countries since 1950
166
Figure 7: Reported marine fish catches in Eastern African countries since 1980
169
Figure 8: Reported marine fish catches in Northern African countries since 1980
173
179
Figure 10: Reported marine fish catches in Western African countries since 1980
184
185
Figure 12: Reported marine fish catches in the Western Indian Ocean island countries since 1980
188
197
214
215
219
220
220
CHAPTER 7: BIODIVERSITY
Figure 1: The distribution of biodiversity
227
229
230
245
Figure 5: Protected areas (IUCN Categories I-IV): percentage of total area in Northern Africa
246
274
275
Figure 3: Linkages and feedback loops among desertification, global climate change and biodiversity loss
283
288
301
302
305
307
313
333
341
351
352
352
Figure 4: Growth in trade in chemicals between 1979-96 (real terms, per cent/year)
353
354
356
360
368
xv
xvi
380
394
395
Figure 4: Protected areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and major political/military divisions 2001
401
420
420
421
422
Figure 5: Illustrative patterns of the changes over time of key scenario assumptions
428
436
436
437
Figure 9: Sub-regional picture of degraded cropland by 2025 under the various scenarios
438
Figure 10: Estimated land use intensity based on crop and pasture under different scenarios
438
Figure 11: Population experiencing inadequate access to water in the different scenarios
443
Figure 12: Water availability and use under the different scenarios
443
443
459
460
462
462
Figure 18: Impact on selected water indicators in Africa as per AEO-1 scenario model
463
469
CHAPTER 14: BACK TO OUR COMMON FUTURE: A RENAISSANCE FOR THE ENVIRONMENT
Figure 1: Annual costs of environmental degradation in Egypt
483
Figure 2: Countries affected by food insecurity due to natural hazards during the 2005-06 cropping seasons
485
492
500
LIST OF BOXES
CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN DIMENSION
Box 1: Impact of mining on the environment and human health
17
20
22
25
28
31
34
40
CHAPTER 2: ATMOSPHERE
Box 1: Wind power generation in South Africa
53
57
58
65
CHAPTER 3: LAND
Box 1: Land use issues key to sustainable development
82
84
88
91
94
98
Box 7: Food security objectives of the Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan
109
112
CHAPTER 4: FRESHWATER
Box 1: The Africa Water Vision for 2025: targets for urgent water needs
120
122
Box 3: Short-term action plan (STAP) for Transboundary Water Resources (TWR)
130
131
131
134
138
138
140
140
141
Box 13: Lessons learnt from water sector reforms in Southern Africa
145
Box 14: Private sector participation in the Zambian water supply and sanitation sector
145
146
Box 16: Reforms in Nigerias River Basin Development Authorities in favour of the rural communities
147
Box 17: Moving from a vicious to a virtuous cycle Conakry (Guinea) water supply
148
150
150
Box 20: Thematic areas towards achieving the Africa Water Vision for the year 2025
151
170
Box 2: Management of the downstream and coastal impacts of damming in the Tana basin, Kenya
171
174
175
Box 5: Multiple uses and conflicts on the Moulouya coastal wetland, Morocco
176
Box 6: The Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME) Programme: joint cooperative
178
180
181
Box 9: The Cape Verde Islands and the West African Marine Eco-region
182
183
187
188
190
xvii
xviii
199
201
203
207
214
CHAPTER 7: BIODIVERSITY
Box 1: Plant Diversity: Kupe-Bakossi
228
232
235
236
239
251
263
264
265
266
267
269
270
271
274
276
277
279
Box 13: Building partnerships for Environmental Impact Assessments: Eastern Africa
280
Box 14: Progress towards MDGs in the Western Indian Ocean islands sub-region
282
286
291
Box 17: The COMESA* countries and the uneven playing field for global trade
292
301
302
303
306
Box 5: Intellectual Property Rights: potential conflicts and opportunities for resolution
308
Box 6: Will the use of Bt cotton result in less pest threats and pesticide use?
311
316
317
Box 9: Precaution
320
320
323
325
327
332
Box 2: IAS, the biotic integrity of communities and the functioning of ecosystems
334
335
335
338
340
342
343
345
346
Box 11: The WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures 1995
347
357
358
362
363
364
365
366
Box 8: Agenda 21, Chapter 19: Priority programme areas for managing toxic chemicals
367
372
377
379
381
388
389
390
396
402
413
Box 2: Factors influencing land-use change in Africa used in the scenario analysis
429
430
443
448
456
458
467
468
xix
xx
LIST OF TABLES
CHAPTER 1: THE HUMAN DIMENSION
Table 1: Population changes in Africa (million)
21
38
CHAPTER 2: ATMOSPHERE
Table 1: Wind energy potential for selected countries
50
69
Table 3: Passenger motor vehicles per thousand population, Western Indian Ocean countries,
Africa and North America 1990 and 2001
73
Table 4: CO2 total emissions WIO countries, Africa and North America per head per year (metric tonnes)
73
CHAPTER 3: LAND
Table 1: Some selected mountain ranges in Africa
81
83
89
97
99
100
103
106
107
Table 10: Per capita access to land and food production trends 1980-2000
108
110
Table 12: The extent of land area in the Western Indian Ocean island countries and the population
111
CHAPTER 4: FRESHWATER
Table 1: Renewable water resources
120
161
Table 2: Priority areas for promoting best practice in governance and management
162
200
205
209
210
Table 5: Forest area and area change in the Eastern Africa countries as of 2000
212
213
216
217
218
Table 10: Forest cover in the Western Indian Ocean island countries
221
222
CHAPTER 7: BIODIVERSITY
Table 1: The biodiversity features of Central Africa
241
243
246
247
248
250
252
253
272
276
277
281
281
304
321
337
353
Table 2: Priority areas for promoting best practice in chemicals management and usage
371
400
xxi
xxii
FOREWORD
(AMCEN) in 1985 to enhance regional
cooperation
Economic
development
Africa
policy
continues
to
environmental
strengthen
the
Africa
is
environmental
assets
in
in
provide
emerging issues.
planning
environment
reading.
2002.
development
and
programmes
environmental
for
incorporating
considerations
in
development planning.
African leaders established the African
Ministerial Conference on the Environment
within
It
framework
was
of
plan
the
also
the
for
used
in
the
Environmental
Dr. Abdul-Hakim Rajab Elwaer
environmental
xxiii
PREFACE
the Millennium Development Goals on
poverty.
million
people
in
Africa,
to
future
and-solid science.
(NEPAD).
also
extraordinary region.
putting
significant
efforts
into
(PRSPs),
Reduction
Strategy
natural
environmental wealth.
resources,
Papers
including
mineral
global
important
oil
reserves
and
benefits
The
equitably
report
shared,
looks
at
Africas
emerging
those
Achim Steiner
EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR,
provoking
analyses
will
help
xxiv
INTRODUCTION
Human development is about freedom. It is about building human capabilities
the range of things people can do, and what they can be. Individual
freedoms and rights matter a great deal, but people are restricted in what they
can do with that freedom if they are poor, ill, illiterate, discriminated against,
threatened by violent conflict or denied a political voice.
HUMAN DEVELOPMENT REPORT 2005 (UNDP 2005)
BACKGROUND
Environment,
for
Our
Wealth
is
Environment
(WCED1987).
development.
The
assessment
highlights
the
monitoring
and
reporting
tool
for
sustainable
improved?
sections:
highlighting
human
dimension
in
the
environment-human nexus.
the
the environment.
future outcomes.
STRUCTURE
human perspective?
xxv
xxvi
economic
and
change
including
production
eradicate
poverty
and
promote
development.
specifically
at
environment
and
development
and
the UN agendas.
The
from
and
opportunities
new
new
approaches
to
policy
making
value
of
collaborative
for
innovative
approaches
transboundary
institutional
and
and
for
regional
management
tools, is emphasized.
xxvii
xxviii
have played out since its launch in July 2002 and uses
ANALYTICAL APPROACH
following
central:
The
driving
scenario
forces
are
analysis
seen
provides
as
coherent
change.
The
AEO-2
analysis
highlights
the
their impacts.
The opportunities
framework methodology
State-and-Trends:
20-Year
and potential)?
resources (demands/pressures)?
degradation
opportunities
and
offered
the
Africas
seizing
by
over reaction.
xxix
HUMAN SOCIETY
DRIVERS (D):
Material, Human and Social Capital
Human development:
Population demographics
Economic processes
(consumption, production,
markets and trade)
Scientific and technological
innovation
Distribution pattern processes
(inter- and intra-generational)
Cultural, social, political and
institutional (including production
and service sectors) processes
RESPONSES (R)
to environmental challenges:
Formal and informal adaptation to, and
mitigation of, environmental change
(including restoration) by altering human
activity and development patterns within
and between the D, P and I boxes through
inter alia: science and technology, policy,
law and institutions.
PRESSURES (P):
Human interventions in the environment:
Land use
Resource extraction
External inputs (fertilizers,
chemicals, irrigation)
Emissions (pollutants and waste)
Modification and movement of
organisms
ENVIRONMENT
STATE-AND-TRENDS (S):
Natural capital:
atmosphere, land, water and biosphere
Natural processes:
Solar radiation
Volcanoes
Earthquakes
TIME:
IMPACTS (I):
1987
(long-term)
xxx
AEO-2 SUB-REGIONs
Figure 2: AEO sub-regions and collaborating centres
Northern Africa
Algeria
Egypt
Libyan Arab Jamahiriya
Morocco
Sudan
Tunisia
Eastern Africa
Burundi
Djibouti
Eritrea
Ethiopia
Kenya
Rwanda
Somalia
Uganda
CEDARE
NESDA
Western Africa
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cape Verde
Cte d'Ivoire
Gambia
Ghana
Guinea
Guinea-Bissau
Liberia
Mali
Mauritania
Niger
Nigeria
Senegal
Sierra Leone
Togo
NEMA
ADIE
Central Africa
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Chad
Congo
Democratic Republic of the Congo
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
So Tom and Prncipe
SARDC
Southern Africa
Angola
Botswana
Lesotho
Malawi
Mozambique
Namibia
South Africa
Swaziland
United Republic of Tanzania
Zambia
Zimbabwe
IOC
SECTION 1
ENVIRONMENT FOR DEVELOPMENT
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
complex.
and
trade or industry.
Governments
security,
ensure
must
reduce
adequate
human
functioning
of
present
practical
generation
must
be
realized
without
poverty,
economic development.
consequences
for
alleviating
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
poverty
and
to
contribute
to
socioeconomic
Integration of
technology,
development
including
in
information
and
environment and
of basic needs,
managed
Summit
(WSSD)
ecosystems and a
base but also from the ability to leverage the total value
safer, more
prosperous future.
on
Sustainable
Development
Commissions
measure
of
the
governance
problems
and
Source: C.Lambrechts/UNEP
improved living
of
Africa
was
about
118
million,
DEMOGRAPHIC CHANGE
118 million,
7.4% of global
population
1980
469
million
By 2030, the
proportion of
Africas urbanized
population is
expected to reach
compared to
2000
798 million,
13% of global
population
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
0.8 per cent per year and 56 per cent of the global total
resource use.
on Africas environment.
HIV/AIDS has had a significant impact on human
capacity
with
severe
economic,
social
and
1980
1990
2000
2010
2020
North Africa
109
140
170
209
239
East Africa
104
141
182
230
269
Southern Africa
70
90
113
129
150
Central Africa
54
74
98
127
164
West Africa
132
178
234
278
344
Total Africa
469
623
797
973
1 166
Source: FAO 2003. [Data from World Bank 2002; Africa Development Bank, 2000]
Expanding
settlement in the
Atlas Mountains,
Morocco.
Source: J.C. MohamedKaterere
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
has
important
implications
for
SOCIAL CHANGE
Improved human well-being is a crucial objective of
sustainable development and is closely linked to
environment goods-and-services.
Human well-being is multidimensional and requires
access to resources to live a good life in good health,
such as income, food, clean water and energy; personal
security through the absence of conflict, the ability to
mitigate environmental disasters and good governance;
good social relations which include all people and
promote fairness and equity; and the opportunity to
make choices (MA 2005a). This implies a condition in
which people are not just physically well, but have
choices and live in dignity. The extent of well-being, as
reflected in income, health, education and inequity, is
an indication of how successful or unsuccessful
development policies have been. In turn, the well-being
of people affects their ability to effectively and
sustainably manage resources. How these social factors
impact on the environment is a product of a complex
Clay pots drying in the open air at an artisanal pottery enterprise, Khartoum, Sudan.
cultural milieu.
Source: J. Maillard/ILO
indigenous
knowledge
and
the
promoters
of
and reduce free time and thus limit the opportunity for
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
systems
through
pollution
and
environmental
Health
Health effects
Intestinal disease
caused by unsafe
drinking water
Diarrhoea
Cholera
Dysentery
Typhoid
Guinea worm
Hygiene- and
sanitation-related
diseases
Tunisia
Morocco
Algeria
Libya
Egypt
Mauritania
Cape Verde
Is.
Senegal
Gambia
Guinea-Bissau
Mali
Niger
Chad
Guinea
Sierra Leone
Liberia
Eritrea
Sudan
Burkina
Faso
Djibouti
Benin
Togo
Cte
dIvore
Nigeria
Cameroon
Ghana
Ethiopia
Central
African Republic
So Tom
& Prncipe
Uganda
Gabon
Congo
Kenya
Democratic
Republic
of the Congo
Equatorial
Guinea
Burundi
Tanzania
Preventing diarrhoea
Comoros
Angola
Malawi
Zambia
148
Mauritius
Zimbabwe
Madagascar
Namibia
from diarrhoea
Botswana
Water supplies
Rwanda
627
Somalia
Mozambique
Swaziland
15
Lesotho
South Africa
41%-60%
81%-95%
61%-90%
no data
10
Figure 3: World Health Organization estimated mortality attributable to climate change by the year 2000
five account for more than half of the 1.6 million deaths
diseases,
fever,
such
as
malaria,
dengue
have reversed the gains made over the past two decades
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
11
ramifications
for
environmental
management
Source: Y. Katerere
12
Poverty
resources
offers
important
opportunities
for
Woman using an
improved energy
cooking stove
introduced by the
Department of
Women in
Agricultural
Development in
Ghana.
Source: P.Cenini/FAO
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
13
94271
1319
272644
2051
3240
4146
6451 456
5269
4757
1 4572 472
7090
5868
2 4735 850
91100
6964
No data
No data
No data
Well-being can be measured using indicators other than income poverty. Three maps of Africa show country-by-country variations in the indicators used by UNDP to
annually measure human development: adult literacy, life expectancy at birth, and gross domestic product per capita. [Data sources World Bank 2004a and UNPD
2003, UNESCO 2004].
Source: WRI and others 2005
ECONOMIC CHANGE
Africa
has
experienced
its
best
economic
Africa has
economic
performance in many
years in 2004 it
sustainable development.
14
disaster
warning
systems
to
support
greater
(GDP) was just under 1.7 per cent of the worlds GDP
significant
for
purchasing
power,
savings
and
Source: M.Marzot/FAO
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
GDP per capita in 2003 at 2.5 per cent and 1.3 per
Source: P.Reidar/CIFOR
Programmes
(SAPs),
aimed
at
stabilizing
the
mainly
Centre and AfDB 2003). This has been the focal point
through
the
processes
of
livelihood
15
16
diversification
consumptive utilization.
using
wildlife,
ecotourism
and
investments
in
agriculture
and
non-
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
17
TECHNOLOGICAL CHANGE
Research and the development of new technologies can
human health
support
the
family
(Adepoju
2004).
The
in
water
quality,
have
far-reaching
18
where there was a 450 per cent increase over the same
LIVELIHOOD
RESOURCES
INSTITUTIONAL
PROCESSES AND
ORGANIZATIONAL
STRUCTURES
LIVELIHOOD
RESOURCES
SUSTAINABLE
LIVELIHOOD OUTCOMES
Livelihood
Policy
Agricultural
intensification
extensification
History
Natural capital
Politics
Macro-economic conditions
Economic/financial
capital
Terms of trade
Human capital
Climate
Agroecology
Institutions
and
Organizations
Livelihood
diversification
Social capital
Demography
Migration
and others...
1. Increased numbers of
working days created
2. Poverty reduced
3. Well-being and
capabilities improved
Sustainability
4. Livelihood adaptation,
vulnerability and
resilience enhanced
5. Natural resource base
sustainability ensured
Social differentiation
Contextual analysis
of conditions and
trends and
assessment of
policy setting
Source: Scoones 1998
Analysis of
livelihood
resources; tradeoffs, combinations,
sequences, trends
Analysis of
institutional/organizational
influences on access to
livelihood resources and
composition of livelihood
strategy portfolio
Analysis of
livelihood strategy
portfolios and
pathways
Analysis of
outcomes and
trade-offs
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
19
Non-use
values
Indirect use
values
Option values
Bequest
values
Existence
values
Output that
can be
consumed
directly
Functional
benefits
Future direct
and indirect
use values
Value of
leaving use
and non-use
values for
offspring
Value from
knowledge of
continued
existence,
based on, e.g.
moral
conviction
Food
Habitats
Habitats
Ecological
functions
Biodiversity
Biomass
Recreation
Flood control
Conserved
habitats
Irreversible
changes
Endangered
species
Health
Storm
protection
economic
stability
and
reliable
and
opportunities
development
requires
in
other
complementary
areas
including
policy
good
20
Atlantic Ocean
Ramsar sites:
presence of animal invasive species
presence of plant invasive species
presence of both plant and animal invasive species
no invasive species reported
wetlands
Atlantic Ocean
100
100
200 kilometres
Orange Basin
http://pdf.wri.org/watersheds_2003/af20.pdf
24
7
42
4.7
purification.
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
21
US$/yr* 1 000)
59.8
10 652.6
1 293.8
49 655.2
2 Papyrus harvesting
3 Fuelwood
4 Doum Palm
5 Potash
9.5
1 601.7
Hadejia-Jama
Hadejia-Jama
13.5
Lake Chilwa
17.4
Nakivubo
10 Grassland/Livestock farming
3 465.1
3.3
638.0
70 620.7
Lake Chilwa
Zambezi Basin
968.9
Nakivubo
435.7
Lake Chilwa
15 Biodiversity
The Zambezi basin is one of Africas most productive
freshwater resources.
1 144.8
Zambezi Basin
813.8
Zambezi Basin
67.6
Zambezi Basin
2 620.7
Zambezi Basin
establishing
enabling
Zambezi Basin
Nakivubo
12 Water transport
14 Ecotourism
Hadejia-Jama
Lake Chilwa
an
Nakivubo
Hadejia-Jama
0.89
78 620.7
creating
Zambezi Basin
7 Brick-making
9 Fish farming
for
Lake Chilwa
130.2
18 675.5
policies
Nakivubo
Hadejia-Jama
8 Fishing
Wetland
22
The
WSSD
and
its
Johannesburg
of
Implementation;
renewed
determination
the
to
environment
harness
the
provides
for
opportunities
Ensure that the basic (material) human needs are met adequately and in a
sustainable manner.
Ensure that agricultural activities and practices meet the food security needs
of the region.
solutions
to
the
challenges
of
sustainable
Agreements.
Since 2000, AMCEN has also initiated environmental assessment and reporting
to keep the regional environment under review in order to provide early warning on
emerging environmental issues.
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
23
Conference circle.
Source: M. Chenje
environmental sustainability.
development
of
collaborative
approaches
to
24
Women teaching and learning about food groups in a nutrition education class in Madagascar.
Source: FAO
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
tended
to
be
externally
focused
or
driven,
25
26
Women collecting
Piliostigma
reticulatum pods,
Burkina Faso. They
will sell these as high
quality animal feed.
Source: D.Tiveau/ CIFOR
require
cooperation
including
water
resource
Stockpile Programme.
for Africas
Development
commits Africas
countries,
individually and
collectively, on a
environmental goods-and-services.
path of sustainable
resource
management
areas,
protected
areas
growth and
development, and at
following
participate actively
the
Stockholm
Human
Environment
in the world
economy, enlarging
Africas economic
prospects.
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
resources,
environmental
forestry,
water
and
27
28
fish resources. In Tanzania, various initiatives are geared towards doing this,
available to it.
content which is extracted for use in cosmetics and in the pharmaceutical industry.
Wild seaweed, of the red algal species of Eucheuma denticulatum and
Kappaphycus alvarezii, used to be collected from the intertidal zone of coral reefs
around Zanzibar and dried for export to France and Denmark. This practice was
replaced in 1989 with seaweed farming, mainly carried out by women. This form
environment with feeds, wastes or other chemicals. Although there are some
relatively mild.
However, over time, monopoly control by a few international corporations has led
to reduced prices being paid to producers, despite recent trends showing that the
security for coastal communities, and especially women, to improve their incomes
regions,
some
of
which
straddle
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
29
which
opportunities
such
an
for
approach
water
may
create
better
resource
and
energy
environmental
provisions
in
their
INTEGRATED APPROACH
30
approach
to
the
environment
and
priority
for
given
to
improving
opportunities
national levels.
Ruhakana Rugunda,
Minister of Water,
Lands and
Environment of
Uganda, at the 8th
RAMSAR Conference
of the Contracting
Parties. Uganda has
long been a pioneer
in putting Ramsar
principles into
practice, policy
and law.
Source: RAMSAR
developing
regional
environmental
assessment
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
31
review and action. Reports available since 1951 show that the top ten
deaths and affected the lives of 10.5 million people. These disasters
At both the national and international level, the follow-up to the event
accidents and marine oil spills. The principal impact of the tsunami
improving the early warning systems are being integrated with building
the capacity for emergency relief in the region which can be turned to
effective early warning and response systems for the more common
development. Review is now being made of the future risks arising from
Long-term plans for monitoring sea level rise and sea surges are at
the stage of pilot projects and isolated research exercises. The priority
be increased, but the need for routine monitoring of tsunami risks has to
and damage has been the focus of long-standing national and regional
32
of
environmentally-sound
technologies,
Source: M. Crozet/ILO
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
EAC strategy.
forests,
mountainous
conflict,
marine
resources
and
environmental
resource
management
Conflict Logs: abandoned roundwood logs as a result of the imposition of a timber exporting embargo on Liberia, May 2005.
Source: Y. Katerere
33
34
EMPOWERING PEOPLE
important strategies.
At
the
regional
and
sub-regional
levels,
aims to:
of the Union.
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
35
effectively
addressed.
Africa
can
create
new
strategies,
project
practices.
operationalization
of
planning
Incorporation
sustainable
and
and
rate of 3 per cent per year over the next 50 years, there
development
36
processes
for
management
and
utilization
of
NATURAL RESOURCES
Agricultural
Niger: tree planting along crevices caused by floods in seasonal waterways, known locally as koris.
Source: F. Paladini/FAO
land
is
being
degraded
due
to
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
37
such
as
mining,
are
done
in
an
restoration
and
rehabilitation.
Chapter
8:
Inadequate supply
lack of capacity to organize supply
lack of awareness of demand
lack of supporting scientific evidence
property rights insecurity
lack of finance to organize supply
cultural resistance
Inadequate demand
lack of supporting scientific evidence
existence of cheaper substitutes
lack of regulatory framework
coordination problems
inadequate participation
cultural resistance
lack of finance
uncoordinated
strategies
by
different
sectors
transform
environmental
services
into
private
38
Economic costs
Technological transfer
Social benefits
Social costs
common lands
diets, etc.
other areas
Environmental benefits
Environmental costs
beauty
sequestration
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
top-down process.
economic growth.
activities
by
small
entrepreneurs,
is
severely
39
and
risks
posed
by
these
new
Sudan. Solar power provides electricity for a field hospital in the rebel-held Nuba Mountains
(quickly covered when government bombers appear). February 2000.
Source: D. Connell/The Image Works TopFoto
40
South African San Council and CSIR. The CSIR will pay the San 8 per
Source: E. Powell
Income will go into a San Hoodia Benefit Trust set up by the CSIR and
the San. The Trust includes representatives of the CSIR, the regional
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
Observations
and
experimentations
in
the
informing
or
complementing
contemporary
management regimes.
effective
fallow
species
which
restores
land
between
biodiversity
and
ecological
factors,
41
42
INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT
well-being.
Infrastructure
development
may
generate
CONCLUSION
(AfDB 2004).
Liberia: the road to Greenville from Monrovia. In the absence of financial resources and infrastructural development, the natural
environment poses many transport and communications challenges for people trying to develop sustainable livelihoods, May 2005.
Source: Y. Katerere
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
is
being
replaced
by
integrated
Chen, S. and Ravallion, M. (2004). How have the worlds poorest fared
since the early 1980s? World Bank Policy Research Working Paper
3341.World Bank,Washington, D.C. http://wdsbeta.worldbank.org/
external/default/WDSContentServer/IW3P/IB/2004/07/22/000112742
_20040722172047/Rendered/PDF/wps3341.pdf
Dankelman, I. (2004). Gender and environment: lessons to learn.
Proceedings of the Expert Group Meeting on Environmental
Management and the Mitigation of Natural Disasters: a Gender
Perspective. 6-9 November.Ankara,Turkey. http://www.un.org/
womenwatch/daw/csw/env_manage/documents/OP2-2001Oct.pdf
EAC (2001).The Second EAC Development Strategy: 2001-2005. East
African Community. Proceedings of the Second Summit of the East
African Community. 24 April.Arusha,Tanzania.
http://www.eac.int/documents/Development%20Strategy.pdf
Ellis, F. and Bahiigwa, G. (2003). Livelihoods and Poverty Reduction in
Uganda. World Development, 31(6), 997-1013
Ellis, F. and Mdoe, N. (2003). Livelihoods and Rural Poverty Reduction in
Tanzania. World Development, 31(8), 1367-84
Ellis, F., Kutengule, M. and Nyasulu,A. (2003). Livelihoods and Rural
Poverty Reduction in Malawi. World Development, 31(9), 1495-510
Ertegun, R. (2002). Humanitarian security and environmental
sustainability: balancing upon a fine line. United Nations Chronicle, 4.
http://www.un.org/Pubs/chronicle/2002/issue4/ 0402p48.html
FAO (2005). State of the Worlds Forests 2005. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome. http://www.fao.org/
documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/docrep/007/y5574e/y5574e00.htm
References
Adepoju,A. (2004). Changing configurations of migration in Africa.
Migration Policy Institute. http://www.migrationinformation.org/
Feature/display.cfm?ID=251
AfDB (2004). Africa Development Report 2004:Africa in the Global Trading
System.African Development Bank/Oxford University Press, Oxford
Andriantsiferana, R. (2003).Traditional knowledge protection in the
African region. Proceedings of the Conference on Biodiversity and the
Protection of Traditional Knowledge. 4-6 April 2003. Saint Louis, USA.
http://ls.wustl.edu/centeris/confpapers/PDFwrdDoc/ANDRIANTSIFERA
NA.pdf
AU (undated). Launch of the Economic, Social and Cultural Council of
the Africa Union (ECOSOCC).African Union. http://www.africaunion.org/
organs/ecosocc/ECOSOCC%20Flyer.pdf
Barrett, C.B., Bezuneh, M. and Aboud,A. (2001). Income diversification,
poverty traps and policy shocks in Cote dIvoire and Kenya. Food Policy
26(4), 367-84
Berkhout, F., Leach, M., and Scoones, I. (2003). Shifting perspectives in
environmental social science. In Negotiating Environmental Change:
New Perspectives from Social Science (eds. Berkhout, F., Leach, M. and
Scoones, I.), pp 1-31. Edward Elgar Publishing, Cheltenham
Bigsten,A. (1996).The circular migration of smallholders in Kenya.
Journal of African Economies, 5(1), 1-20
Bryceson, I. (2002). Coastal aquaculture developments in Tanzania:
sustainable and non-sustainable experiences. Western Indian Ocean
Journal of Marine Sciences, 1(1), 110
43
44
SECTION 1
Chapter 1
Scoones, I. and Wolmer,W. (2003). Endpiece: the politics of livelihood
opportunity. IDS Bulletin 34(3), 112-5
Sen,A. (1999). Development as Freedom. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Tabbush, C. (2005). Civil Society in United Nations Conferences:A
Literature Review. Civil Society and Social Movements Programme
Paper No. 17. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development,
Geneva. http://www.sarpn.org.za/documents/d0001639/UNRISD_Civisociety_UN_Aug2005.pdf
Turton,A.R. (2003).The Evolution of Water Management Institutions in
Selected Southern African International River Basins. In Water as a
focus for Regional Development (eds. Biswas,A.S., nver, O. and
Tortajada, C.), pp 251-89.Water Resources Management Series. Oxford
University Press, New Delhi
UN (2005). Draft Mauritius Strategy for further Implementation of the
Programme of Action for the Sustainable Development of Small Island
Developing States. United Nations. Proceedings of the International
Meeting to Review the Implementation of the Programme of Action for
the Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States. Port
Louis, Mauritius. 10-14 January.A/CONF.207/CRP.7.
http://www.un.org/smallislands2005/pdf/ sids_strategy.pdf
UN (2003). UN System and Civil Society An Inventory and Analysis of
Practices: Background Paper for the Secretary-Generals Panel of
Eminent Persons on United Nations Relations with Civil Society, May
2003.United Nations. http://www.un.org/reform/pdfs/hlp9.htm
UN (2002).World Summit on Sustainable Development Plan of
Implementation. Proceedings of the World Summit on Sustainable
Development. Johannesburg, South Africa. 26 August 4 September.
United Nations. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/WSSD_
POI_PD/English/WSSD_PlanImpl.pdf
UN (1992).Agenda 21. Proceedings of the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development. Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, 3-14 June.
United Nations. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/documents/agenda21/
english/Agenda21.pdf
UNAIDS and WHO (2005).AIDS Epidemic Update. Joint United Nations
Programme on HIV/AIDS and World Health Organization. Geneva.
http://www.unaids.org/Epi2005/doc/ report.html
UN Millennium Project (2005a). Environment and Human Well-being: a
Practical Strategy. United Nations Millennium Project. UN Millennium
Development Library. Earthscan, London. http://www.unmillennium
project.org/documents/Environment-complete-lowres.pdf
UN Millennium Project (2005b). Innovation:Applying Knowledge in
Development. United Nations Millennium Project. UN Millennium
Development Library. Earthscan, London. http://www.unmillennium
project.org/documents/Science-complete.pdf
UN Statistics Division (2005). Millennium Indictors Database,World and
Regional Trends. United Nations Statistics Division. http://millennium
indicators.un.org/unsd/mi/mi_ worldregn.asp
UN Security Council (2002). Final Report of the Panel of Experts on the
Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and other forms of Wealth of
the Democratic Republic of the Congo. United Nations Security Council.
United Nations, New York. http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/
N02/621/79/PDF/N0262179.pdf?OpenElement
UNCHS (2001). The State of the Worlds Cities 2001. United Nations
Human Settlements Programme, Nairobi. http://www.unchs.org/
Istanbul+5/statereport.htm
UNDP (2005). Human Development Report 2005: International
cooperation at a crossroads Aid, trade and security in an unequal
world. United Nations Development Programme, New York.
http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/pdf/HDR05_complete.pdf
45
SECTION 2
ENVIRONMENT STATE-AND-TRENDS:
20-YEAR RETROSPECTIVE
48
CHAPTER 2
ATMOSPHERE
Lead Author: Njeri Wamukonya
Contributing Authors: Bora Masumbuko, Elizabeth Gowa, Joe Asamoah
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS
INVENTORY OF RESOURCES
The sun, wind and rivers are sources of energy for direct
Atmospheric
resources
offer
variety
of
2000).
The
amount,
duration
and
seasonal
SECTION 2
Atmosphere
> 3 000 mm
2 0003 000 mm
1 5002 000 mm
1 0001 500 mm
6001 000 mm
400600 mm
200400 mm
100200 mm
0100 mm
water bodies
Source: UNEP/DEWA/GRID 2005
49
50
increasing.
Potential
Country
Botswana
Burundi
>6
Djibouti
Kenya
Morocco
Mozambique
Seychelles
3.62-6.34*
South Africa
7.29-9.7**
Sudan
Tanzania
Uganda
Zambia
3.5
Zimbabwe
2.9
3
>10
0.7-2.6
SECTION 2
51
Atmosphere
15
10
West Asia
Africa 3.6%
Latin America and the Caribbean
North America
Europe
ENDOWMENT OPPORTUNITIES
Air
ad
a
str
Un
a
ite lia
dS
tat
es
Au
Ca
n
pa
Ja
do
nc
ing
Fra
dK
ite
Un
oT
om
An
go
nd la
Pr
ni
pe
We
Co
ng
ste
o
rn
Sa
ha
Sw ra
az
ila
Zim nd
ba
bw
e
Na
mi
Ma bia
ur
ita
ni
Mo a
roc
co
Eg
yp
t
Tu
nis
Bo ia
ts
Sa wan
a
int
He
len
Ma a
ur
itiu
s
Ga
bo
n
Alg
eri
a
R
un
i
Se on
yc
h
So elles
uth
Af
ric
a
Lib
ya
52
This image shows how tiny the Earth (blue dot on the right) is compared to the size of the flare.
the
resources.
societies,
full
potential
of
businesses
atmospheric
be
and
economies
will
(Egypt 10.7 per cent, Algeria 39.6 per cent, and Libya
Wind
SECTION 2
53
Atmosphere
energy supply.
facility has been established and the last component, business case
will mobilize about US$65 million to be spent on wind energy to the tune
could be lighting homes in the Western Cape soon. The US$11 million
project has come closer to reality with the approval by the Department of
for a training centre on the farm once the Western Cape Department of
farm near Darling, 70 km outside Cape Town. The wind farm project,
Environment Facility (GEF) will produce 5.2 MW, enough to light a town
and slag and fly ash (DME 2005). The Project will also result in the saving
US$3 million. The South African Wind Energy Programme, through GEF,
54
Where
suitable
sites
exist,
wind
presents
of
rural
power
plants
cost-competitiveness is achievable.
Solar radiation
The availability of solar resources is not a factor
undermining its potential use; instead, there are three
factors determining uptake: the availability of efficient
and low-cost technologies to convert solar energy into
electricity and hydrogen, effective energy storage
technologies, and high efficiency end-use technologies
(Rogner 2000).
SECTION 2
Atmosphere
Dh/Gh
3 000
4 000
5 000
6 000
7 000
1 000 km
[Wh/m2]
Source: EC 2005
electronic
equipment
and
charging
of
55
56
systems
use
the
grid
for
energy
storage
urban homes.
invest in PV systems.
Fish drying in
KwaZulu-Natal,
South Africa.
Source: A. Mohamed
SECTION 2
Atmosphere
Rainwater
57
58
change
contributes
to
population
The National Museum of Kenya has introduced the concept of large-scale rainwater
With the support of the Regional Land and Water Management Unit (RELMA), a
rainwater harvesting plan for the botanical garden was designed and initial funding
for the construction of three underground tanks, all of 105 000 litre capacity, was
provided. The tanks receive water from the roof catchment. Following this initial
success, RELMA, upon the request of the museum, further facilitated the design
and installation of a plastic-lined tank of 30 000 litre capacity for re-use of water
from the snake park which houses tropical snakes and crocodiles.
harvesting project for Elementaita village in the Nakuru district of Kenya. The
women of this village initially fetched water from a seasonal river 10 km away
from the village. The project entailed construction of rainwater storage tanks of
10 000 litres with the help of community participation. The total cost of the
storage tank was US$600. The community and Rotary International shared the
costs. By 2005, 116 such tanks had been constructed. Rotary International has a
SECTION 2
Atmosphere
of
and investment.
global
emissions
(UNSTATS/CDIAC
2006).
dengue
sometimes
fatal
encephalitis
and
Atmospheric pollution
59
60
industrial
technologies
and
vehicle
food crops, and kills the tiny organisms which form the
SECTION 2
61
Atmosphere
Energy production from coal is one of the largest contributors to CO2 emissions.
Power generation, South Africa.
Source: A. Mohamed
infrastructure.
change.
spatial
NEPAD objectives.
and
temporal
data
from
numerous
62
disadvantaged
and
marginalized
communities.
Building buffers
Genetically
Modified
Crops
considers
the
process.
Building
construction
buffers
sector.
will
also
Preventing
boost
the
damage
to
Rain clouds gather over The Amphitheatre in the Drakensberg Mountains, South Africa.
Source: A. Mohamed
SECTION 2
Atmosphere
Fuel switch
provide
thereby
opportunities
for
ecotourism
63
64
SUB-REGIONAL OVERVIEWS
EASTERN AFRICA
Vehicles both land and water are an essential part of modern life but they are also
major polluters.
Source: M. Chenje
SECTION 2
65
Atmosphere
address the urgent and immediate national needs of Least Developed Countries
in
(LDCs) for adapting to the adverse impacts of climate change and for preparation of
the
Kabale
district
of
Uganda
increasing
national communications to the UNFCCC. It is funded through the GEF from a special
LDC fund established at the Seventh Conference of the Parties (COP-7). An LDC
immediate adaptation needs of the LDCs as they prepare for the predicted
While the NAPA identifies urgent and immediate action, it still needs to fit within
development goals, plans and frameworks, especially in relation to rural citizens
and economic development plans for the country. NAPAs will not attempt to
implement broad national development goals but will build upon national goals
and integrate into national plans. They should also promote synergies with other
Agreements (MEAs). Most, if not all, countries have elaborated their development
goals, and have systems in place to implement the associated plans through
economic planning, among other things. It is important that the NAPA team be
goals for the country. For example, a NAPA may wish to flood-proof a single
particulate
matter
(PM),
polycyclic
aromatc
demonstrated
commitment
to
conserving
the
(see Box 4); and the World Banks Clean Air Initiative in
66
NORTHERN AFRICA
of air pollution:
Anthropogenic
activities
including
stationary
SECTION 2
Atmosphere
30
Morocco
Egypt
Sudan
Libya
Tunisia
20
10
00
20
99
19
98
19
97
19
95
96
19
19
94
19
93
19
92
19
91
19
90
89
19
88
19
19
87
19
86
19
85
19
84
83
19
82
19
19
81
19
19
80
of the pollutants.
during
which
time
higher
elevations
in
the
67
68
SOUTHERN AFRICA
human well-being.
Figure 7: Standardized mean rainfall anomalies and El Nio Southern Oscillation Index (SOI)
standard deviation
3
2
1
0
1
2
rainfall anomalies
SOI
5
19
9
90
19
5
19
8
80
19
5
19
7
70
19
5
19
6
60
19
19
5
SECTION 2
69
Atmosphere
1988-90
1991-92
1993-94
Conditions improved.
1994-95
Many SADC countries were hit by the worst drought in memory, surpassing effects of the 1991-92 drought in some parts of the region.
1996-97
1997-98
Normal rainfall throughout the region, including the northeast, although impacts of El Nio were significant.
1999-2000
Cyclone Eline hit the region and widespread floods devastated large parts of the Limpopo basin (southern and central Mozambique,
southeastern Zimbabwe, parts of South Africa and Botswana).
2001-03
Another severe drought in the SADC region, particularly from Zimbabwe northwards.
to generate hydropower.
In addition to droughts, Southern Africa experiences
Monitoring
Centre
(SADC-DMC)
was
70
WESTERN AFRICA
SECTION 2
Atmosphere
(IRIN 2005).
71
Facing
climate
modification
requires
the
00
20
19
95
0
19
9
19
85
19
80
5
19
7
70
19
5
19
6
19
60
55
19
19
50
19
45
0
19
4
35
19
19
30
19
25
0
19
2
15
19
19
10
19
05
00
19
18
95
2.0
72
the Seychelles.
islands are the ITCZ and the Indian Ocean Dipole. The
Cyclones are an important feature of weather patterns for the WIO islands
Multiple cyclones in the Indian Ocean, 12 February 2003. The cyclones pictured are (west to east) Gerry, Hape, 18S (later named Isha)
and Fiona.
Source: Earth Observatory/NASA
SECTION 2
Atmosphere
Countries/regions
1990
2001*
Mauritius
43
77
Seychelles
95
104
Africa
15
17
692
749
Madagascar
North America
* or latest year
National Communication.
Countries/regions
1982
2001
Comoros
0.1
0.12
Madagascar
0.18
0.14
Seychelles
0.61
2.44
WIO countries
0.22
0.31
Africa
North America
2 or latest year
1.11
1.04
19.32
19.94
73
74
20
18
1982
2001
16
14
12
10
0
Comoros
Madagascar
Mauritius
Seychelles
WIO
countries
Africa
North
America
sector housing.
CONCLUSION
Atmospheric
resources
are
essential
for
the
response systems.
SECTION 2
government
including
the
poverty
further.
For
instance,
Atmosphere
Christy, J.R., Clarke, R.A., Gruza, G.V., Jouzel, J., Mann, M.E., Oerlemans,
J., Salinger, M.J. and Wang, S.-W. (2001). Chapter 2: Observed Climate
Variability and Change. In Climate Change 2001: Impacts,Adaptation,
and Vulnerability (eds. McCarthy, J.J., Canziani, O.F., Leary, N.A., Dokken,
D.J. and White, K.S.), pp. 99-181. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate
Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg1/pdf/TAR-02.PDF
DMC (undated).Atlas Southern Africa.
http://www.dmc.co.zw/Atlas/AtlasSouthernAfrica.pdf
DME-DANIDA (2005). Darling Wind Farm. Grid connected renewable
energy projects. Department of Minerals and Energy Danish
International Development Agency. http://www.dme.gov.za/energy/
pdf/240605_darling_wind_farm_approved_by_ho.pdf
EC (2005). PVGIS: Map-based Assessment of Solar Energy Resource.
European Commission. http://re.jrc.cec.eu.int/pvgis/solradframe.php?
lang=en&map=africa
ECA (2005a).African Regional Implementation Review for the 14th
Session of the Commission on Sustainable Development (CSD-14) Report on Climate Change. Economic Commission for Africa.
http://www.uneca.org/csd/CSD4_Report_on_Climate_Change.htm
ECA (2005b). Economic Report on Africa 2005: Meeting the Challenges
of Unemployment and Poverty in Africa. Economic Commission for
Africa,Addis Ababa. http://www.uneca.org/era2005/front.pdf
References
Akhtar, R., Carcavallo, R., Gubler, D., Haines,A., Kovats, R.S., Martens,
P., Patz, J. and Sasaki,A. (2001). Chapter 9: Human Health. In Climate
Change 2001: Impacts,Adaptation, and Vulnerability (eds. McCarthy,
J.J., Canziani, O.F., Leary, N.A., Dokken, D.J. and White, K.S.), pp. 45185. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge. http://www.grida.no/climate/ipcc_tar/wg2/pdf/
wg2TARchap9.pdf
Atheru, Z.K.K. and Mutai, C. (2002). Climate variability in Eastern Africa;
Its causes and relationship with ENSO. http://www.wmo.ch/web/wcp/
clips2001/modules/EASTERN%20AFRICAN%20CLIMATE%20VARIABIL
ITY.pdf
Bakaya-Kyahurwa, E. and Oladiran, M.T. (2000). Performance of solar
water heating systems in Botswana. Journal of Energy in Southern
Africa, 11(1)
Barker, R., van Koppen, B. and Shah,T. (2000). A Global Perspective on
Water Scarcity/Poverty:Achievements and Challenges for Water
Resource Management. International Water Management Institute,
Colombo. http://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/pubs/WWVisn/Water%20Scarcity
%20&%20Poverty.pdf
CGIAR (2000). CGIAR Annual Report 2000:The Challenge of Climate
Change: Poor Farmers at Risk. Consultative Group on International
Agricultural Research.World Bank,Washington, D.C.
http://www.worldbank.org/html/cgiar/publications/annreps/cgar00/cg
ar00txt.pdf
Chenje, M. (ed. 2000). State of the Environment Zambezi Basin 2000.
Southern African Development Community, IUCN The World
Conservation Union, Zambezi River Authority, Southern African
Research and Documentation Centre, Maseru/Lusaka/Harare
Chenje, M. and Johnson, P. (ed. 1996). State of the Environment in
Southern Africa. Southern African Research and Documentation Centre,
IUCN The World Conservation Union, and Southern African
Development Community. Johannesburg
75
76
SECTION 2
Atmosphere
77
78
CHAPTER 3
LAND
Lead Author: Munyaradzi Chenje
Contributing Authors: Clever Mafuta, Ahmed Abdelrheim
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS
53
covering
countries,
Sudan
is
the
largest,
of poor quality and have limitations which make lowinput agriculture on which many people depend a
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
impermeable,
Wetlands
21.8 per cent of the land area (FAO 2003). About 16.8 per
frequently
waterlogged,
easily
Arable land
SECTION 2
Figure 1: Eco-regions
major cities
protected areas
boreal forest/taigas
deserts and xeric shrublands
flooded grasslands
mangroves
Mediterranean scrub
montane grasslands
temperate broadleaf and mixed forests
temperate coniferous forests
tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests
tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannahs, and shrublands
tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests
water
Source: UNEP/DEWA/GRID 2006; Data from:
Olhson and Dinerstein 2006, WDPA 2005, WWF undated
Land
79
80
Mountains
SECTION 2
Land
Mountainous chain
Height (m)
Countries
Kilimanjaro
Rift Valley
5 895
Tanzania
Mount Kenya
Rift Valley
5 199
Kenya
Ruwenzori
Mitumba Mountains
5 119
Ras Dascian
Simen Mountains
4 620
Ethiopia
Karisimbi
Mitumba Mountains
4 507
Rwanda
Jebel Toubkal
Haut Atlas
4 167
Morocco
Mont Cameroun
Adamoua
4 070
Cameroon
Thabana Ntlenyana
Drakensberg
3 482
Lesotho
Injasuti
Drakensberg
3 446
South Africa
Emi Koussi
Tibesti
3 415
Chad
Kinyeti
Al Istiwaiyah
3 187
Sudan
Jabal Marrah
Jabal Marrah
3 088
Sudan
Runion Island
3 069
Runion (France)
Bioko Island
3 008
Equatorial Guinea
Satipwa Peak
Mulanje Mountains
3 002
Malawi
Tahat
Ahaggar
2 918
Algeria
Maromokotro
Tsaratanana
2 876
Madagascar
Pico de Fogo
Fogo Island
2 829
Cape Verde
Jabal Hamoyet
2 780
Eritrea
Serra Mco
Planalto do Bi
2 620
Angola
Mount Brandberg
Namib Desert
2 606
Namibia
Nyangani
Manicaland Mountains
2 593
Zimbabwe
Surud Ad
Cal Madow
2 408
Somalia
Kartala
2 361
Comoros
Mount Grboun
Ar Azbine
2 310
Niger
Makutu Mountains
Makutu Mountains
2 164
Zambia
Musa Ali
Danakil Mountains
2 063
Djibouti/Eritrea/Ethiopia
Vogel Peak
Shebshi Mountains
2 042
Nigeria
Pico de So Tom
So Tom Island
2 024
Bintimani
Loma Mountains
1 948
Sierra Leone
Emlembe
Lebonboberge
1 862
Swaziland
Nimba Mountains
Nimba Mountains
1 752
Cte dIvoire/Guinea
Mont Iboundji
Massif du Chaillu
1 575
Gabon
Deserts
(GraphicMaps.com undated).
oil and gas deposits also exist in Algeria and Libya (The
81
82
landforms
plateaux,
such
as
plains,
valleys,
terrestrial features
environmental
governance
and
thus
resource
include landforms
levels.
such as plains,
valleys, plateaux,
mountains, deltas
Governance
today
will
have
important
animals. In terms of
economics, land
resources also
and peninsulas,
timber, crops,
animals and fish.
broad
methodology
for
the
valuation
of
Agriculture
Hamblin 1998
directly on it.
People are central, including those who own the land or property rights.
SECTION 2
83
Land
Indirect values
Option values
Non-use values
Intrinsic significance in
use of resources:
terms of:
Domestic use
Land quality
Pharmaceutical
Culture
Industrial input
Soils
Agricultural
Aesthetic
Commercial use
Micro-organisms
Industrial
Heritage
Mining
Water flow
Mining
Bequest etc.
Oil extraction
Water storage
Tourism
Growing crops
Water recharge
Forestry
Human settlements
Flood control
Human settlements
Wood fuel
Storm protection
Leisure etc.
Wild plants
Nutrient retention
Wild animals
Moisture retention
Tourism
Microclimate
produced competitively.
84
Agriculture in Africa accounts for about 60 per cent of the total labour force,
Between 1997 and 1999, about 200 million people or 28 per cent of Africas
Only 10 countries reduced the number of the hungry during the 1990s. At the
end of the 1990s, 30 countries had over 20 per cent of their population
food aid has spent US$12 500 million (45 per cent of its total investment
since its establishment) in Africa and 50 per cent in 2001. In 2000, Africa
received 2.8 million tonnes of food aid, which is 25 per cent of the world total.
Africa spent an estimated US$18 700 million on food imports in 2000 alone.
Imports of agricultural products have been rising faster than exports since the
1960s, and Africa as a whole has been a net agricultural importing region
since 1980.
the burden of food imports and opening the way to an expansion of exports.
A mere 7 per cent (barely 3.7 per cent in sub-Saharan Africa) of Africas arable
land is irrigated, compared to 10 per cent, 29 per cent and 41 per cent for
South America, East and Southeast Asia and South Asia respectively.
Soils covering 38 per cent of the region are classified as having low nutrient
reserves.
SECTION 2
85
Land
Irrigation can
increase crop yields
and food security.
Source: D.Tiveau/CIFOR
Source: Y. Katerere
food supplies.
about 4 per cent of the total land area (WRI and others
communication technologies;
86
1 778 ha or 4.9 per cent of the city area was set aside
Urban settlements
can offer important
opportunities for
trade, culture,
education and
development.
Source: V. Rabesahala
SECTION 2
Land
Administration 2005e).
2003 was 2.7 million bbl/d and the top oil consumers
87
88
revenues in 2004. Over the next two decades, the country expects to
CHAD
SUDAN
NIGERIA
Doba
Five per cent would be ploughed into a fund for future generations,
MEURMEOUEL
and another 5 per cent would be used to develop the southern oil
region, near the border with Cameroon. The remaining 10 per cent
Oil pipeline
CENTRAL
AFRICAN REPUBLIC
Kribi
CAMEROON
of
profit groups and five from government, must approve all oil revenue
GABON
Guinea
500 kilometres
However, the project has not been without its critics. Damage to the
environment has been a major concern.
New oil venture in Chad provides opportunities.
Sources: MacLaughlin 2004, Tcheyan 2003
SECTION 2
89
Land
Cultural heritage
offers important
opportunities for
tourism.
effects,
hotel
with
revenue
spreading
from
1990
1995
2000
2002
2003
15 160
20 438
28 154
29 492
30 763
6 402
8 544
10 608
11 843
15 494
90
Tourists at Bemaraha
Tsingy, a UNESCO
World Heritage site,
Madagascar.
Source: R. Butler/
WildMadagascar
interactive
empowerment initiatives.
decision
making
to
community
development
and
minimize
overexploitation.
SECTION 2
Land
FOR DEVELOPMENT
annually
(WHO/TDR
2002).
The
WHO/Special
HIV/AIDS pandemic
before 2020.
two decades.
sector in Africa:
world.
Other diseases
Malaria,
water-borne
diseases,
tuberculosis,
diseases
are
also
and
labour
productivity
significant
some
91
92
high non-susceptible
high susceptible
low non-susceptible
low susceptible
medium non-susceptible
medium susceptible
non degraded
very high non-susceptible
very high susceptible
Source: UNEP/ISRIC
SECTION 2
Land
Pests
September 2004
October 2004
93
94
expenditure
on
control
measures.
The
World
pesticides.
national
11:
The
Chemicals
centre
considers
also
the
trains
challenges
and
Armed conflict
Invasive alien species
by 2005.
This was to be done through land and tenure reform which respects
Source: UN 2002b
SECTION 2
Land
urbanization
and
governance
issues
infrastructural
and
policies
development,
are
complex,
95
96
Land-use management
Effective land-use management, which takes into
account equity and access issues and tenure rights, is
critical to sustainable development in Africa. Ineffective
land-use planning and management can only lead to
overexploitation of the resource, contributing to
increased land degradation, salinization, pollution, soil
erosion and conversion of fragile lands.
Source: M.Pimbert
amongst
other
things
promotes
industrial
SECTION 2
Land
Year of
Country
Algeria
2004
2006
the
International
Year
of
Deserts
and
submission
Benin
2000
Botswana*
2001
Burkina Faso
2000
Burundi
2005
Cape Verde
2000
Chad
2000
2004
Djibouti
2000
Egypt
2005
Eritrea
2002
to action.
Ethiopia
2000
Gambia
2000
Ghana
2002
Kenya
2002
Lesotho
2000
Africa
Madagascar
2001
Malawi
2001
Mali
2000
Mauritania
2002
national,
Morocco
2002
for
environment
and
natural
resources
programmes
and
in
and
regional
desertification
and
action
land
Mozambique
2002
Niger
2000
Nigeria
2001
Senegal
2000
South Africa
2004
Sudan
2002
projects
to
combat
desertification
and
land
Swaziland
2000
Tanzania
2000
Togo
2002
Tunisia
2000
Uganda
2000
Zambia
2002
Zimbabwe
2000
97
98
desertification in Africa. The TPNs are networks of institutions and agencies linked
together via an institutional focal point. Regional, sub-regional and national focal
institutions will involve key actors at regional, sub-regional and national levels in
warning systems;
Desertification
database
and
Drought
(UNSO)),
made
which
is
usable
across
scales
and
SUB-REGIONAL SECTIONS
CENTRAL AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF LAND RESOURCES
SECTION 2
99
Land
Country
Cameroon
Central African Republic
Total area
Land area
Agricultural area
Agricultural as %
Total forest
(1 000 ha)
(1 000 ha)
(1 000 ha)
of total area*
47 544
46 540
9 160
19.27
23 858
62 298
62 298
5 149
8.27
22 907
Chad
128 400
125 920
48 630
37.87
12 692
234 486
226 705
22 800
9.72
135 207
34 200
34 150
10 547
30.84
22 060
2 805
2 805
334
11.91
1 752
26 767
25 767
5 160
19.28
21 826
96
96
56
58.33
27
536 596
524 281
101 836
18.98
240 329
* aggregated data
Cocoa farmers collecting cocoa pods, So Tom and Prncipe. National Smallholders Support
Programme.
Source: G.Planchenault/IFAD
Administration 2005a).
FOR DEVELOPMENT
Cameroon
and
the
Central
African
Republic,
100
EASTERN AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF LAND RESOURCES
decades,
displacing
people
and
causing
land
the sub-region.
developmental priority.
000 km2
26
000 ha
% of total area
000 ha
1 414
54.4
1 180
% of potential
83.5
Djibouti
23
0.0
Ethiopia
1 101
42 945
39
11 012
25.6
Eritrea
94
590
6.3
519
88.0
Kenya
569
15 845
27.8
4 520
28.5
Rwanda
25
746
29.8
1 170
156.8
Somalia
627
2 381
3.8
1 020
42.8
200
14 169
70.8
6 800
48.0
2 665
78 090
29.3
26 221
33.6
Uganda
Total
SECTION 2
101
Land
Figure 4: Land use and land cover for Eastern African countries (1994)
% coverage
70
60
Burundi
Kenya
Djibouti
Rwanda
Eritrea
Somalia
Ethiopia
Uganda
50
40
30
20
10
0
arable land
permanent crops
permanent pasture
other
102
management levels.
growth.
on
The
Intergovernmental
Authority
SECTION 2
Land
000 km2
Burundi
26
Djibouti
23
Eritrea
94
Ethiopia
Kenya
Severe
Very severe
area (%)
000 km2*
area (%)
000 km2*
76
55
51.7
4.136
1 101
88.08
20
17.616
569
19
108.11
11
11.8921
Rwanda
25
71
Somalia
627
15
200
41
82
12
Uganda
Total
Total (severe - v. severe)*
2 665
373.3741
9.84
329.89
43.4841
14.01
* aggregated data
includes
freehold
tenure,
state
leasehold
and
others 1994).
103
NORTHERN AFRICA
233 590 ha, which is nearly 28.8 per cent of the total
from the alluvial soils of the river basins, the desert soils
are of inferior chemical, physical and nutritional
properties. In general, soil resilience is rather weak with
rapid responses to development and degradation.
The extent of use of arable land varies considerably
among the countries. Some countries have already fully
utilized the land resources available to them, while
38
36
A farmer using an irrigation pump near the village of Talla in the El Minya district. Egypt-Minya Agricultural Development Project.
Source: G. Bizzarri/IFAD
02
98
20
94
19
90
19
86
19
82
19
78
19
74
19
70
19
30
19
32
66
62
34
19
19
104
SECTION 2
105
Land
Figure 6: Northern Africa countries: agricultural area (as per cent of land area)
80
Morocco
70
Algeria
Tunisia
Libya
Sudan
Egypt
60
50
40
30
10
smallholder
paramount
importance
for
the
sustainable
FOR DEVELOPMENT
environmental degradation.
02
20
98
19
94
90
19
19
19
86
82
19
78
19
74
19
19
70
19
66
traditional
19
alongside
62
developing
20
106
Source: Y. Katerere
SOUTHERN AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF LAND RESOURCES
human settlements.
Country
Angola
Botswana
124.7
3.0
58.2
0.3
3.0
0.3
Malawi
11.8
2.1
Mozambique
80.2
3.9
Namibia
82.4
0.8
122.1
114.7
1.7
0.1
Swaziland
Tanzania
94.5
4.0
Zambia
75.3
5.3
Zimbabwe
Total
Source: Y. Katerere
Arable land
(in million ha)
Lesotho
South Africa
Total area
(in million ha)
39.1
5.2
693.0
139.7
SECTION 2
not
derive
the
same
benefit
(ECA
2005).
Land
25
20
15
10
00
99
20
19
98
97
19
95
96
19
19
19
94
19
93
92
19
91
19
19
19
90
Africa (30 per cent) (ECA 2005). The land tenure system
making,
Guveya 1998).
poor
resource-mobilization,
inadequate
Communal/Tribal/
Conservation/Minerals/
Customary (%)
Angola
5.4
88.0
6.6
Botswana
5.0
70.0
25.0
Country
Lesotho
5.0***
90.0
5.0
Malawi
4.3
78.7
17.0
Mozambique
2.9
93.0
4.1
Namibia
44.0
41.0
15.0
South Africa
72.0
14.0
14.0
Swaziland
40.0
60.0**
Tanzania
1.5
84.0
14.5
Zambia
3.1
89.0
7.9
41.0*
42.0
16.0
Zimbabwe
107
108
challenges:
services;
to
in
declining
landholding
sizes
as
shown
Table 10: Per capita access to land and food production trends 1980-2000
Per capita arable land area (ha)
Country
1980
1990
2000
1990
1995
1999
Angola
0.5
0.36
0.28
120
98
104
105
Botswana
1.5
1.06
0.70
103
100
92
79
DRC
101
101
90
68
Lesotho
0.2
0.18
0.12
112
111
80
83
Malawi
0.4
0.28
0.36
137
97
100
140
86
101
100
77
0.3
0.20
0.21
119
107
89
104
142
96
96
77
Mauritius
Mozambique
Namibia
South Africa
Swaziland
112
98
79
888
0.3
0.21
0.14
110
97
76
69
Tanzania
0.3
0.19
0.18
102
100
86
83
Zambia
0.9
0.62
0.21
94
94
82
83
Zimbabwe
0.4
0.29
105
104
68
92
* data unavailable
SECTION 2
109
Land
Box 7: Food security objectives of the Regional Indicative Strategic Development Plan
measures that improve income stability and equity, and develop safety
nets (such as food for work, cash for work and targeted distribution of
humid 19%
hyper-arid 21%
dry
sub-humid
11%
WESTERN AFRICA
arid 26%
semi-humid 23%
Source: CILSS 2005
110
1990
2003
1990
2003
1990
2003
Benin
11 062
11 062
1 615
2 650
550
550
Burkina Faso
27 360
27 360
3 520
4 840
6 000
6 000
403
403
41
46
25
25
Cape Verde
Cte dIvoire
31 800
31 800
2 430
3 300
13 000
13 000
Gambia
1 000
1 000
182
315
450
459
Ghana
22 754
22 754
2 700
4 185
8 405
8 350
Guinea
24 572
24 572
728
1 100
10 788
10 700
Guinea-Bissau
2 812
2 812
300
300
1 080
1 080
Liberia
9 632
9 632
400
382
1 993
2 000
Mali
122 019
122 019
2 053
4 660
30 000
30 000
Mauritania
102 522
102 522
400
488
39 250
39 250
Niger
126 670
126 670
11 036
14 483
22 000
24 000
Nigeria
91 077
91 077
29 539
30 500
40 000
39 200
Senegal
19 253
19 253
2 325
2 460
5 744
5 650
7 162
7 162
486
570
2 204
2 200
Sierra Leone
Togo
5 439
5 439
2 100
2 510
1 000
1 000
Total
605 537
605 537
59 855
72 789
182 489
183 464
Administration 2005b).
Mining, including for gold, phosphates, iron, uranium
and diamonds, offers opportunities for development.
FOR DEVELOPMENT
cent and 6 per cent of the GDP for the Seychelles and
(FAO 2003).
Seychelles.
FOR DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 2
111
Land
Table 12: The extent of land area in the Western Indian Ocean island countries and the population
Population
Land area
Population density
Population growth
Population growth
Land use
Millions
km2
Pop/km2
% per year
% of total land
Coastline
Agriculture as
Countries
Comoros
km
0.7
2 171
315
2.6
18.2
34
469
16.4
587 041
27
2.7
442.8
53
9 935
Mauritius
1.2
2 045
581
0.8
9.6
44
496
Seychelles
0.1
455
173
0.8
0.0
84
746
18.4
591 712
31.09
2. 56
470.6
53
11 646
Madagascar
Total
100
km2
(FAO 2005).
1972
90
80
70
1990
2001
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Comoros
Madagascar
Mauritius
for
promoting
and
established
the economy.
more
equitable
development
mechanisms
for
Seychelles
112
CONCLUSION
Land is a key factor in sustainably managing the
environment for development in Africa, but there are
many challenges to be overcome. The region has
sufficient land resources to produce enough food to
feed its people and yet one in three people in the
region is presently undernourished (USAID 2003).
Increasing agricultural production in Africa the
dominant economic activity in most parts of the region
is the key to addressing extreme poverty and hunger
(USAID 2003).
Although mainly arid and semi-arid, Africa has
significant freshwater resources to harness and expand
irrigated agriculture and enhance food production, and
yet governments often depend on food imports and/or
humanitarian aid. The challenges of physically
Sugar cane fields, Mauritius.
Source: A. Mohamed
the future use of land and could involve conversion of 5 000 ha by 2020.
Port Louis and central area of Plaines Wilhems has put acute stress on
About 800 ha of land could be needed for new business parks and
may be needed for new schools, colleges and universities and other
its effects on the health of the urban population and delays in travelling
the proposed Light Railway system and new water storage dams.
guidelines for set-back, sea defences, access to the beach and height of
sewage and solid wastes, and beach erosion. The Tourism Development
Plan for Mauritius (2002) predicts that provision for tourists will expand
priorities. This will all require more attention from professionals, skilled
northern tourist zone, 50 per cent in the western area, and 50 per cent
SECTION 2
Land
different levels.
113
114
References
equality
to
ensuring
environmental
SECTION 2
Land
FAO (2004a). FAO intensifies locust campaign in West Africa. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/news/2004/50990/index.html
FAO (2004b). Hunger in their wake: inside the battle against the desert
locust. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
http://www.fao.org/newsroom/en/focus/2004/51040/
115
116
LUPRD (1989). Manual for Grassroot Level Land Use Planning. Land
Use Planning and Regulatory Department. Ministry of Agriculture,
Addis Ababa
Henricksen, B.L. (ed. 1988). Master Land Use Plan, Ethiopia, Main
Report. United Nations Development Programme / Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome
Hirji, R., Johnson, P., Maro, P. and Matiza Chiuta,T. (eds. 2002). Defining
and Mainstreaming Environmental Sustainability in Water Resources
Management in Southern Africa. Southern African Development
Community, IUCN The World Conservation Union, Southern African
Research and Documentation Centre and World Bank, Maseru/Harare/
Washington, D.C.
Hounsome, R. and Ashton, P. (2001). Sustainable Development for the
Mining and Minerals Sector in Southern Africa. Draft Position Paper.
Proceedings of the Sustainable Development Workshop, Stellenbosch,
South Africa, 31 March. http://www.mining.wits.ac.za/Peterob.doc
Howard, G.W. and Matindi, S.W. (2003). Alien Invasive Species in
Africas Wetlands Some threats and solutions. IUCN The World
Conservation Union, Nairobi. http://www.iucn.org/places/earo/pubs/
wetlands/INVASIVE.PDF
IIED and WBCSD (2002). Breaking New Ground: Mining, Minerals, and
Sustainable Development the Report of the MMSD Project.
International Institute for Environment and Development and World
Business Council for Sustainable Development. Earthscan Publications
Ltd, London. http://www.iied.org/mmsd/finalreport/
ILRI (2004). Raising Livestock Production in Africa: summary note.
Proceedings of the Assuring Food and Nutrition Security in Africa by
2020: Prioritizing Action, Strengthening Actors, and Facilitating
Partnerships Conference. Kampala, Uganda. 1-3 April. International
Livestock Research Institute. http://www.ifpri.org/2020africa
conference/program/day2summaries/sere.pdf
Infoplease (2005). So Tom and Prncipe.
http://www.infoplease.com/ipa/A0107943.html
IATFUN (2000).The elimination of food insecurity in the Horn of Africa: a
strategy for concerted government and UN agency action final report.
Inter-Agency Task Force of the United Nations. http://www.fao.org/
documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOCREP/003/X8406E/X8406e00.
htm
SECTION 2
Land
Payet, R.A., Soogun, N., Ranaivoson, E., Payet, R.J., and Ali Abdallah, F.
(2004). Indian Ocean Islands Global International Waters Assessment
Regional Assessment 45b. United Nations Environment Programme,
Nairobi. http://www.unep.org/PDF/SIDS/giwa_regional_assessment_
45b.pdf
Pickrell, J. (2004).Africas Mountain Gorillas Rebound, Says New
Census. National Geographic News, January 27, 2004.
http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2004/01/0127_040127_g
orillas.html#main
Rahmato, D. (2004). Searching for Tenure Security? The Land System
and New Policy Initiatives in Ethiopia. Forum for Social Studies
Discussion Paper No. 12. Forum for Social Studies,Addis Ababa
Reich, P.F., Numbem, S.T.,Almaraz, R.A. and Eswaran, H. (2001). Land
Resource Stresses and Desertification in Africa. In Responses to Land
Degradation. Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Land
Degradation and Desertification, Khon Kaen,Thailand (eds. Bridges,
E.M., Hannam, I.D., Oldeman, L.R., Pening de Vries, F.W.T., Scherr, S.J.
and Sompatpanit, S.), 2nd International Conference on Land
Degradation: Meeting the Challenges of Land Degradation in the 21st
Century. Khon Khaen,Thailand, 25-29 January 1999. Oxford Press,
New Delhi. http://soils.usda.gov/use/worldsoils/papers/desertificationafrica.html
SADC (2004a). Mining Sector Mining in SADC Member States.
Southern African Development Community, Gaborone.
http://www.sadc.int/index.php?action=a1001&page_id=tifi_mining
SADC (2004b). Southern African Development Community Regional
Indicative Strategic Development Plan. Southern African Development
Community, Gaborone. http://www.sadc.int/english/documents/risdp/
index.php
SADC (2000). SADC Statistics Facts and Figures. Southern African
Development Community, Gaborone.
Saunders, D.J. (undated).Africa Needs More Liberalized Trade
Initiatives for the Continued Growth and Sustainability of its Travel and
Tourism Industry. Africa Travel Magazine. http://www.africaata.org/trade_2.htm
Shiferaw, B. (1994). Dual Sector Model Government Intervention and
Biases against Agriculture:Theory and Some Evidences from Ethiopia.
In Development, Poverty and Environment: Proceedings from a Nordic
Course in Development Economics (ed. Holden, S.).Agricultural
University of Norway,Aas
Simms,A., Magrath, J. and Reid, H. (2004). Up in smoke? Threats from
and responses to the impact of global warming on human development.
New Economics Foundation, London. http://www.neweconomics.org/
gen/uploads/igeebque0l3nvy455whn42vs19102004202736.pdf
Sisay, Z. (1999).Water Economy and its Implication on Pastoral
Livestock Production. Proceedings of the National Workshop on
Challenges and Opportunities for Research and Development in
Pastoral/Agropastoral Areas of Ethiopia (eds. Mitiku, H.Tegegne,T.,
Alemayehu,A., Dirres,T and Merha, Z.), Mekelle, Ethiopia, 16-18
December 1998
117
118
SECTION 2
119
CHAPTER 4
FRESHWATER
Lead Authors: Kevin Pietersen, Hans Beekman
Contributing Authors: Allali Abdelkader, Hesham Ghany, Alfred Opere, Eric Odada, Tenalem Ayenew,
Dagnachew Legesse, Luc Sigha-Nkamdjou, Lekan Oyebande, Ahmed Abdelrehim
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS
water
means
that
regional
and
sub-regional
An Africa where
there is an equitable
and management of
poverty alleviation,
socioeconomic
accomplishing
development,
regional
cooperation, and
the environment.
New
Partnership
for
Africas
120
Box 1: The Africa Water Vision for 2025: targets for urgent water needs
By 2015:
By 2025:
transportation.
transportation.
sustainability.
sustainability.
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
Area
(million)
(1 000 km2)
(mm/yr)
(km3/yr)
Northern Africa
174
8 259
195
1 611
79
>1
Western Africa
224
6 138
629
3 860
1 058
27
Central Africa
82
5 366
1 257
6 746
1 743
44
Sub-region
Average precipitation
Percentage
Eastern Africa
144
2 758
696
1919
187
Southern Africa
150
6 930
778
5395
537
14
19
594
1 518
2 821
345
793
30 045
744
22 352
3 949
SECTION 2
Freshwater
10W
10E
20E
30E
40E
50E
Mediterranean
Sea
30N
30N
Nile
Tropic of Cancer
Red
Lake
Nasser
20N
20N
Sea
Senegal
Lake
Chad
Niger
Lake Chad
Ni
ge
Ni
10N
er
Volta
Nile
10N
Nile
Co
Lake
Turkana
Juba
Shibeli
ngo (Zare)
Lake
Victoria
Equator
Equator
Ogooue
Congo
Atlantic
Ocean
Lake
Tanganyika
Indian
Ocean
10 S
10 S
Zambezi
Za
2 500 m
be
Lake
Malawi
zi
1 500 m
1 000 m
20 S
20 S
Okavango
500 m
200 m
Tropic of Capricorn
Limpopo
100 m
0
Orange
30 S
Orange
2 000 kilometres
30 S
10W
10E
20E
30E
40E
50E
Source UNEP 2002c; Data from Revenga and others 1998, Rekacewicz 1996, Wolf and others 1999
increasing
m3
water
demand,
overexploitation
and
121
122
Tunisia
Morocco
Algeria
Libya
Cape Verde
Is.
Egypt
Niger
Eritrea
Burkina
Faso
Togo
Ghana
Djibouti
Nigeria
Somalia
Ethiopia
Uganda
7
6
Kenya
Rwanda
Burundi
Tanzania
stress
scarcity
Comoros
Malawi
medium
4
3
Zimbabwe
low
Mozambique
Mauritius
1
Swaziland
1995
South
Africa
2050
population projections
Lesotho
Wetlands
Wetlands tend to be found where water is spread out and the speed of water flow
and also leads to saturation of the soils for extended periods, creating anoxic
conditions below the surface (the bad egg smell in some wetland sediments).
The saturated conditions create a favourable environment for certain plants and
micro-organisms to grow. The waterlogged state of the soil slows down the
decomposition of the soils organic matter and provides a suitable environment for
many chemical processes that help to trap pollutants like heavy metals.
people. One important ecosystem service is the removal of nutrients and other
abundant plant growth, and creating waterlogged soils which support the activity
SECTION 2
123
Freshwater
Figure 3: Water supply and sanitation coverage in rural and urban settings between 1990 and 2002 for Africa
% population
% population
100
100
water
80
86
89
sanitation
target
86
coverage
68
60
58
target
80
coverage
72
65
60
63
64
57
54
51
40
46
40
43
39
20
28
20
43
31
0
1990
2002
urban
1990
2002
rural
1990
2002
total
1990
2002
urban
1990
2002
rural
1990
2002
total
sanitation.
Irrigation
Children playing in
a stream on the
outskirts of
Brazzaville, Congo.
Source: M. Marzot/FAO
124
Hydropower
ha, and the Nile basin which provides over 50 per cent of
basins is less (eg Congo: only 0.4 per cent; Zambezi: only
5 per cent; and Niger: 33 per cent). With its 30.3 million
km2
Dams fundamentally
use of a natural
resource, frequently
entailing a relocation
of benefits from
to new groups of
beneficiaries at
a regional or
national level.
WCD 2000
m3
per annum to
SECTION 2
125
Freshwater
FOR DEVELOPMENT
increasing
water
demand,
overexploitation
and
capacity,
policy
Global freshwater
consumption rose
sixfold between
and
weak
regulatory
and
rate of population
population already
lives in countries
considered to be
water stressed
that is where
consumption
of supply. If present
trends continue,
three people on
Kofi Annan,
Secretary General of the
United Nations. 2000
(WCD
2000).
hydropower
With
careful
potential
can
planning,
be
however,
developed
and
condition by 2025.
Tourism
Water-based tourism is important in several localities and
in such places it is often an integral part of livelihoods
systems, providing a range of income and business
opportunities. Zimbabwes Lake Kariba and Malawis Lake
Malawi are examples of this, and support photographic
and sports-based tourism. Lake Malawi hosts a rich
Pollution of rivers
from industry is a
growing problem in
many parts of Africa.
Source: M. Chenje
126
sectors,
in
particular,
produce
high
water-related conflicts.
SECTION 2
Freshwater
Many people do not
have easy access to
potable water. Here,
women collect water
in a forest in
Cameroon.
Source: J. Nguiebouri/
CIFOR
Knowledge gaps
There is generally an information bias towards water
quantity against quality. Information on groundwater
resources is also less detailed and accurate in
comparison with surface water resources. More
information is needed in the areas of climate variability
and change, water pollution and environmental flow.
More and longer-term time-series of data and analyses
are also needed, and what still needs to be resolved is
the often restricted access to databases and the limited
sharing
of
transboundary
information.
Better
Food security
supply
between
1990
and
2002
(Figure
3,
127
Public health
128
Environmental degradation
reliable flow of water for most of the time (wet and dry
Financial resources
19761990
19912000
NO3-N mg/L
SECTION 2
Freshwater
Fika Phatso Dam in the eastern Free State, South Africa. In recent years there has been a dramatic fall in water levels due to, among other
factors, overutilization.
Source: A. Mohamed
FOR DEVELOPMENT
Improved governance
and
available
economic development.
at
the
same
time
maximize
(GWP 2006). Countries which are undergoing watersector reform have often restructured their institutional
balance
for
ecosystem integrity);
the
different
water
uses
(eg
sector
and
their
responsibilities
regarding
enabling
environment
for
effective
cooperative
129
130
Resources (TWR)
Fostering partnerships.
framework (plans that require more time for preparation and development).
Facilitating capacity-building.
sanitation sector).
Political will and a strategic approach to address this
At a consultation meeting in June 2003, the African Development Bank (AfDB) and its
development partners (including the World Bank), agreed to provide support to NEPAD
for the implementation of STAP-TWR. It was also agreed that NEPADs involvement in
transboundary water resource management would initially focus on the following river
basins: Niger and Senegal in Western Africa, Nile in Eastern Africa, Congo and Lake
For
establishing
adequate
monitoring
and
capacity development.
Mainstreaming gender
be applied, in particular:
Establishing
and
sustaining
national
and
(Box 5).
Sustainable water resources management requires
Centre); and
SECTION 2
131
Freshwater
new ideas and technologies, and to change social and political realities
(NBCBN-RE).
to meet critical needs within their human and financial resources and
supporting action at the local, national, regional or river basin level that
important role.
Finances
A study conducted in the Peddie region of South Africa looked at four villages,
schemes. The Peddie water scheme is a Build, Operate, Train and Transfer
(BOTT) scheme, which means that the community was involved in the
sustainability of the scheme, and to a certain extent the maintenance. The study
found that cultural norms restricted women from asserting themselves in the
presence of men. Culture practices did not allow women to interact with outsiders
such as project implementing agents. As a result, the needs and concern of the
of
community
initiatives
and
non-
132
that
render
many
socioeconomic
benefits
to
SUB-REGIONAL OVERVIEWS
CENTRAL AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
SECTION 2
133
Freshwater
and deforestation.
irrigation projects and fisheries, in the four countries sharing the lake:
Chad, Nigeria, Niger and Cameroon. However, the lake has dramatically
attributed to shifting climate patterns. Since the 1960s, the region has
decreased in size since the early 1960s, from approximately 25 000 km2
Fifty per cent of the decrease in the lakes size is attributed to human
water use. The lake has been the source of water for large and
especially over the period 1983 to 1994, when irrigation water use
Figure 5: A chronology of change: natural and anthropogenic factors affecting Lake Chad
1987
1973
1963
Chad
Chad
Chad
Niger
Niger
Niger
Nigeria
Nigeria
Cameroon
Nigeria
Cameroon
Cameroon
1997
2001
water
former shoreline
vegetation
Chad
Niger
Nigeria
Niger
Chad
Nigeria
Cameroon
Cameroon
134
The DRC, CAR, and the Congo fall within it (FAO 1997).
For the DRC, 98.7 per cent of its land area falls within
the basin; for Congo this is 72.2 per cent; for the CAR
EASTERN AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
of Lake Chad; see Box 6 and Figure 5). The demand for
SECTION 2
Freshwater
population increase.
In Eritrea, the Nile basin could support 60 000300 000 ha of irrigated land.
135
136
of
catchment,
devegetation
of
wetlands,
and
environmental sustainability.
FOR DEVELOPMENT
communities
(UNEP
2004).
This
has
led
to
SECTION 2
Freshwater
Hippos are one of the main attractions at the Mara River, Kenya.
Source: C. Lambrechts/UNEP
137
138
catchment support 30 million people, and fisheries and agriculture are the main
economic activities. In 1995, the three riparian countries, Kenya, Uganda and
management
quality,
poor
inadequate
watershed
institutional
management,
capacity,
and
are
A water quality model for Lake Victoria for various uses, the establishment of
56 water quality monitoring stations and standardized monitoring procedures; and
Two major transboundary issues associated with the two upstream countries
Rwanda and Burundi were identified during LVEMP-1. These are the influx of
water hyacinth and siltation associated with deforestation. Both countries will
therefore be included in the second phase of the project. Some of the other issues
treatment); and
three
River
Basin
Management
and
Resources
Assessment
Programme
SECTION 2
Freshwater
NORTHERN AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
important
transboundary
water
basin.
coast and the Nile. The region lies in the arid or semi-
being
coastal areas.
implemented
precipitation (mm)
N/A
0100
100200
200400
400600
6001 000
1 0001 500
1 5002 000
1 000 kilometres
are
water
harvesting
for
139
140
the countrys 5.6 million inhabitants and for 130 000 ha of agricultural
at an early stage and its answer to the crisis was the Great Man-Made
from 38 000 to 7 000 years ago, will be drawn from four major
extractable water.
The project intends to draw water from aquifers beneath the Sahara
feasibility studies have shown that the cost of each litre of groundwater
(47 million m3 per year) and future water demands. The project will also
funded by the Libyan people in the form of levies on, for example, fuel,
SECTION 2
Freshwater
France and Spain combined, less than 5 per cent of its area
141
142
water
established
in
resource
management
decision-making
processes.
and
Transboundary
identification;
SECTION 2
Freshwater
sector,
developing
water
resource
plans
and
SOUTHERN AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
Precambrian
of
Belt
and
the
coastal
basins
143
144
Ethiopia
Sudan
Somalia
Uganda
Equatorial
Guinea
Gabon
Kenya
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Rwanda
Congo
Burundi
Tanzania
Angola
Malawi
Comoros
Zambia
Mozambique
Zimbabwe
Namibia
Swaziland
South Africa
Lesotho
dams
OPPORTUNITIES
There has been good progress in water sector reforms
OPPORTUNITIES
SECTION 2
Freshwater
increasingly
compiled
according
to
hydrologic
2000).
been
River
Basin
Commissions
have
145
Box 14: Private sector participation in the Zambian water supply and
sanitation sector
About 45 per cent of Zambias population of approximately ten million live in urban
areas, of which 50 to 70 per cent live in peri-urban areas. One of the major aims of
water sector reforms that the Zambian government has been implementing since
1994, was to alleviate the pressure on the water supply and sanitation situation.
Presently, the majority of the water supply and sanitation service provision
responsibilities have been devolved to local authorities and the private sector.
Water Supply and Sanitation Council under a provision in the Water Supply and
Sanitation Act of 1997 to improve the service provision in the low-income peri-
urban areas. The DTF assists Commercial Water Utilities in expanding their
services in these areas and also the establishment of water kiosks. These are low-
cost public outlets run by private water vendors who are linked by contract to
milestones:
quality of available water, if they are linked to the main water network.
alleviate the pressure on the water supply and sanitation situation in peri-urban
areas. It can contribute to realizing the target of halving the proportion of people
146
WESTERN AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
at 4 100 km, and the basin covers 1 471 000 km2; this
0.3
km3
(FAOSTAT 1997).
Another
challenge
is
to
protect
the
SECTION 2
Freshwater
OPPORTUNITIES
commercial lines;
efficiency; and
monopoly
on
water
supply
and
promote
competition.
hydropower subsector.
functions,
and
financing,
structure,
leadership
cooperate
with
international
partners
in
the
147
148
and so on.
and the other draining to the east into the Indian Ocean.
FOR DEVELOPMENT
improve services.
SECTION 2
149
Freshwater
close;
septic
being considered.
tanks,
substandard
equipment
and
an
Well-maintained marshes and rivers at the ornithological park, Bois dOiseaux, Mauritius.
is poorly managed.
Source: F. Silvio/TopFoto
150
OPPORTUNITIES
the
successful
implementation
of
the
1994
CONCLUSION
sustainability.
financial resources;
This
includes
interventions
to
and houses.
SECTION 2
151
Freshwater
Box 20: Thematic areas towards achieving the Africa Water Vision for the year 2025
Strengthening governance of water resources
Developing and implementing institutional reform and capacitybuilding at local, national and transboundary water basin levels;
Using the water basin as the unit for water resource management;
industry,
countries
and
Liberalizing water markets while meeting the basic needs of the poor.
management;
human needs;
References
Abromovitz, J.N. (1996). Worldwatch Paper #128: Imperilled Waters,
Impoverished Future:The Decline of Freshwater Ecosystems.
Worldwatch Institute,Washington, D.C.
AfDB (2004). NEPAD Infrastructure Short Term Action Plan (STAP).
African Development Bank and New Partnership for Africas
Development. http://www.apc.org/english/capacity/policy/mmtk_
ictpol_humanrights_NEPAD_AP.pdf#search=Nepad%20shortterm%2
0action%20plan
AfDB and ADF (2000). Policy for Integrated Water Resources
Management.African Development Bank and African Development
Fund. http://www.afdb.org/pls/portal/docs/PAGE/ADB_PAGEGROUP/
TOPICS/ADBPROJECTSECTORS/WATERSUPPLYANDSANITATION/INTEG
RATED_WATER_POLICY_APR2000.PDF
AMCOW (2003). Ministerial Communiqu on the Pan African
Implementation and Partnership Conference on Water, 12 December
2003, in Addis Ababa. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd12/
panafcon_ministerialCommunique_water.pdf
Amha, M.,Tessema, Z., Belete,Y.,Tucci, P., Kuniansky, E.L. and
Aggarwal, P. (2001). National Groundwater Resources Assessment
Programme for Ethiopia. Paper No. 56-0, Proceedings of the Geological
Society of America Annual Meeting, Boston, MA, USA, 5-8 November.
http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2001AM/finalprogram/abstract_17718.htm
Annan, K.A. (2000). We the Peoples:The role of the United Nations in the
21st Century. United Nations Department of Public Information, New
York. http://www.un.org/millennium/sg/report/full.htm
Ashton, P. and Ramasar,V. (2002). Chapter 16:Water and HIV/AIDS:
some strategic considerations in southern Africa. In Hydropolitics in the
Developing World:A Southern African Perspective (eds.Turton,A. and
Henwood, R.), pp 217-35.African Water Issues Research Unit, Pretoria.
http://www.internationalwaterlaw.org/Articles/hydropolitics_book.pdf
Ashton, P. (2005). Good governance: the catalyst for sustainable
groundwater management. Closing address, presented at Biennial
Groundwater Conference, 7-9 March 2005, Pretoria, South Africa.
AQUASTAT (2003).Aquastat 10-02-03.Food and Agriculture Organization
of the United Nations.ftp://ftp.fao.org/agl/aglw/aquastat/ aquastat2003.xls
Benoit, C. (undated). Explorations in Food and Water Security in the
Okavango River Basin of Southern Africa. http://www.coloradocollege.
edu/dept/ec/Faculty/Hecox/Benoit/Index.htm
Briscoe,J.(2000).The World Banks role in Water Resources Management
in Nigeria and its implications for the Banks Water Resources Sector
Strategy:Results of a consultation.The World Bank/International Finance
Corporation/Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency.Office
Memorandum,14 October.http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/ardext.
nsf/ 18ByDocName/NigeriaCountryStudyReport--Final/$FILE/Nigeria
CountryStudy.pdf
152
SECTION 2
Freshwater
153
154
WCD (2000). Dams and Development:A New Framework for Decisionmaking,The Report of the World Commission on Dams. Earthscan
Publications, London. http://www.dams.org//docs/report/wcdreport.pdf
Water-technology.net (undated). GMR (Great Man-Made River) Water
Supply Project, Libya. http://www.water-technology.net/projects/gmr/
WHO and UNICEF (2004). Meeting the MDG Drinking Water and
Sanitation Target: a Mid-term Assessment of Progress.World Health
Organization and United Nations Childrens Fund. http://www.who.int/
water_sanitation_health/monitoring/jmp04.pdf
WHO and UNICEF (2003). The Africa Malaria Report 2003.
WHO/CDS/MAL/2003.1093.World Health Organization and the United
Nations Childrens Fund. http://www.unicef.org/publications/files/pub_
africa_malaria_report_en.pdf
Wolf,A.T.,Natharius,J.A.,Danielson,J.J.,Ward,B.S.and Pender,J.K.
(1999).International River Basins of the World.International Journal of
Water Resources Development,15(4),387-427.http://www.transboundary
waters.orst.edu/publications/register/register_paper.html
World Bank (2000).Round Table on Water Resources Management,Federal
Ministry of Water Resources,Abuja,Nigeria (September 6-7,2000).
WRI in collaboration with UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank (2005). World
Resources 2005:The Wealth of the Poor Managing Ecosystems to Fight
Poverty.World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United Nations
Environment Programme, the United Nations Development Programme
and the World Bank.World Resources Series.World Resources Institute,
Washington, D.C. http://pdf.wri.org/wrr05_full_hires.pdf
WRI, UNDP, UNEP and World Bank (2000). World Resources 2000-2001:
People and Ecosystems - the Fraying Web of Life.World Resources
Institute,Washington, D.C.
WWC (2003). Financing Water for All. Report of the World Panel on
Financing Water Infrastructure.World Water Council, 3rd World Water
Forum and the Global Water Partnership.
www.gwpforum.org/gwp/library/ExecSum030703.pdf
WWF (2002).West Africa takes a leap forward for freshwater
conservation. Press Release, 16 February.
http://www.wwf.org.hk/eng/pdf/references/pressreleases_internation
al/print160202.html
WWF (2006.WWF in West Africa: the Niger River.
http://www.panda.org/about_wwf/where_we_work/africa/where/nige
r/niger_river/index.cfm
Zalla,T., Fawzy, M.A., Saad,A.Y., Ishak,Y., Riad, M. and El Noubi, H.M.
(2000).Availability and Quality of Agricultural Data for the New Lands in
Egypt. Impact Assessment Report No. 12.Abt Associates Inc., Cairo.
http://www.abtassociates.com/reports/IA12.pdf
SECTION 2
CHAPTER 5
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS
thus
decreasing
aggravating
livelihood
poverty.
opportunities
Degradation
has
and
become
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
others 2005).
155
156
mangrove diversity
high diversity
low diversity
mangrove forest
sea-grass diversity
high diversity
low diversity
sea-grass localities
coral diversity
high diversity
low diversity
coral
SECTION 2
157
Pacific Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
none
less than 30%
3070%
more than 70%
Shoreline
most altered
altered
least altered
selected coastal cities of more than one million people
Source: UNEP 2002c; data from Burke and others 2001, and Harrison and Pearce 2001
largest of the new oil reserves are those off the Niger
delta,
established
the Gulf of Gabs and off the Nile delta. Natural gas is in
itself
globally
important,
158
Figure 3: International tourism receipts in African coastal countries, 1990 and 2003
Egypt
South Africa
Morocco
Tunisia
Mauritius
Tanzania
Ghana
Botswana
Kenya
Namibia
Runion
Senegal
Seychelles
Algeria
Sudan
Mozambique
Cape Verde
Cte dIvoire
Madagascar
Nigeria
Benin
1990
2003
500
1 000
1 500
2 000
2 500
3 000
3 500
4 000
4 500
5 000
US$ million
opportunities
coastal
for
involving
indigenous
Seychelles
So Tom Prncipe
Gambia
Cape Verde
10
20
30
40
%
50
60
70
SECTION 2
159
Essaouira is a bustling coastal city in Morocco supporting the film industry, the arts, tourism
and thriving fisheries. Here, a view of Essaouira through an old city gate.
Source: J.C. Mohamed-Katerere
demersal species.
0.6
0.4
Northern Africa
Central Africa
Western Africa
Eastern Africa
0.2
2
19
83
19
84
19
85
19
86
19
87
19
88
19
89
19
90
19
91
19
92
19
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
19
8
19
81
19
80
Fishery production relates to catch of aquatic organisms, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from
inland, brackish and marine waters. The harvest from mariculture, aquaculture and other kinds of fish farming is also included. Catches
of fish, crustaceans and molluscs are expressed in live weight, that is the nominal weight of the aquatic organisms at the time of capture.
To assign nationality to catches, the flag of the fishing vessel is used, unless the wording of chartering and joint operation contracts
indicates otherwise.
Source: FAO Fisheries Department, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Units
160
national
governance,
the
benefits
to
coastal
lagoonal
wetlands,
are
becoming
increasingly
FOR DEVELOPMENT
Fishermen preparing
their nets, Cape
Town, South Africa.
Source: A. Mohamed
SECTION 2
161
Table 1: Issues, threats and constraints related to regional development opportunities and goals
Opportunities for development
Resource sustainability
Marine and coastal pollution, water- and airborne
Coastal habitat loss
Invasive species from tanker ballast waters
Tourism growth
Urban sprawl and habitat loss from construction and tourist pressures
Solid waste and sewage discharge; chemical effluents
Loss of amenity value
Coral bleaching
Coastal erosion, beach loss
Sea-level rise; extreme wave events
162
Table 2: Priority areas for promoting best practice in governance and management
Priority areas
Means
Coastal protection
Inter-sector cooperation
Sources: Alm 2002, Francis and Torell 2004, Hatziolos and others 1996, UNEP and EEA 1999, UNEP 2002a, UNEP 2004
important
or
opportunities.
Community-based
coastal management.
SECTION 2
in
addressing
coastal
and
marine
coastal
to
defence,
are
especially
vulnerable
Unsustainable fisheries
163
164
in ecotourism.
Tourism
and
empowerment
for
coastal
SECTION 2
SUB-REGIONAL OVERVIEWS
CENTRAL AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
Except for Chad and the Central African Republic, all the
165
Figure 6: Reported marine fish catches in Central African countries since 1950
thousand metric tonnes
70
60
50
Cameroon
40
30
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
Congo, Republic of
20
10
02
03
20
01
20
00
20
99
20
98
97
19
19
96
95
19
19
94
93
19
19
92
91
19
19
89
90
19
19
19
86
85
87
19
88
19
19
84
19
83
19
81
82
19
19
19
80
19
166
Fishery production relates to catch of aquatic organisms, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from
inland, brackish and marine waters. The harvest from mariculture, aquaculture and other kinds of fish farming is also included. Catches
of fish, crustaceans and molluscs are expressed in live weight, that is the nominal weight of the aquatic organisms at the time of capture.
To assign nationality to catches, the flag of the fishing vessel is used, unless the wording of chartering and joint operation contracts
indicates otherwise.
Source: FAO Fisheries Department, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Units
contains 1.3 x
1012
(NOAA 2003a).
employment opportunities.
SECTION 2
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
EASTERN AFRICA
The main concerns are the loss of biodiversity, habitat
degradation and the modification of mangrove and
coral reef ecosystems. Human-related pressures come
from overfishing and fishing-related damage, from
urbanization
and
tourism
development,
from
167
168
km2)
Gulf of Aden.
(2 000
titanium ore.
Lamu a UNESCO World Heritage site on the Kenyan coast, is a highly acclaimed tourist destination.
Source: S. Kppel
SECTION 2
OPPORTUNITIES
yet
overharvested,
some
countries
have
not
Figure 7: Reported marine fish catches in Eastern African countries since 1980
thousand metric tonnes
30
Somalia
Kenya
25
Eritrea
Djibouti
20
Ethiopia
15
10
5
02
03
20
01
20
00
20
99
20
98
97
19
19
96
95
19
19
94
93
19
19
92
91
19
19
89
90
19
19
19
86
87
19
88
19
19
85
84
19
19
83
82
19
19
81
19
19
80
Fishery production relates to catch of aquatic organisms, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from
inland, brackish and marine waters. The harvest from mariculture, aquaculture and other kinds of fish farming is also included. Catches
of fish, crustaceans and molluscs are expressed in live weight, that is the nominal weight of the aquatic organisms at the time of capture.
To assign nationality to catches, the flag of the fishing vessel is used, unless the wording of chartering and joint operation contracts
indicates otherwise.
Source: FAO Fisheries Department, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Units
169
170
Source: UN 2005
(Acreman 2005).
SECTION 2
171
Box 2: Management of the downstream and coastal impacts of damming in the Tana basin, Kenya
Tana and Athi Rivers Development Authority (TARDA) plans to construct
a high dam at Mutonga-Grand Falls, downstream of the existing Seven
Forks dams. The dam will provide hydroelectricity as well as water
storage for irrigation projects and urban/rural water supply schemes.
The dam has the potential to exacerbate the changes in downstream
flow caused by the present dams. Although the base flow is expected to
increase by continuous release, the peak flood flows are expected to
reduce considerably both in frequency and severity. Increased base
flow is important for sustaining livelihood systems in the lower Tana
basin during the dry seasons.
Reduced peak flows due to the existing damming have already
impacted on the livelihoods of the riverine communities in the lower Tana
basin, downstream of Garissa, who depend on seasonal flooding to
cultivate the fertile floodplain soils, and on the maintenance of the rich
distributaries and there is concern that the intrusion of saline waters into
the delta will be enhanced. The delta front is formed of prominent sand
The possibility of releasing silt together with the floodwater is also being
dunes, the sand redistributed from the discharged river bedload by tidal
and wave currents and wind. The expected reductions in peak flows are
(IUCN 2003b), based on research in the early 1990s into the economic
the Tana River system, taking into consideration the downstream and
valuation of the costs and benefits in the lower Tana resulting from dam
Tanas floodplain and its floods has been recognized by the dams
consequences for its floodplain and delta, and its adjoining coastal
UNEP/GPA 2004).
NORTHERN AFRICA
industrialization
resulting
in
pollution
and
172
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
Essaouira basin.
SECTION 2
173
Figure 8: Reported marine fish catches in Northern African countries since 1980
million metric tonnes
1.0
Morocco
0.8
Tunisia
Egypt
Libya
Algeria
Sudan
0.6
0.4
0.2
02
03
20
20
01
00
20
99
20
98
97
19
19
96
95
19
19
94
93
19
19
92
91
19
19
89
90
19
19
19
87
19
88
19
85
86
19
84
83
19
19
81
82
19
19
19
19
80
Fishery production relates to catch of aquatic organisms, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from
inland, brackish and marine waters. The harvest from mariculture, aquaculture and other kinds of fish farming is also included. Catches
of fish, crustaceans and molluscs are expressed in live weight, that is the nominal weight of the aquatic organisms at the time of capture.
To assign nationality to catches, the flag of the fishing vessel is used, unless the wording of chartering and joint operation contracts
indicates otherwise.
Source: FAO Fisheries Department, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Units
(Alm 2002). In the Red Sea, where the total fish landings
9 per cent in 2005 and by 5.5 per cent per year, in real
is becoming prevalent.
Further development of marine fisheries will depend
on the success of regulation at national and
international levels. The principal fishing grounds on the
continental shelf off the Nile delta are fairly heavily
exploited (FAO 2003b), but elsewhere there is potential
for increased catches. Algerias five-year fisheries plan
aims to increase production to 230 000 t per year, with
the creation of 100 000 new jobs (FAO 2003a). Egypt
aims to increase Red Sea catches to 70 000 t per year
(PERSGA/GEF 2003). Sudan also has potential for
increased production, notably of finfish, doubling its
present yield of 5 000 t per year (FAO 2002b).
Aquaculture in coastal wetlands makes a significant
contribution to total fish production, particularly in
Egypt, by far the largest producer of farmed fish, with
rapid development mostly in semi-intensive, brackish
water farms (El Gamal 2001, FAO 2003b). According to
Egypts
General
Authority
of
Fish
Resources
Inshore fishers at the mouth of the Sebou River, Morocco. Moroccan fisheries are among the
most productive of all Northern African countries.
Source: R. Arthurton
174
OPPORTUNITIES
Tunisian
Agency
of
Coastal
Protection
and
Source: UN 2005
SECTION 2
175
(formerly
prograding)
distributary
mouths
at
government
awareness,
as
well
as
poor
176
Box 5: Multiple uses and conflicts on the Moulouya coastal wetland, Morocco
The Moulouya deltaic zone, with its complex marshes, is a
national interest.
regional level.
Sources: Benkaddour 1997, Khattabi 2002, Sadki 1996, Snoussi, Haida and Imassi 2002, Imassi and Snoussi 2003, Snoussi 2004
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
others 1999).
SOUTHERN AFRICA
productive
upwellings
supporting
industrial-scale
SECTION 2
about 350
km2
177
Plumes of suspended sediment discharged to the Atlantic Ocean from the Gariep (formerly
Orange) River at the boundary of Namibia and South Africa. The river has been the conduit
for alluvial diamonds that are being dredged and mined in this coastal zone.
178
Box 6: The Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME) Programme: joint cooperative
management of shared resources
The Benguela Current LME is one of the worlds most
Sources: Benkaddour 1997, Khattabi 2002, Sadki 1996, Snoussi, Haida and Imassi 2002, Imassi and Snoussi 2003, Snoussi 2004
US$1 858.4 million, accounting for 9.7 per cent of its GDP
SECTION 2
the
about
US$270
GDP;
this
million
figure
and
the
incorporated
recreational
fishery
US$200 million.
South Africa
Namibia
Angola
Tanzania
Mozambique
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
19
80
19
81
19
82
19
83
19
84
19
85
19
86
19
87
19
88
19
89
19
90
19
91
19
92
19
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
Fishery production relates to catch of aquatic organisms, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from
inland, brackish and marine waters. The harvest from mariculture, aquaculture and other kinds of fish farming is also included. Catches
of fish, crustaceans and molluscs are expressed in live weight, that is the nominal weight of the aquatic organisms at the time of capture.
To assign nationality to catches, the flag of the fishing vessel is used, unless the wording of chartering and joint operation contracts
indicates otherwise.
Source: FAO Fisheries Department, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Units
179
180
conflicting issues and this led to the establishment of the Trust. The
promote water quality and ecosystems for the benefit of the local
quality and ecosystem functioning in order to keep Saldanha Bay fit for
South Africa (Monteiro and Largier, 1999). It provides one of the few
The environmental problem: For many decades, the bay has been
A quote from Bay Watch, the publication of the Saldanha Bay Water
Quality Forum Trust (2004) probably explains this best:
algal blooms) and therefore enhances the risk of in situ growth of toxic
effective.
in the area started to create awareness for the need to address these
Sources: Benkaddour 1997, Khattabi 2002, Sadki 1996, Snoussi, Haida and Imassi 2002, Imassi and Snoussi 2003, Snoussi 2004
SECTION 2
181
inputs. The magnitude of human needs for water resources in large river basins is
need to focus on increasing socioeconomic value at the system level, rather than
at either the river basin or coastal level, to avoid future conflict. The
understanding the river-coastal linkages. The programme used the Maputo Bay
and was able to hindcast the ecosystem production for a nine-year period
(1996-2004). This study was used to explain variability in CPUE (Catch per Unit
Effort) for the prawn fishery in Maputo Bay. The findings can be used to inform
significant
environment
pollution
positive
impact
(Wagner
and
coastal
on
2004).
the
coral
Resource
development,
reef
users,
notably
182
Box 9: The Cape Verde Islands and the West African Marine Eco-region
The West African Marine Eco-region spans 3 500 km of
incredible biodiversity.
winds that push surface waters away from the coast and
greatest benefits.
WESTERN AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
SECTION 2
183
The wetlands of the Senegal delta are recognized to be among the richest and most
extensive in West Africa. They have provided an interface between the freshwater of
the Senegal River with its seasonal floods and the marine waters that intrude the
estuary. This interface has favoured the development of rich botanical variety. In
addition, this zone has served as a fish spawning ground and constitutes important
Source: IUCN
Bissau (2 366 km2) and Senegal (1 690 km2) (UNEPWCMC 2000). Coral reefs occur only in the Cape Verde
Islands (Box 9). The coastal waters are home to
endangered species including marine turtles, inshore
Africa
has
important
hydrocarbon
Mangrove forests (dark green) fringe estuaries and tidal creeks in Guinea-Bissau.
Development
Zone,
shared
by
Nigeria
with
Figure 10: Reported marine fish catches in Western African countries since 1980
thousand metric tonnes
Ghana
Senegal
Guinea-Bissau
Guinea
Nigeria
Cte dIvoire
Sierra Leone
Gambia
Liberia
Mauritania
Togo
Benin
Cape Verde
450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
19
81
19
82
19
83
19
84
19
85
19
86
19
87
19
88
19
89
19
90
19
91
19
92
19
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
20
03
19
8
184
Fishery production relates to catch of aquatic organisms, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from
inland, brackish and marine waters. The harvest from mariculture, aquaculture and other kinds of fish farming is also included. Catches
of fish, crustaceans and molluscs are expressed in live weight, that is the nominal weight of the aquatic organisms at the time of capture.
To assign nationality to catches, the flag of the fishing vessel is used, unless the wording of chartering and joint operation contracts
indicates otherwise.
Source: FAO Fisheries Department, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Units
SECTION 2
185
2030
3040
4050
5060
6070
7080
8090
90100
Conditional probability of exposure from a 140 000 barrels (22 260 m3) sea-floor release of
crude oil over 14 days from the Chinguetti field, in winter (assuming no intervention).
Source: APASA 2004
Coastal erosion caused by the interruption of beach sand supply by longshore drift due to nearby port construction at Cotonou, Benin.
Source: R. Arthurton
186
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
SECTION 2
187
Northern Madagascar
Mangrove forest (dark green) cut by tidal creeks. River discharges into the sea carry a high suspended sediment load.
Source: NASA 2000
commercially
viable.
Offshore
exploration
has
people benefit financially from protected areas. In addition, those who may have
become poachers or who would have opposed the management of the protected
the Seychelles.
good example. This sea-and-island reserve was established by law in 1968, and
accepted principles. It has won numerous accolades, including the Cond Nast
Ecotourism Award for 1994. A wholly Seychellois team runs the Reserve and only
local people are involved in ecotourism there, ranging from small boat operators
virtually zero. Ecotourism brings sufficient revenues to run the Reserve and also
the Local Environment Action Program (LEAP) and the Special Program on
188
Figure 12: Reported marine fish catches in the Western Indian Ocean Island countries since 1980
thousand metric tonnes
100
Madagascar
Seychelles
80
Comoros
Mauritius
60
40
20
02
01
00
99
03
20
20
20
20
97
98
19
19
95
96
19
19
94
19
19
93
91
92
19
19
90
19
89
19
19
88
19
86
85
87
19
19
83
84
19
19
82
19
81
19
19
19
80
Fishery production relates to catch of aquatic organisms, taken for commercial, industrial, recreational and subsistence purposes from
inland, brackish and marine waters. The harvest from mariculture, aquaculture and other kinds of fish farming is also included. Catches
of fish, crustaceans and molluscs are expressed in live weight, that is the nominal weight of the aquatic organisms at the time of capture.
To assign nationality to catches, the flag of the fishing vessel is used, unless the wording of chartering and joint operation contracts
indicates otherwise.
Source: FAO Fisheries Department, Fishery Information, Data and Statistics Units
to account for 31.6 per cent of GDP and 33.9 per cent
that a sound scientific base exists which can accommodate the changing needs
and practices of resource management can be built. Consequently, input from the
SECTION 2
189
unpublished
data).
Licence
fees
of
North-western Madagascar
Suspended sediment run-off discharged to the sea reflects high levels of soil erosion in
the hinterland.
through
recognizes
resource
iterated
development
objectives
are
Introduction
the
of
Policy
importance
of
Changes
protecting
and
the
become
adopted
priority.
Madagascar
has
190
The environment of most of the islands of the Western Indian Ocean has been
programme include Frgate, North and Denis islands, private 5-star hotel resorts.
Establishment of new populations of endangered species will not only lead to the
downgrading of the threat status of these species on the IUCN Red List, but also
conservation efforts. The programme has been financed by the GEF, the
SECTION 2
CONCLUSION
The continuing capacity of the regions coastal and
marine ecosystems to provide the goods-and-services
that are essential to human well-being will depend on
the effectiveness of ecosystem management in
response to the pressures of global change. Such
management requires reliable monitoring information
gathered from community to global levels and needs to
be supported by nationally and internationally relevant
legislation. Robust governance and institutional
capacity, and the cooperative integration of sectoral
interests at all scales, are essential. Response and
benefit
enhancement
of
capacity
for
of
coastal
communities
and
national
implementation,
191
192
Ahamada, S., Bijoux, J., Bigot, L., Cauvin, B., Kooonjul, M., Maharavo, J.,
Meunier, S., Moine-Picard, M., Quod, J., and Pierre-Louis, R. (2004).
Status of the coral reefs of the South West Indian Ocean Island States. In
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2004 (ed.Wilkinson, C.),Vol. 1.
http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/coral-bleaching/scr2004
/pdf/scr2004v1-07.pdf
Alder, J. and Sumaila, U.R. (2004).Western Africa:A fish basket of
Europe past and present. Journal of Environment and Development.
13(2), 156-78
Alm,A. (2002). Integrated Coastal Zone Management in the
Mediterranean: From Concept to Implementation Towards a Strategy
for Capacity Building in METAP Countries. Mediterranean Environmental
Technical Assistance Program. http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/mna/
mena.nsf/Attachments/ICZM+Strategy/$File/ICZM+strategy.pdf
APASA (2004). Quantitative Oil Spill Risk Assessment for the Chinguetti
production wells, offshore Mauritania, North West Africa.Asia-Pacific
Applied Science Associates. http://www.woodside.com.au/NR/
rdonlyres/e45mv2l4fv7h2lsaezda7dansba3oycdychhi4a245xabovbqjlj
o3uzsz5k5fvcda5bkohzi5yphtnraegzrdzjxaa/6D+-+Technical+Report
+-+Oil+Spill+Modelling.pdf
Arthurton, R.S., Kremer, H.H., Odada, E., Salomons,W. and Marshall
Crossland, J.I. (eds. 2002).African Basins: LOICZ Global Change
Assessment and Synthesis of River Catchment Coastal Sea
Interaction and Human Dimensions. LOICZ Reports & Studies No. 25.
Land-Ocean Interactions in the Coastal Zone,Texel.
http://www.loicz.org/public/loicz/products/r_and_s/report25.pdf
BCLME (2003).The Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem
Programme (BCLME). http://www.bclme.org
Benkaddour, R. (1997). Contribution ltude de la salinit et de la
pollution par les nitrates des eaux souterraines de la plaine des Triffa
(Basse Moulouya). Masters thesis, Univ. Mohamed 1er, Oujda
Burke, L., Kura,Y., Kassem, K., Revenga, C., Spalding, M.D. and
McAllister, D. (2001). Pilot Analysis of Global Ecosystems: Coastal
Ecosystems.World Resources Institute.Washington D.C.
Carbone, F. and Accordi, G. (2000).The Indian Ocean Coast of Somalia.
Marine Pollution Bulletin. 41 (1-6), 141-59
Coffen-Smout, S. (1998). Pirates,Warlords and Rogue Fishing Vessels in
Somalias Unruly Seas. http://www.chebucto.ns.ca/~ar120/somalia.html
References
Abdellatif, E. M. (1993).A Call for Attention: Factors Threatening the
Marine and Coastal Environment of the Red Sea in Sudan. Sudanese
Environment Conservation Society, Khartoum.
Abdelrehim,A. (2004). Developing a Decision Support System for
Environmentally Sensitive Areas. Proceedings of the Expert Group
Meeting on the Integrated Management of Coastal Areas of the
Mediterranean Basin and the Black Sea.Trieste, Italy. 13-15 December.
ACEP (2004).The African Coelacanth Ecosystem Programme (ACEP).
http://www.acep.co.za/
Acreman, M.C. (2005). Environmental flows: flood flows. In Water
Resources and Environment Technical Notes (eds. Davis, R. and Hirji,
R.), C.3.The World Bank,Washington, D.C. http://lnweb18.worldbank.
org/ESSD/ardext.nsf/18ByDocName/EnvironmentalFlowAssessmentNOTEC3EnvironmentalFlowsFloodFlows/$FILE/NoteC3EnvironmentalFl
owAssessment2003.pdf
SECTION 2
193
194
SECTION 2
UNEP and EEA (1999). State and pressures of the marine and coastal
Mediterranean environment, Environmental Issues Series No.5. United
Nations Environment Programme and the European Environment
Agency. http://reports.eea.eu.int/ENVSERIES05/en/envissue05.pdf
WTTC (2005). Country League Tables Travel and Tourism: Sowing the
Seeds of Growth The 2005 Travel & Tourism Economic Research.
World Travel and Tourism Council, London. http://www.wttc.org/
2005tsa/pdf/League%20Tables%202005.pdf
195
196
CHAPTER 6
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS
These account for 16.8 per cent of the global forest cover
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
freshwater resources.
and wind) and thus are critical for agriculture and food
SECTION 2
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
Forest classes
closed evergreen lowland forest
degraded evergreen lowland forest
submontane forest (900-1 500)
montane forest (>1 500 m)
swamp forest
mangrove
mosaic forest/croplands
mosaic forest/savannah
closed deciduous forest
Woodlands and grasslands
deciduous woodland
deciduous shrubland with sparse trees
open deciduous shrubland
closed grassland
open grassland with sparse shrubs
open grassland
Bare soil
sparse grassland
sandy desert
bare rock
Agriculture
salt hardpans
croplands (>50%)
croplands with open woody vegetation
Other
irrigated croplands
water bodies
tree crops
cities
197
198
requirements.
The
sustainability
of
this
high
Energy
Wood carving provides valuable income for many rural families. Wooden sculpture for sale on the roadside, Kenya.
Source: V. Rabesahala
SECTION 2
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
sector involvement.
Urban markets for wood products are already
the
traditional
medicine
sector,
the
minor scrapes and cuts, and the shell of the nuts can
development
through,
for
example,
increased
bushmeat,
though
not
quantified,
is
quite
199
200
Main NTFP
Algeria: Annual Quercus suber (cork) production of 6 000 tonnes exploited from
Eastern Africa
Eritrea: Export of 49 tonnes of Acacia senegal (gum arabic) and 543 tonnes of
bee products
Western Indian
Madagascar: Export of 300 tonnes of Prunus africana bark worth US$1.4 million
Ocean islands
in 1993
Southern Africa
Central Africa
Western Africa
Cameroon: Annual export of 600 tonnes of Gnetum spp. leaves worth US$2.9 million
bushmeat, rattan
bushmeat, fodder
commercialized,
increasing
financial
benefits.
the
medicinal
indigenous
farmers
in
Northern
and
Africa
aromatic
to
promote
plants,
SECTION 2
201
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
Medicinal plants
market near
Mathare, Nairobi,
Kenya.
Source: C. Lambrechts/
UNEP
of society that are able and willing to pay for these services
Porras 2002).
(eg Garcinia sp.), roots (eg Dioscorea sp.) and spices (eg Piper
foods (such as bamboo shoots and honey), shea butter, resins such as
worth some US$1.4 per capita at the household level and US$0.7 per
US$44 million/year.
202
Source: R. Butler/WildMadagascar
Market development
price,
FOR DEVELOPMENT
support,
high
producer
dependency
non-supportive
legal
and
on
market
regulatory
SECTION 2
203
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
Processing timber in a
sawmill.
Source: P. Reidar/CIFOR
the
lack
of
technical
support,
The African Union (AU) has adopted a model law which seeks to
transformation actors along the marketing chain and only a very low
Namibia, that sell to intermediaries who then sell to the exporter, receive
Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES), often do not make adequate
while those with direct contact with a local exporter receive the most at
0.85 per cent (Wynberg 2004). This pattern is set to continue in the
204
Moroccan women
cleaning argan tree
nuts for medicinal oil
production.
Source: Y. Katerere
Agricultural pressures
SECTION 2
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
Potential costs
Natural assets
Natural assets
Physical assets
Physical assets
Human assets
Human assets
Social assets
Social assets
rights formalization.
capacity.
Political assets
Political assets
Financial assets
Financial assets
205
206
cent
Chapter 3: Land.
poor management.
Fire
of
Africas
deforestation
(FAO
2003b).
SECTION 2
207
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
and assessment.
(forests, steep slopes and other degraded areas) and in the increased
along with public interest in defending the environment, including forests and
public parks and open spaces. Tree planting also provides an entry point for the
building and advocacy. During the review process for Kenyas new constitution,
GBM held civic and environmental education seminars and conducted tree-
land-use
planning;
conservation
and
(9.3 per cent) and Gambia (1.0 per cent) show increases
208
Source: C. Lambrechts/UNEP
Agroforestry
management,
encourage
private
plantations
development.
may
improve
opportunities.
The
Mohamed-Katerere
increased
education,
and
2005).
forestation
There
and
is
reforestation.
SECTION 2
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
and
that
forest
conservation
and
sustainable
SUB-REGIONAL OVERVIEW
CENTRAL AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
240 million ha; these are mainly dense tropical rain forest
% of land area in
(000 ha)
(000 ha)
2000
Cameroon
46 540
23 858
51.0
62 297
22 907
36.8
Chad
125 920
12 692
10.0
Congo
34 150
22 060
64.6
226 705
135 207
59.6
2 805
1 752
62.5
25 767
21 826
84.7
27
28.3
Country
DRC
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
So Tom and Prncipe
95
209
210
forested with 84.7 per cent of its total land area under
forest cover. Chad is the least forested, with only 10 per
cent of the land under forest. All the countries, with the
FOR DEVELOPMENT
Consumption
Export
Cameroon
1 270
1 051
219
1 058
958
100
Country
Chad
761
761
Congo
1 251
692
559
DRC
3 653
3 651
364
515
2 584
84
2 500
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
So Tom and Prncipe
SECTION 2
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
For forest dwellers in Cameroon, timber and non-timber resources are valued as construction materials.
Source: C.Dounias/CIFOR
EASTERN AFRICA
agreements; and
Forests
and
woodlands
provide
substantive
management through:
environment NGOs;
211
212
Table 5: Forest area and area change in the Eastern Africa countries as of 2000
Total land area
% of
Annual change
Country
(000 ha)
(000 ha)
land area
000 ha (1990-2000)
% (1990-2000)
Burundi
2 568
3.7
-15
-9.0
94
Djibouti
2 317
0.3
not available
not available
Eritrea
11 759
1 585
13.5
-5
-0.3
Ethiopia
11 430
4 593
4.2
-40
-0.8
Kenya
56 915
17 096
30
-93
-0.5
Rwanda
2 466
307
12.4
-15
-3.9
Somalia
62 734
7 515
12.0
-77
-1.0
Uganda
19 964
4 190
21.0
-91
-0.2
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
management
Source: C. Lambrechts/UNEP
and
forest
user
groups
increase
SECTION 2
213
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
unsustainable practices.
NORTHERN AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
(FAO
the
2005).
The
negative
externality
is
FOR DEVELOPMENT
(000 ha)
Algeria
238 174
0.9
1.3
Egypt
99 545
72
0.1
3.3
Libya
175 954
358
0.2
1.4
not available
Morocco
Sudan
Tunisia
Total
44 630
3 025
6.8
-1
237 600
61 627
25.9
-959
-1.4
16 362
510
3.1
0.2
812 265
67 737
8.3
-925
0.8
214
Africa
60
1990
50
2000
2005
40
20
Algeria
Egypt
Libya
Morocco
Sudan
Tunisia
Sources: FAO 1997
FOR DEVELOPMENT
Over the past few decades, forests have been subjected
WOODLANDS
dune stabilization.
SECTION 2
215
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
Algeria
Egypt
Libya
Morocco
Sudan
Tunisia
Plantations are an
important source of
timber in Northern
Africa. Pinus spp.
plantations in the
Atlas Mountains,
Morocco.
Source: J.C. MohamedKaterere
216
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
SOUTHERN AFRICA
124 670
69 756
56.0
141
56 673
12 427
21.9
3 035
14
0.5
14
9 408
2 562
27.2
112
79 409
30 601
39.0
50
82 329
8 040
9.8
not available
122 704
8 917
7.3
1 554
1 720
522
30.3
161
88 359
38 811
43.9
135
Zambia
74 339
31 246
42.0
75
Zimbabwe
38 667
19 040
49.2
141
SECTION 2
217
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
Consumption
Share of global
Lead Southern
production (%)
African producers
Product
2000
2000
23.97
23.61
34.9
2.22
2.47
28.9
0.603
0.597
29.3
0.070
0.071
10.2
0.150
0.154
65.2
South Africa
2.351
1.464
87.5
2.125
1.892
72.9
Newsprint (t)
0.345
0.201
93.8
0.515
0.672
78.3
South Africa
*excludes Tanzania
m3.
About
Boys selling
wild mushrooms
collected in Miombo
woodlands,
Zimbabwe.
Source: Y. Katerere
218
Country
Angola
Botswana
Lesotho
Malawi
Mozambique
Namibia
South Africa
Swaziland
Tanzania
Total population
Rural population
(000 ha)
in 2003
2003 (%)
124 670
13 625
10.9
3.1
64.3
56 673
1 785
3.1
0.8
48.4
3 053
1 802
59.4
0.2
82.1
9 409
12 105
128.7
2.0
83.7
78 409
18 863
24.1
1.7
64.4
82 329
1 987
2.4
1.4
67.6
121 758
45 026
37.0
0.6
43.1
1 721
1 077
62.6
0.8
76.5
88 359
36 977
41.8
1.9
64.6
Zambia
74 339
10 812
14.5
1.2
64.3
Zimbabwe
38 685
12 891
33.3
0.5
65.1
SECTION 2
219
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
a lot of knowledge.
WESTERN AFRICA
INVENTORY OF FORESTS RESOURCES
18 000
2000
2005
16 000
14 000
12 000
10 000
8 000
6 000
4 000
2 000
o
To
g
on
e
Le
eg
al
Sie
rra
Se
n
ria
ge
Ni
r
ge
Ni
nia
ur
ita
li
Ma
Ma
Bis
aine
Lib
eri
sa
u
a
ine
Gu
Gu
an
a
Gh
mb
Ga
dI
te
C
ia
e
vo
ir
e
Ve
rd
pe
Ca
Bu
rki
na
Be
Fa
nin
so
220
80
2000
2005
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
o
To
g
ne
eo
rra
L
Sie
Se
ne
ga
ria
Ni
ge
r
Ni
ge
ia
rita
n
Ma
u
Ma
li
eri
a
-B
is
Gu
in
ea
Lib
u
sa
ea
Gu
in
na
Gh
a
dI
vo
C
te
Ga
mb
ia
ire
e
Ve
rd
pe
Ca
Bu
rki
n
aF
Be
as
nin
SECTION 2
221
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
Source: D.Browne/ILO
considered
renewable
resource
any
more
FOR DEVELOPMENT
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
montane
forests,
semi-evergreen
moist
forests,
Table 10: Forest cover in the Western Indian Ocean island countries
Forest area in 2000
(000 ha)
% of total
Country
(000 ha)
(excluding plantations)
Comoros
186
58 154
11 727
20.2
-117
-0.9
202
16
7.9
not available
-0.6
45
30
66.7
not available
not available
58 587
11 781
20.1
Madagascar
Mauritius
Seychelles
Total
Annual change
% rate of
land area
(000 ha)
change (%)
4.3
not available
-4.3
222
Countries
Comoros
Imports
Exports
Net trade
US$ m
US$ m
US$ m
249
-249
Madagascar
2 436
4 177
+1 741
Mauritius
6 868
2 345
-4 523
Seychelles
Total
12
-12
9 565
6 522
-3 043
and dried fruit, fruit juice and tinned fruit. The intensity of
WIO
region
experienced
considerable
Source: D. Tsialonina
SECTION 2
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
agricultural encroachment.
Governments
will
also
need
to
undertake
them.
forest management.
Conservation
and
sustainable
use
and
has been slow. Through its FAO Plan of Action, the FAO
reserves
and
protected
areas
systems.
The
CONCLUSION
Forest and woodland resources in Africa continue to
play a major role in the livelihoods of many
communities, and in development more generally. The
role played by forests and woodlands as sources of
energy, food products and medicinal plants, as well as
for the protection of catchment and water quality, is a
major contribution to many national economies. These
opportunities are under threat from changes in the
state and integrity of the forests.
223
224
FAO (2003b). Forestry Outlook Study for Africa: Sub regional Report
Southern Africa.African Development Bank, European Commission and
the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/y8672e/y8672e00.pdf
FAO (2003c). Forestry Outlook Study for Africa: Sub regional Report
West Africa.African Development Bank, European Commission and the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
FAO (2003d). State of the Worlds Forests 2003. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome
FAO (2002). Global Forest Resources Assessment 2000 Main Report.
FAO Forestry Paper No.140. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome
FAO (2001). State of the Worlds Forests 2001. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome
FAO (1999). State of the Worlds Forests 1999. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome
FAO (1997). State of the World's Forests, 1997. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome
FAOSTAT (2005). FAOSTAT FAO Statistical Databases. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://faostat.fao.org/
FAO,ANAFE and SEANAFE (2005). Forestry Education in Sub-Saharan
Africa and Southeast Asia:Trends, myths and realities, by August B.
Temu, Per G. Rudebjer, James Kiyiapi and Pieter van Lierop. Forestry
Policy and Institutions Working Paper No. 3. Rome.
FAO, RIFFEAC and UICN (2003). Evaluation des besoins en formation
dans le secteur forestier en Afrique Centrale. lOrganisation des Nations
Unies pour lalimentation et lagriculture, Rseau des institutions de
formation forestire et environnementale dAfrique Centrale, UICN
Union mondiale pour la nature. Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations, Rome
GBM (2006).The Green Belt Movement:Achievements.The Green Belt
Movement. http://www.greenbeltmovement.org/achievements.php
Gilani,A. (1997). Soil Degradation and Desertification in Arab Countries.
Journal of Water and Agriculture. 17, 28-55
Global Forest Watch (2000). A first look at logging in Gabon.World
Resources Institute,Washington, D.C. http://www.globalforestwatch.
org/common/gabon/english/report.pdf
Harsch, E. (2001). Making trade work for poor women:Villagers in Burkina
Faso discover an opening in the global market. Africa Recovery, 15(4), 6.
http://www.un.org/ecosocdev/geninfo/afrec/vol15no4/154shea.htm
Hegazy,A.K. (1999). Deserts of the Middle East. In Encyclopaedia of
Deserts (ed. Mares, M.A.). University of Oklahoma Press, Norman
ITTO (2004). Annual Review and Assessment of the World Timber
Situation. International Tropical Timber Organization,Yokohama.
http://www.itto.or.jp/live/Live_Server/400/E-Annual%20Review%
202004.pdf
IUCN (2005). Medicinal Plants in North Africa: Linking Conservation and
Livelihoods. Press Release, 18 April. http://www.iucn.org/places/
medoffice/documentos/medicinal_plants_en.pdf
Kalumiana, O.J. (2000). Charcoal Consumption and Transportation:
Energy Sub-Component of the Zambia CHAPOSA Study. Paper prepared
for discussion at the Second CHAPOSA Annual Workshop. Morogoro,
Tanzania. http://www.sei.se/chaposa/documents/chrc_cons_transp.pdf
Karamoja Data Centre (undated). Gum Arabic.
http://www.karamojadata.org/investment%20potential/gum%20arabi
c/acacial%20(gum%20arabica%20producing%20species).htm
SECTION 2
F o r e s t s a n d Wo o d l a n d s
225
226
CHAPTER 7
BIODIVERSITY
Lead Authors: Robert J. Scholes, Wolfgang Kuper, Reinette Biggs
Contributing Authors: Evans Mwangi, Jeanny Raharimampionona, Peter Lowry, ElHadji Sene,
Peter Ashton, Stephen Blake, Christopher O. Justice
REGIONAL SYNTHESIS
Biodiversity
for
offers
multiple
opportunities
but
there.
because
they
are
best
illustrated
throughout Africa.
INVENTORY OF RESOURCES
species; and
SECTION 2
227
Biodiversity
WWF Biomes
number of vascular
plant species per 10 000 km2
boreal forest/taigas
deserts and xeric shrublands
< 20
flooded grasslands
mangroves
20200
Mediterranean scrub
200500
montane grasslands
5001 000
1 0001 500
1 5002 000
2 0003 000
4 0005 000
3 0004 000
water
>5 000
Source: Eco-regions are large units of land or water that contain a distinct assemblage of
species, habitats and processes, whose boundaries depict the original extent of natural
communities before major land-use change. Olhson and Dinerstein 2006, WWF undated;
Map redrawn by UNEP/DEWA/GRID 2006.
Source: Plant species richness per 10 000 km2 (Mutke and Barthlott 2005). Colours indicate
the major biomes as defined by the WWF. Biomes represent groups of eco-regions with similar
vegetation types.
Number of threatened
bird species
Mammal species richness
1625
89
030
118134
1516
78
3151
135150
1415
67
5274
151168
1314
56
7596
169194
1213
45
97117
195257
1112
34
1011
23
910
12
Source: Data from IUCN The World Conservation Union Species Survival Commission;
University of Virginia, Virginia; Center for Applied Biodiversity and Science at Conservation
International (CI CABS), Instituto di Ecologia Applicata (IEA) Rome; Zoological Society of
London; and The African Mammals Databank (AMD).
228
richly diverse area has been under threat both from illegal
species of coffee.
SECTION 2
229
Biodiversity
Centres of biodiversity
230
10
20
30
area (%)
The figure shows the proportion of plants, birds, mammals, snakes and frogs species in SSA that can be represented by hypothetical sets
of areas of varying size. The solid black curve indicates the proportion of species represented by successively cumulating areas that cover
a maximum number of species for each of the groups. The map indicates the location of one-degree grid cells that are part of selected
area sets. For example, within 1 per cent of SSA (red one-degree grid cells), 58 per cent of all 9 692 included species can be represented
in at least one grid cell. To represent all species, approximately 30 per cent of SSA is needed (represented by all coloured grid cells plus
the open cells framed in grey).However, areas which represent many species are not necessarily priority areas for conservation.
Sources: Plant distribution data: Biogeographic Information System on African Plant Diversity (Kper and others 2004). Vertebrate distribution data: Zoological
Museum, University of Copenhagen (Fjeldsa and others 2004)
2 million km2
of protected areas.
IUCN-WCPA undated
SECTION 2
Biodiversity
Human Dimension.
Source: J. Nguieburi/CIFOR
231
232
Environmental goods
rice, the grain crop teff, and the oil palm. Globally, about
Tanganyika
and
Malawi,
support
subsistence
times lower than that of wood (IEA 2002), but the total
the absence of a banking system, animals are sold when large expenses
mean annual rainfall, and of sheep and goats in drier areas (Scholes
need to be met (WRI and others 2005). Oxen, and donkeys in poorer
and Biggs 2004). The natural grass and tree growth provides feed at
that the stocking rates are within the productive capacity of the land,
entails substantial input costs, and has major on- and off-site
impacts on biodiversity.
Sources: Scholes and Briggs 2004, WRI and others 2005, OSU 1996, ARC-AII undated.
SECTION 2
Biodiversity
or
Source: O. Ndoye/CIFOR
unusual
organisms.
Important
modern
Organisation
and
for
Economic
Cooperation
Environmental services
233
234
Some level of
biodiversity the
exact amount is at
delivery of
members
is a necessary
The
but it is especially
important for
maintaining
ecosystem services,
of
the
ecological
community.
functional
ecosystems.
MA 2006
SECTION 2
Biodiversity
Nature-based tourism
grazing land and wild food sources, are borne by the local
development advantage.
Sources: Scholes and Briggs 2004, WRI and others 2005, OSU 1996, ARC-AII undated.
235
236
biochemical
of
precursors
in
the
synthesis
be very contentious.
SECTION 2
237
Biodiversity
Expanding agriculture is an important cause of habitat loss. Newly planted fields, Morocco.
cause of biodiversity
loss in Africa is
habitat loss and that
is likely to remain true
practices; and
Overexploitation of resources
238
Multilateral agreements
objectives: the
conservation of
biodiversity, the
sustainable use of
sharing of benefits
complemented
of biodiversity.
risk of overfishing.
by
sub-regional
and
regional
FROM BIODIVERSITY
rationalize
their
implementation.
Among
The sustainable use of natural resources is a priority for many African countries. Handicrafts from Raphia farinifera provide income
opportunities in Madagascar.
Source: V. Rabesahala
the
SECTION 2
239
Biodiversity
community collaboration.
groups that get all or part of their livelihoods from use of the resources,
parts of Africa and elsewhere is that when use rights for biodiversity are
has increased by 36 per cent (an addition of 46 000 km2) since the
up about 10 per cent of the national land area. A similar process is under
way in Cameroon. The DRC and Central African Republic (CAR) are
2005, at the second Congo Basin Forest Summit, the Central African
basin. Future efforts will focus less on opening new parks and more on
of biodiversity.
habitat protection.
Biodiversity policy
conservation objectives.
240
SUB-REGIONAL OVERVIEW
Improving science
About US$245 million is currently spent annually by
the international community for protected area
other sub-regions.
CENTRAL AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
activities.
(Harcourt 2000).
scales.
FOR DEVELOPMENT
impending
problems
well
before
they
are
irremediable.
development
of
conceptual
basis
and
conservation strategies.
Source: P. Henschel/WCS
SECTION 2
241
Chapter 7
Biodiversity
Birds
Plants
Threat
Response
% of land
% of land
Area km2
Endemic
Total
Endemic
Total
Endemic
Cameroon
475 440
14
409
690
156
8 260
622 980
209
537
100
3 602
12
Country
Chad
Congo
DRC
1 284 000
134
370
1 600
14
342 000
200
449
1 200
6 000
14
1 100
11 007
66
3 250
17
6 651
2 344 860
Equatorial Guinea
Gabon
So Tom and Prncipe
All countries
not known
not known
not known
not known
184
273
267 670
190
466
960
25
63
5 365 960
27
28 050
38
134
895
2 756
Sources: Biodiversity information taken from Groombridge and Jenkins (2002). Calculation of the proportion of transformed land was based on the reclassification by Hoekstra and others (2005) of
the GLC3 Global Landcover Classification (Mayaux and others 2004). Hoekstra and others (2005) defined four classes of transformed land: 1) Artificial surfaces and associated areas, 2) Cultivated
and managed areas, 3) Mosaic: cropland/treecover, and 4) Mosaic: cropland/ other natural vegetation. In this chapter, all four classes have been integrated into the calculation of the proportion of
transformed land. The area covered by classes 3 and 4 was divided by two, assuming that this reflects their mosaic character with a certain proportion of land remaining untransformed. Note that
this method does not account for the degree of fragmentation within the mosaic landcover classes. Data on protected areas (IUCN class I-V) were obtained from WRI 2005
with the real and growing threat from the Ebola virus
2 million
The bushmeat trade comes with both costs and benefits. It offers nutrition for many poor
people, but at times threatens biodiversity. Cameroon.
Source: CARPE
242
EASTERN AFRICA
OVERVIEW OF RESOURCES
Source: D. Moyer/WCS
SECTION 2
243
Biodiversity
FOR DEVELOPMENT
especially
Kenya
the
were
characteristic
originally
large
designed
to
mammal
conserve
Area km2
Endemic
Threat
Response
% of land
% of land
protected
Endemic
Total
Endemic
Total
transformed
107
451
not known
2 500
37
61
126
112
319
not known
19
Djibouti
23 200
Eritrea
117 600
Kenya
Plants
Total
27 830
Ethiopia
Birds
826
not known
1 104 300
31
277
28
626
1 000
6 603
39
580 370
23
359
844
265
6 506
13
Rwanda
26 340
151
513
26
2 288
52
Somalia
637 660
12
171
11
422
500
3 028
241 040
345
830
2 758 340
72
Uganda
All countries
52
not known
1 797
4 900
36
24
244
Abijata
parks,
Shalla
and
Nechisar
national
Wandering mountain gorilla (Gorilla spp.). The Bwindi Forest, Uganda, can be seen in the background.
Source: C. Lambrechts/UNEP
SECTION 2
Biodiversity
spreads diseases.
FOR DEVELOPMENT
involvement
resources
of
people
in
natural
of human settlement.
NORTHERN AFRICA
Sudan
Tunisia
Egypt
Morocco
Algeria
Libya
20
15
10
5
0
1970
Source: UNEP 2005b
1980
1990
2002
245
246
Area km2
Endemic
Threat
Birds
Total
Endemic
Plants
Total
Endemic
Total
Response
% of land
% of land
transformed
protected
Algeria
2 381 740
92
192
250
3 164
Egypt
1 001 450
98
153
70
2 076
Libya
1 759 540
76
91
134
1 825
446 550
105
210
625
3 675
20
Sudan
2 505 810
11
267
680
50
3 137
17
Tunisia
163 610
78
173
2 196
8 258 700
30
Morocco
All countries
1 129
associated biota.
Human settlement patterns and activities are
FOR DEVELOPMENT
to
poverty,
ecologically
important
areas,
5.0
4.5
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
20
0
95
19
90
19
85
19
80
19
75
Source: UNEP 2005b; data from World Database of Protected Areas 2004
SECTION 2
247
Biodiversity
The coelacanth, a 400 million year-old living fossil fish, occurs in the waters of the
WIO islands.
Source: Estate of J. Metzner/Still Pictures
of transboundary parks.
The current condition and trend of biodiversity has
SOUTHERN AFRICA
Area km2
Endemic
Threat
Birds
Total
Endemic
Plants
Total
Endemic
Total
Response
% of land
% of land
transformed
protected
1 246 700
276
12
765
1 260
5 185
581 730
164
386
17
2 151
18
Lesotho
30 350
33
58
1 591
16
Malawi
118 480
195
521
49
3 765
29
Mozambique
801 590
179
498
219
5 692
11
Namibia
824 290
250
469
687
3 174
1 221 040
35
247
596
23 420
22
17 360
47
364
2 715
Tanzania
945 090
15
316
24
822
1 122
10 008
25
15
Zambia
752 610
233
605
211
4 747
390 760
270
532
95
4 440
6 930 000
65
Botswana
South Africa
Swaziland
Zimbabwe
All countries
50
3 666
32
13
248
Species
Price (US$)
75
Impala
150
Kudu
370
Blue wildebeest
450
Zebra
580
Springbok
670
Grey duiker
700
Waterbuck
1 000
Bushbuck
1 000
Giraffe
2 700
Red hartebeest
4 000
10 300
Roan antelope
14 200
Buffalo
16 700
White rhino
25 000
Hippo
Sable antelope
CBNRM programmes.
FOR DEVELOPMENT
SECTION 2
Biodiversity
Lantana camara, an IAS, first introduced as an ornamental plant. invades various habitats, decreasing agricultural productivity and
transforming many forest ecosystems.
Source: V. Rabesahala
WESTERN AFRICA
21st
249
250
Area km2
Endemic
Birds
Plants
Total
Endemic
Total
Benin
11 2620
188
307
Burkina Faso
274 000
147
335
Cape Verde
Threat
Endemic
0
% of land
% of land
transformed
protected
2 500
1 100
48
12
974
42
4 030
38
Gambia
11 300
117
280
Ghana
238 540
222
529
43
3 725
17
Guinea
245 860
190
409
88
3 000
14
Guinea-Bissau
Cte dIvoire
Liberia
Mali
86
Total
Response
not known
774
36 120
108
234
12
1 000
322 460
230
535
62
3 660
25
111 370
193
372
103
2 200
30
1 240 190
137
397
11
1 741
15
Mauritania
1 025 520
61
273
not known
1 100
Niger
1 267 000
131
299
not known
1 460
Nigeria
923 770
274
681
205
4 715
34
Senegal
196 720
192
384
26
2 086
47
11
2 090
38
3 085
16
Sierra Leone
71 740
147
466
Togo
56 790
196
391
6 138 030
All countries
10
74
not known
710
FOR DEVELOPMENT
Recurrent droughts.
and woodlands:
associated plants;
SECTION 2
251
Biodiversity
The West African Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica rhinoceros) is a venomous and highly
camouflaged snake which can fetch up to US$600 in the international exotic pet trade.
Source: J. Gerholdt/Still Pictures
FOR DEVELOPMENT
in the 1980s: the Manantali dam upstream (in 1989) for flood regulation,
gates of the dam. Negotiation between the various users within the park
plan. A consensus scenario for opening and closing the different sluice
However, by 1997, only 100 000 ha had been equipped for irrigated
gates was adopted. This scenario takes into account all the resources
agriculture, and only 44 000 ha were farmed in the end because of loss of
soil fertility and increased salinity (OMVS and others 1998 cited in
With the return of the floods came the return of people from the
2003, no investments had been secured for the navigability scheme. Thus,
the negative impacts of the Diama Dam were dire: loss of floodplains
Thus livelihood activities, by both men and women from this Senegal
human well-being.
252
Number
Benin
Burkina Faso
Cte dIvoire
RAMSAR sites
Number
139
299
1 504
19
623
186
1 480
Gambia
20
Ghana
178
Guinea
133
13
225
Guinea Bissau
110
39
Liberia
Mali
2 349
400
162
Mauritania
1 200
1 231
Niger
25 128
7 957
715
Nigeria
<1
58
Senegal
1 094
929
100
Sierra Leone
295
Togo
194
Total
15
31 111
10
12 003
37
3 674
Source: Data from Wetlands International undated, UNESCO 2006a, UNESCO 2006b
Madagascar,
for the total land area of 590 000 km2 (including the
reveal
important
endemic
SECTION 2
253
Biodiversity
Area km2
Endemic
Threat
Birds
Total
Endemic
Plants
Total
Endemic
Total
2 230
12
14
50
136
721
587 040
93
141
105
202
6 500
9 505
2 040
27
325
450
11
38
182
591 760
98
138
% of land
% of land
transformed
protected
not known
not known
11
750
not known
30
250
not known
12
7 143
FOR DEVELOPMENT
(UNEP
lagoons, long line and fine net fishing, coastal urban tourist
2005a):
unsustainable
Response
natural
resource
(IOC 2004b).
254
the Caribbean.
albatross,
turtles,
coelacanth,
the
progress
has
been
made
in
mainstream programmes.
DEVELOPMENT
important.
SECTION 2
255
Biodiversity
CONCLUSION
gives the local community an important role. The newlydesignated conservation sites will operate based on
some improved management principles: more dynamic
km2
of national
This beautiful lily, Zantedeschia aethiopica, is indigenous to Southern and Eastern Africa and
is exported worldwide.
Source: V. Rabesahala
256
References
Adams,W.M. (2001). Green Development: Environment and
Sustainability in the Third World (2nd Edition). Routledge, London
Adams,W.M. and Hulme, D. (2001). If community conservation is the
answer in Africa, what is the question? Oryx. 35(3), 193-200
SECTION 2
Biodiversity
Fjeldsa, J, Burgess, N.D., Blyth, S., and de Klerk, H.M. (2004).Where are
the major gaps in the reserve networks for Africas mammals? Oryx.
38(1), 17-25
Fjeldsa, J. and Lovett, J.C. (1997). Geographical patterns of old and young
species in African forest biota: the significance of specific montane areas
as evolutionary centres. Biodiversity and Conservation. 6(3), 325-46
Frodin, D.G. (2001). Guide to Standard Floras of the World (2nd Edition).
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
GAA (2004). Global Amphibian Assessment Database. Global Amphibian
Assessment. IUCN the World Conservation Union. http://www.global
amphibians.org/
Gabon National Parks (undated). Gabon National Parks: Presenting the
wonder of Gabons wildlife. http://www.gabonnationalparks.com/gnpnationalparks
Gaston, K.J., and Rodrigues,A.S.L. (2003). Reserve selection in regions
with poor biological data. Conservation Biology. 17, 188-95
GebreMichael T., Hundessa,T. and Hillma, J.C. (1992).The effects of war
on world heritage sites and protected areas in Ethiopia. In World
Heritage Twenty Years Later. Papers presented during the workshops
held during the IV World Congress on national parks and protected
areas, Caracas,Venezuela, February 1992 (ed.Thorsell, J.C.), pp 14350. IUCN The World Conservation Union, Gland
257
258
IEA (2002). Chapter 13: Energy and Poverty. In World Energy Outlook
2002. International Energy Agency, Paris. http://www.iea.org/textbase/
nppdf/free/2002/energy_poverty.pdf
IOC (2004a).AIMS Synthesis Report, progress on the Barbados
Programme of Action. Indian Ocean Commission for the AIMS Group,
Port Louis. http://www.sidsnet.org/docshare/other/20041109141045_
AIMS_synthesis_report_final.doc
IOC (2004b). Report on Implementation of Barbados Programme of
Action,Annex 2. Indian Ocean Commission, Port Louis
IUCN (2003).Annual Report. IUCN The World Conservation Union, Gland.
IUCN (undated a). Global Mammal Assessment. IUCN The World
Conservation Union. http://www.iucn.org/themes/ssc/biodiversity_
assessments/gma/indexgma.htm
IUCN (undated b). North Africa Programme. IUCN The World
Conservation Union. http://www.iucn.org/places/wcana/nafrica.htm
IUCN-WCPA (undated).WCPA East and South Africa Region. IUCN The
World Conservation Union World Commission on Protected Areas.
http://www.iucn.org/themes/wcpa/region/esafrica/esafrica.html
Jacobs, M.J. and Schloeder, C.A. (2001). Impacts of Conflict on
Biodiversity and Protected Areas in Ethiopia. Biodiversity Support
Program,Washington, D.C. http://www.worldwildlife.org/bsp/
publications/africa/147/titlepage.htm
James,A., Gaston K.J. and Balmford,A. (2001). Can we afford to
conserve biodiversity? BioScience. 51(1), 43-52
Jepson, P. and Canney, S. (2001). Biodiversity hotspots: hot for what?
Global Ecology & Biogeography. 10(3), 225-7
Jetz,W. and Rahbek, C. (2001). Geometric constraints explain much of
the species richness pattern in African birds. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 98 (10), 5661-6
Kaltenborn, B.P., Nyahongo, J.W. and Mayengo, M. (2003). People and
wildlife Interactions around Serengeti National Park: Biodiveristy and
the Human-wildlife Interface in Serengeti,Tanzania. NINA Project
Report No. 22. Norwegian Institute for Nature Research, Lillehammer.
http://www.nina.no/archive/nina/Publikasjoner/project%20report/PR2
2.pdf
Klopper, R.R., Smith, G.F. and van Rooy, J. (2002).The Biodiversity of
Africa. In Rebirth of Science in Africa:A Shared Vision for Life and
Environmental Sciences (eds. Biaijanath, H. and Singh,Y.), pp 60-86.
Umdaus Press, Hatfield
Krug,W., Suich, H., and Haimbodi, N. (2002). Park pricing and economic
efficiency in Namibia. DEA Research Discussion Paper, No. 45.
Directorate of Environmental Affairs / Ministry of Environment and
Tourism,Windhoek. http://www.met.gov.na/publications/research/
rdp_0045.pdf
Kull, C.A. (2000). Isle of fire:The political ecology of grassland and
woodland burning in highland Madagascar. Ph.D. thesis. University of
California, Berkley
Kper,W., Sommer, J.H., Lovett, J.C., Mutke, J., Linder, H.P., Beentje,
H.J.,Van Rompaey, R.S.A.R., Chatelain, C., Sosef, M. and Barthlott,W.
(2004).Africas Hotspots of Biodiversity Redefined. Annals of the
Missouri Botanical Garden. 91(4), 525-35. http://www.botanik.unibonn.de/system/mitarbeiter_homepages/kueper/Kueper_et_al_2004
_Africas_hotspots_redefined.pdf
Kuwairi,A.S. (2004).The Great Man-Made River Project. Proceedings of
the 7th Pan African Water Conference, 29-30 November, Sandton,
South Africa
SECTION 2
Biodiversity
Mutke, J., Kier, G., Braun, G., Schultz, C. and Barthlott,W. (2001).
Patterns of African vascular plant diversity a GIS based analysis.
Systematics and Geography of Plants. 71, 1125-36
Myers, N., Mittermeier, R.A., Mittermeier, C.G., da Fonseca, G.A.B, Kent,
J. (2000). Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities. Nature. 403
(6772), 853-8
National Research Council Committee on the Formation of the
National Biological Survey (1993).A Biological Survey for the Nation.
National Academy Press,Washington, D.C.. http://books.nap.edu/
html/bio/index.html
Newman, D.J. and Laird, S.A. (1999).The influence of natural products
on 1997 pharmaceutical sales figures. In The Commercial Use of
Biodiversity:Access to Genetic Resources and Benefit-Sharing (eds. ten
Kate, K. and Laird, S.A.), pp 3335. Earthscan, London
OBrien,T.G. and Kinnaird, M.F. (2003). Caffeine and conservation.
Science. 300 (5619), 587
Poorter, L., Bongers, F., Kouam, F.N. and Hawthorne,W.D. (eds. 2004).
Biodiversity of West African Forests: an Ecological Atlas of Woody Plant
Species. CABI Publishing, Oxon
Posey, D. and Dutfield, G. (1996). Beyond Intellectual Property.Toward
traditional resource rights for indigenous people and local
communities. International Development Research Centre, Ottawa.
Quensire, J. (ed. 1994). La pche dans le Delta Central du Niger.
IER/ORSTOM/Karthala, Paris
Rahbek, C. (1995).The elevational gradient of species richness: a
uniform pattern? Ecography. 18, 200-5
Randrianandianina, B.N.,Andriamahaly, L.R., Harisoa, F.M. and Nicoll,
M.E. (2004).The Role of the Protected Areas in the Management of the
Islands Biodiversity. In The Natural History of Madagascar (eds.
Goodman S.M. and Benstead, J.P.), pp 1423-32.The University of
Chicago Press, Chicago
Rates, S.M. (2001). Plants as source of drugs. Toxicon. 39 (5), 603-13
RBG (2005). Plant Diversity Hotspot Discovered in Tropical Africa. Press
Release. Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. http://www.rbgkew.org.uk/
press/plant_diversity_hotspot.html
Republic of Seychelles (2004). National Assessment of the Barbados
Plan of Action +10 Review. http://www.sidsnet.org/docshare/other/
20040113105721_Seychelles_NAR_2003.pdf
Republic of Seychelles (2000). Environment Management Plan 20002010: Managing for Sustainability. Ministry of Environment and Natural
Resources, Mah. http://www.env.gov.sc/EMPS_2000-2010.pdf
Roberts, C. M., McClean, C. J.,Veron, J. E. N., Hawkins, J. P.,Allen, G. R.,
McAllister, D. E., Mittermeier, C. G., Schueler, F.W., Spalding, M.,Wells,
F.,Vynne, C.,Werner,T. B. (2002). Marine biodiversity hotspots and
conservation priorities for tropical reefs. Science. 295, 1280-4
259
260
Robertson, D.P. and Hull, R.B. (2001). Beyond biology: toward a more
public ecology for conservation. Conservation Biology. 15, 970-9
Robinson, J.G. and Bennett, E.L. (2004). Having your wildlife and eating
it too: an analysis of hunting sustainability across tropical ecosystems.
Animal Conservation. 7, 397-408
Robinson, J.G. and Bennett, E.L. (2002).Will alleviating poverty solve
the bushmeat crisis? Oryx. 36, 332
Robinson, J.G. and Bennett, E.L. (eds. 2000). Hunting for Sustainability
in Tropical Forests. Columbia University Press, New York
Rodrigues,A.S.L.,Akakaya, H.R.,Andelman, S.J., Bakarr, M.I., Boitani,
L., Brooks,T.M., Chanson, J.S., Fishpool, L.D.C., da Fonseca, G.A.B.,
Gaston, K.J., Hoffmann, M., Marquet, P.A., Pilgrim, J.D., Pressey, R.L.,
Schipper, J., Sechrest,W., Stuart, S.N., Underhill, L.G.,Waller, R.W.,
Watts, M.E.J. and Yan, X. (2004). Global gap analysis: priority regions for
expanding the global protected-area network. BioScience. 54(12),
1092-100
Rutherford, M.C., Midgley, G.F., Bond,W.J., Powrie, L.W., Roberts, R. and
Allsopp, J. (1999). Plant Biodiversity. In Climate Change Impacts in
Southern Africa (ed. Kiker, G.). Department of Environment Affairs and
Tourism, Pretoria
SADC, IUCN and SARDC (2005). Southern African Environment Outlook
2005. Southern African Development Community, IUCN the World
Conservation Union and Southern African Research and Documentation
Centre, Gaborone/Harare
Sala, O.E., Chapin, F.S.,Armesto, J.J., Berlow, E., Bloomfield, J., Dirzo,
R., Huber-Sanwald, E., Huenneke, L.F., Jackson, R.B., Kinzig,A.,
Leemans, R., Lodge, D.M., Mooney, H.A., Oesterheld, M., Poff, N.L.,
Sykes, M.T.,Walker, B.H.,Walker, M. and Wall, D.H. (2000). Global
biodiversity scenarios for the year 2100. Science. 287, 1770-4
Sayer, J.A., Harcourt, C.S. and Collins, N.M. (eds. 1992). The
Conservation Atlas of Tropical Forests:Africa. MacMillan, London
Scholes, R.J. and Biggs, R. (eds. 2004). Ecosystem Services in Southern
Africa: a regional assessment. Council for Scientific and Industrial
Research, Pretoria
Scholes, R.J. and Biggs, R. (2005).A biodiversity intactness index.
Nature. 434, 45-9.Available for download from:
www.millenniumassessment.org/proxy/document.750.aspx
Siebert, S.J. and Smith, G.F. (2004). Lessons learnt from the SABONET
Project whilst building capacity to document the botanical diversity of
southern Africa. Taxon. 53(1), 119-26
Songorwa,A.N., Bhrs,T. and Hughey, K.. (2000). Community-based
wildlife management in Africa: a critical assessment of the literature.
Natural Resources Journal. 40(3), 603-43
Steenkamp,Y. and Smith, G.F. (2003). Needs of users of botanical
information in South Africa: outcomes of a national workshop for the
stakeholders and end-users of botanical information and herbaria.
Taxon. 52(2), 303-6
Steffen,W.L., Sanderson,A.,Tyson, P.D., Jger, J., Matson, P.A., Moore,
B., Oldfield, F., Richardson, K., Schellnhuber, H.J.,Turner, B.L. and
Wasson, R.J. (2004). Global Change and the Earth System:A Planet
Under Pressure.The International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme
Series. Springer, Berlin
Sutherland,W.J. (2003). Parallel extinction risk and global distribution of
languages and species. Nature. 423(6937), 276-9
SECTION 2
Biodiversity
261
262
CHAPTER 8
INTERLINKAGES: THE
ENVIRONMENT AND POLICY WEB
Lead Authors: Ossama Salem, Munyaradzi Chenje, Jennifer Mohamed-Katerere
INTRODUCTION
and
The
need
to
focus
on
interlinkages
and
opportunities
for
improved
environmental
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
run-off, thus accelerating soil erosion and siltation of
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
development opportunities.
263
BUILDING INTERLINKAGES
societal actions.
interaction,
the
high
incidence
of
non-linear
264
After about one year, a blister forms and the mature worm,
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
livelihood sustainability and global climate change
indicate the complex and multilevel interactions
and
interlinkages
between
human
265
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
and
environmental systems.
The
interlinkages
concept
promotes
building
the distribution of power and influence within society lies at the height
their
joined-up policies.
decisions,
and
how
to
determine
the
an
interlinkages
approach
in
the
Ensuring access to safe and clean water requires taking into account technology, gender
issues and water tenure regimes at the national and local level. An internally displaced
woman takes water from a well (provided by ACT) in Muacanhica, Moxico province, Angola.
Source: P. Jeffrey/ACT
266
to meeting the targets associated with the different goals. The choice of vehicles for
these interventions may differ not only between sectors, but also at different phases
nature
of the intervention. Interlinkages between ministries and sectors will thus be vital for
policy making, planning and evaluation, but the delivery of operational services may
This
of
poverty,
which
subsistence-based
traps
existence
people
is
into
further
reduce under-five mortality rate by two-thirds from 1990 to 2015. The incidence of
infant mortality varies greatly across the region, ranging from an infant mortality
rate of 165 in every 1 000 in Sierra Leone, to 84 in every 1 000 in Madagascar, and
target vary from country to country, depending on the levels of child health already
services available in the highly specialized national paediatric units and on providing
rapid emergency transport to ensure that the most vulnerable small and sick babies
are referred from community services to the centralized specialist units. These
specialized services in most African countries are largely controlled, funded and
managed through a central health ministry. Interlinkages with other ministries and
sectors are not the principal mechanism for achieving this MDG in these countries.
In countries where the infant mortality is very high, and closely linked to
environmental factors, the principal interventions may be the provision of safe
water, controlling atmospheric and other pollution, improved sanitation, better
nutrition and providing basic primary health care to urban and rural areas.
Ministries of health are not responsible for water, sanitation and food, but have an
supporting their colleagues at cabinet level, so that they have the necessary funds
health objectives are vital at the policy and planning stages, as the delivery of
many of these services depends on the work of ministries other than health.
IMPROVING UNDERSTANDING
THROUGH INTERLINKAGES
adjustment
resource
challenges
understanding
inter-sectoral cooperation.
programmes
facing
Africa.
(SAPs)
Thus
and
SECTION 2
267
Chapter 8
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
detrimental
to
ecological
sustainability.
The
people also no longer have access to fresh fish from the lakes.
than 175 140 ha but had shrunk to 87 910 ha in 1985 and to a mere
58 600 ha in 2002. It is now believed that the lakes have all but
The loss of the lakes, which were a source of drinking water and
were used for irrigation and fisheries, has affected the livelihoods and
erosion and siltation of the lakes. The images below show the dramatic
eliminating the supply of fresh vegetables and fruits in both towns. The
Legend
settlement
lakes
shrubs
rivers
original lake
towns
roads
limestone
grasslands
0.8
Scale 1:600,000
0.8 1.6 2.4
Legend
3.2
4 kilometres
N
farms
Map prepared by: Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development
settlement
lakes
shrubs
rivers
original lake
towns
roads
limestone
grasslands
0.8
Scale 1:600,000
0.8 1.6 2.4
3.2
4 kilometres
N
farms
Map prepared by: Regional Centre for Mapping of Resources for Development
268
Governments and
communities are
faced with the
difficult choice of
reaping the
immediate value of
forest conversion
against the values of
maintaining forests.
Source: Y. Katerere
Source: J. Maillard/ILO
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
that can support these growing communities is an
important factor contributing to the lack of economic
opportunity, high environmental costs and thus low
foodstuffs.
aquatic life;
agricultural production.
269
270
Hafun village. The aftermath of the 26 December 2004 tsunami that travelled across the Indian Ocean from Indonesia to Africa hitting a
650-km stretch of coastline in north-western Somalia.
Source: UNHCR
In the Sahel, there has been on average a 25 per cent decrease in rainfall over
three decades. Climate variability and the frequency and intensity of severe
weather events are projected to increase. Africa is likely to get drier in northern
and southern latitudes and wetter in the tropics. Projections further indicate that
there will be variation within regions and countries: Southern Africa may be drier
Rising sea levels, coastal erosion and flooding are projected to adversely
yields, ecosystem boundaries and species ranges will all dramatically affect the
security, water and energy security and the increased incidence of vector- and
water-borne diseases will further undermine Africas ability to develop. Globally, an
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
of
international
trade,
development
aid,
and
the last five years and significantly higher than the rates
of 3.7 per cent in 2003 and 2.9 per cent in 2002 (AfDB
countries
Human
negative effects.
(UNDP
2005).
The
2005
271
272
including in Africa.
Market competition.
Country
Commodity
Gross national
total merchandise
Total agricultural
income
exports
exports
Malawi
Tobacco leaves
23.8
59
74
Cocoa beans
16.9
69
97
Burundi
Coffee
7.2
75
83
Kenya
Tea
6.5
26
42
Guinea-Bissau
Cashew nuts
6.3
48
91
Chad
Cotton
5.7
37
71
Ethiopia
Coffee
5.4
62
69
Burkina Faso
Cotton
4.9
39
77
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
Global trade regimes and local opportunities are closely linked. Here, women in Mfoundi Market, Yaound, Cameroon, sell their
agricultural produce.
Source: P. Nyemeck/CIFOR
to developing countries.
273
274
and
Mohamed-Katerere
2005),
and
many
urban
poor
people
increased
million US$
300 000
worker remittances
250 000
200 000
150 000
100 000
50 000
0
1980
1985
1990
Source: WRI and others 2005 (data from the World Bank 2001)
1995
2000
2002
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
275
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
IMPROVING RESPONSES:
INTERLINKAGES IN POLICY
Developing an interlinkages approach to policy
responses holds promise for identifying comprehensive
solutions and for building synergies between diverse
policies, thus maximizing the resources available for
implementation. Interlinkages between different scales
temporal and spatial potentially enhance
opportunities for implementation. The successful
implementation of many policies is dependant on an
interlinkages approach. Increasingly an interlinked
approach is evident in policies themselves.
In the two decades since Our Common Future was
published, governments in Africa have increasingly given
mainstreaming
of
environment
in
PRSPs
and
Assess
institutional
capacity and
lessons of
experience
Analyse linkages
between
environment and
poverty
Define desired
outcomes
Choose public
actions
Monitor results
276
Disease
Numbers of deaths
% of all deaths
HIV/Aids
2 196 956
21%
21%
Respiratory infections
1 025 455
10%
30%
Malaria
962 736
9%
39%
Diarrhoeal diseases
702 822
7%
46%
Childhood diseases
695 187
7%
52%
Perinatal conditions
Perinatal conditions
576 278
5%
58%
Measles
426 743
4%
62%
Tuberculosis
Cumulative
335 142
3%
65%
10 681 000
100%
100%
Source: Ssemakula 2002 [Data adapted from WHO 2002, Annex Table 2]
indicators.
environment.
these gaps.
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
277
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
mainstreaming scores
environment
score
Country
PRSP type
(scale 0-3)
Zambia
Full
2.4
Ghana
Full
2.2
Mozambique
Full
2.2
Interim
1.9
Full
1.7
Kenya
Mali
Burkina Faso
Full
1.7
Senegal
Full
1.7
Rwanda
Full
1.7
Malawi
Full
1.7
Ethiopia
Full
1.6
Guinea
Full
1.6
Ethiopia: The PRSP discusses issues relating to traditional energy, water and
Niger
Full
1.5
Benin
Full
1.5
Mauritania
Full
1.4
access to water and sanitation during the period from 1990 to 2000.
Gambia
Full
1.2
Guinea: The PRSP presents targets and indicators relating to water supply and
Uganda
Full
1.1
electricity in terms of coverage, service delivery and cost recovery for 2010.
Madagascar
Interim
1.1
Cape Verde
Interim
1.0
Full
0.9
Mauritania: The PRSP presents targets and indicators relating to secure tenure,
Chad
Interim
0.8
Cte dIvoire
Interim
0.8
current and targeted amounts in terms of litres per capita and cost of drinking
Tanzania
Cameroon
Interim
0.6
Lesotho
Interim
0.6
Sierra Leone
Interim
0.6
gender, and access to water and sanitation proposed in the PRSP coincide with
Democratic Republic
the MDGs time frame of 2015. The PRSP proposes to collect information to
of the Congo
Interim
0.6
develop outcome, access, process and proxy indicators, and refers to relevant
Guinea-Bissau
Interim
0.5
Djibouti
Interim
0.5
Zambia: Access targets on water supply and sanitation are presented for 2015,
Interim
0.3
with indicators such as number of water points, distance to water facility, volume
Interim
0.3
1.2
supply and sanitation. Targets for electrification are presented for 2010.
Average score
278
impacting
negatively
on
coastal
and
marine
extraction
has
caused
severe
environmental
significance
(Energy
Information
Administration 2003).
Various tools and policy-making processes seek to
address the complex human-environment nexus and
use interlinkages to do so. These include integrative
assessment processes (discussed in Chapter 9:
Genetically Modified Crops) and inclusive policy
processes (discussed in Chapter 1: The Human
Dimension and Chapter 9: Genetically Modified Crops).
Environmental impact assessments (EIAs) are important
tools which employ an integrated and interlinked
approach to evaluating relative costs and benefits in
diverse spheres demonstrating the interlinkages
between environmental, social and economic issues
and creating opportunities for deciding on appropriate
development opportunities. They seek to produce early
An Ijaw woman and her child fishing in a communal forest around her village in the Delta
region of Nigeria. The fish catch has dropped dramatically as a result of oil spillage from a
nearby oil extraction pipe.
Source: A. Arbib/Still Pictures
and
adequate
information
about
the
likely
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
for development.
environmental
resources).
Non-use
values
country with 42.6 per cent of its total annual natural gas
are
279
280
Box 13: Building partnerships for Environmental Impact Assessments: Eastern Africa
Environmental impact assessment is an important tool for
and Madagascar.
region
faces
various
challenges
in
fully
Combating
land
degradation,
drought
and
desertification;
natural resources.
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
281
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
Livelihood strategies and food security of the poor often depend directly on healthy
ecosystems and the diversity of goods and ecological services they provide.
Time spent collecting water and fuelwood by children, especially girls, can reduce time
at school.
Poor women are especially exposed to indoor air pollution and the burden of collecting
water and fuelwood, and have unequal access to land and other natural resources.
Water-related diseases such as diarrhoea and cholera kill an estimated 3 million people
per year in developing countries, the majority of which are children under the age of five.
Indoor air pollution and carrying heavy loads of water and fuelwood adversely affect
womens health and can make women less fit for childbirth and at greater risk of
complications during pregnancy.
of effects of drought.
PA5: Integrate national adaptation strategies into national
sustainable development planning.
282
economic
processes,
and
into
comprehensive
Appendix 1.
combating
land
degradation,
drought
and
Box 14: Progress towards MDGs in the Western Indian Ocean islands
sub-region
and Seychelles) have made substantial progress towards achieving the MDG
target date or movement towards the target. Taking the four countries as a whole,
28 per cent of the targets in the MDG system have already been achieved, a
further 15 per cent are achievable by the due dates if current progress is
maintained, and on a further 28 per cent they are on track (UN 2005 and UN
Statistics Division 2005). Of the environmental targets, nine have been achieved,
Based on a detailed review of five countries across the globe, the Sachs
studied the cost of implementing the MDGs. Based on local data and evidence of
best practice, broad cost estimates for achieving the goals were identified,
estimated in terms of average cost per capita, separating the different elements of
the task (Sachs 2005). Applying this approach within the sub-region, the medium-
term programme for pursuit of MDGs at a cost of US$74 per head per year, would
require from Madagascar 10 per cent of annual Gross Domestic Product (GDP),
from the Comoros 4 per cent of annual GDP, from Mauritius 0.6 per cent and from
Progress in the region as a whole has been mixed but there has been some
success given that progress in any country is related to the baseline from which it
started in 1990. Moreover, the cost of moving towards the targets differs from
achieved 28%
on track 28%
Source: UN 2005, MDG Statistics, UN website January
achievable 15%
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
283
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
Figure 3: Linkages and feedback loops among desertification, global climate change and biodiversity loss
Desertification
Reduced carbon
sequestration into aboveand below-ground
carbon reserves
Reduced
soil conservation
Soil erosion
Increase in
extreme events
(floods, droughts, fires)
Reduced
structural diversity
of vegetation cover
and diversity of microbial
species in soil crust
Reduced
carbon reserves
and increased
CO2 emissions
Loss of nutrients
and soil structure
Climate change
Increases
and reductions in
species abundances
Biodiversity loss
Change in
community structure
and diversity
Source: MA 2005
The major components of biodiversity loss (in green) directly affect major dryland services (in bold). The inner loops connect
desertification to biodiversity loss and climate change through soil erosion. The outer loop interrelates biodiversity loss and climate
change. On the top section of the outer loop, reduced primary production and microbial activity reduce carbon sequestration and
contribute to global warming. On the bottom section of the outer loop, global warming increases evapotranspiration, thus adversely
affecting biodiversity; changes in community structure and diversity are also expected because different species will react differently to
the elevated CO2 concentrations.
Source: MA 2005
284
ability
to
earn
income
and
self-reliance.
Its
Landfills;
eutrophication;
inflow
may
increase
salinity
and
threaten
biodiversity; and
(UNEP 2005).
The traditional half-moon technique is used to enhance water retention in rain-fed agriculture in the Sahel.
Source: J. C. Mohamed-Katerere
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
285
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
The women of this gardening cooperative in Mutenda, Zimbabwe, rely on a nearby dam for
irrigation for most of the year.
Source: H. Wagner/IFAD
approaches is controversial.
framework
for
biodiversity
conservation.
basin management.
286
sustainable partnerships.
First,
environmental
governance
and
overall
institutional
framework
for
developing
particularly
governance,
important.
within
For
example,
inadequate
levels
poor
of
and
Regional
Cooperation
highlights
the
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
sheltered
from
environmental
287
regulation
Interlinkages
institutional
between
and
among
effectively addressed.
the national level and this remains true for Africa (WRI
288
Ecological reserve
> one third of biocapacity
<one third of biocapacity
Ecological deficit
<one third of biocapacity
> one third of biocapacity
insufficient data
Source: WWF 2005
development process.
The
African
Ministerial
Conference
on
the
Human
Dimension,
opportunities
for
greater
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
administering
cross-sectoral interlinkages.
the
different
MEAs.
Improving
for interlinkages.
sector.
These
include
the
289
Ai-Ais/Richtersveld
marine
management
include
the
The Zambezi River in Luangwa District, Zambia, is part of the Zimbabwe-MozambiqueZambia (ZIMOZA) transboundary management area, facilitated by IUCN, which brings
governments and communities together in a partnership that aims to enhance its potential
as a tourist destination.
290
EMERGING PARTNERSHIPS
linkages
and
ensure
the
better
inclusion
of
Intra-regional trade
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
SEIZING OPPORTUNITIES:
INTERLINKAGES IN ENVIRONMENT FOR
DEVELOPMENT
eighteenth-century
medicine
when
291
292
and potential.
Box 17: The COMESA* countries and the uneven playing field for global trade
Developed European countries have the following advantages over
and
capita per year, of which US$15 per capita represents the gap on health
services. The gap in health between the COMESA countries and Europe
supports the view that in economic terms the best buys to meet the most
diseases, and the provision of safe water and sanitation. But as well as
uneven playing field in the global market does not forever exclude them
countries, which are amongst the poorest and least developed in the
$1 100 million per year, or US$4 per capita, until 2007 to raise
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
293
294
Many
countries
have
been
slow
to
adopt
The
essential
message
of
economics
and
Mount Oku, Bamenda Highlands, Cameroon. Collecting medicinal plants and making cures provides an income for many people.
Source: M. Edwards/Still Pictures
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
References
CONCLUSION
Africa has made tremendous progress in trying to
address the environment and development challenges
of the past two decades. However, results are mixed.
In many countries, new environmental institutions at
different administrative levels, such as environment
management agencies, have been established to tackle
both green and brown environmental issues. At subregional and regional levels, economic groupings have
accepted the challenges to develop interlinked and
forward-looking strategies to ensure that Africa
achieves some of the MDG targets.
Despite such progress, the environment is yet to be
fully mainstreamed in all sector-specific policies and in
economic development. In particular, the relationship
between the environment and continued poverty has not
been fully acknowledged. The conclusion reached by the
Brundtland Commission in 1987 that institutions tend to
be independent, fragmented, and work to relatively
narrow
mandates
with
closed
decision-making
Boj, J., Bucknall, J., Hamilton, K., Kishor, N., Kraus, C. and Pillai, P.
(2004). Environment. In A Sourcebook for Policy Reduction Strategies,
Vol. 1: Core Techniques and Cross-Cutting Issues. (ed. Klugman, J.), pp.
375-401.The World Bank,Washington D.C. http://povlibrary.
worldbank.org/files/4145_chap11.pdf
Boj, J. and Reddy, R.C. (2003a). Poverty Reduction Strategies and the
Millennium Development Goal on Environmental Sustainability:
Opportunities for Alignment. Environmental Economics Series, Paper
No. 92.The World Bank,Washington, D.C. http://www-wds.worldbank.
org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2005/01/10/000160016_20
050110165441/Rendered/PDF/312190PovertyR1ntGoalsonEnvironme
nt.pdf
Boj, J. and Reddy, R.C. (2003b). Status and Evolution of Environmental
Priorities in the Poverty Reduction Strategies:An Assessment of Fifty
Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers. Environmental Economics Series,
Paper No. 93.The World Bank,Washington, D.C.
Boj, J. and Reddy, R.C. (2002). Poverty Reduction Strategies and
Environment:A review of 40 Interim and Full Poverty Reduction
Strategy Papers (PRSPs). Environment Department Papers,
Environmental Economics Series, Paper No. 86.The World Bank,
Washington, D.C. http://www-wds.worldbank.org/servlet/WDSContent
Server/WDSP/IB/2002/09/24/000094946_02090504023465/Rendere
d/PDF/multi0page.pdf
Cilliers, J. (undated).The NEPAD African Peer Review Mechanism.
www.hss.de/downloads/cilliers1.pdf
CMH (2001).Macroeconomics and Health:Investing in Health for Economic
Development.Report of the Commission on Macroeconomics and Health.
Commission on Macroeconomics and Health.World Health Organization,
Geneva.http://www.cid.harvard.edu/cidcmh/CMHReport.pdf
COMIFAC (2004). Declaration de Yaound, Sommet des Chefs dEtat
dAfrique Centrale sur la Conservation et la Gestion Durable des Forts
Tropicales, 17 Mars 1999,Yaound, Cameroon. Commission des Forts
dAfrique Centrale. http://www.riddac.org/document/pdf/declaration
yaounde.pdf
Commission for Africa (2005). Our Common Interest: Report of the
Commission for Africa. Commission for Africa, London.
http://www.commissionforafrica.org/english/report/thereport/english/
11-03-05_cr_report.pdf
DFID, Directorate General for Development EC, UNDP, and World Bank
(2002). Linking Poverty Reduction and Environmental Management:
Policy Challenges and Opportunities. Department for International
Development, Directorate General for Development European
Commission, United Nations Development Programme and the World
Bank.The World Bank,Washington D.C. http://www-wds.worldbank.
org/servlet/WDSContentServer/WDSP/IB/2002/09/27/000094946_02
091704130739/Rendered/PDF/multi0page.pdf
Energy Information Administration (2003). Sub-Saharan Africa:
Environmental Issues. http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/
subafricaenv.html
Emeseh, E. (2004).The Limitations of Law in Promoting Synergy
between Environment and Development Policies in Developing
Countries:A case Study of the Petroleum Industry in Nigeria.
Proceedings of the Berlin Conference on the Human Dimension of
Global Environmental Change Greening of Policies, Inter-linkages and
Policy Integration, 3-4 December, Berlin, Germany. http://web.fuberlin.de/ffu/akumwelt/bc2004/download/emeseh_f.pdf
295
296
FAO (2003). Forestry Outlook Study for Africa African Forests:A View
to 2020.African Development Bank, European Commission and the
Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/005/ Y4526B/y4526b00.pdf
FAO (2002). Dependence on Single Agricultural Commodity Exports in
Developing Countries: Magnitude and Trends. In FAO Papers on
Selected Issues Related to the WTO Negotiations on Agriculture, pp
219-39. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Rome.
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/004/Y3733E/Y3733E00.pdf
Friends of the Earth (1999). The IMF: Selling the Environment Short.
Friends of the Earth,Washington, D.C. http://www.foe.org/res/pubs/
pdf/imf.pdf
Heinzerling, L. and Ackerman, F. (2002). Pricing the Priceless: CostBenefit Analysis of Environmental Protection. Georgetown
Environmental Law and Policy Institute, Georgetown University.
http://www.law.georgetown.edu/gelpi/papers/pricefnl.pdf
SECTION 2
Chapter 8
UN-Habitat (2003). The Challenge of Slums: Global Report on Human
Settlements 2003. United Nations Programme on Human Settlements,
Nairobi.
UNCTAD (2001). Economic Development in Africa: Performance,
Prospects and Policy Issues. United Nations Conference on Trade and
Development. United Nations, New York. http://www.unctad.org/en/
docs/pogdsafricad1.en.pdf
UNDP (2005). Human Development Report 2005: International
cooperation at a crossroads Aid, trade and security in an unequal
world. United Nations Development Programme, New York.
http://hdr.undp.org/reports/global/2005/pdf/HDR05_complete.pdf
UNEP (2005). Africa Environment Tracking Issues and Developments.
United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi.
UNEP (2004). GEO Yearbook 2003. United Nations Environment
Programme, Nairobi. http://www.unep.org/geo/yearbook/yb2003/
index.htm
UNEP (2003). Global Environment Outlook 3. http://www.unep.org/
geo/geo3/english/index.htm
UN Statistics Division (2005). Millennium Development Indicators.
United Nations Statistics Division, New York. http://unstats.un.org/
unsd/mi/mi_worldmillennium_new.asp
Valente, M. (2005). Climate change: warnings of imminent disaster fall
on deaf ears. Inter Press Service, 30 June.
Watkins, K and Fowler, P. (2002). Rigged Rules and Double Standards
Trade, Globalization, and the Fight against Poverty. Oxfam Campaign
Reports. Oxfam, Oxford. http://www.maketradefair.com/assets/
english/report_english.pdf
WCED (1987). Our Common Future.World Commission on Environment
and Development. Oxford University Press, Oxford
WHO (2006a) .Dracunculiasis (Guinea-Worm) World Health
Organization, Geneva. http://www.who.int/health_mapping/
programme_support/guinea_worm/en/print.html
WHO (2006b). Water Related Diseases. Guinea-Worm Disease
(Dracunculiasis). World Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.who.
int/water_sanitation_health/diseases/guinea/en/
WHO (2002). WHO Report on Infectious Diseases 2002: Scaling up the
Response to Infectious Diseases, a Way out of Poverty.World Health
Organization, Geneva. http://www.who.int/infectious-diseasereport/2002/framesintro.html
World Bank (2005). World Development Indicators 2005.World Bank,
Washington, D.C. http://devdata.worldbank.org/wdi2005/index2.htm
World Bank (2004). World Development Indicators 2004.World Bank,
Washington, D.C.
World Bank (2000). Can Africa Claim the 21st Century? The World Bank,
Washington, D.C. http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTAFRICA/
Resources/complete.pdf
WRI (2005). EarthTrends:The Environmental Information Portal.World
Resources Institute,Washington, D.C. http://earthtrends.wri.org
WRI in collaboration with UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank (2005). World
Resources 2005:The Wealth of the Poor Managing Ecosystems to
Fight Poverty.World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United
Nations Environment Programme, the United Nations Development
Programme and the World Bank.World Resources Series.World
Resources Institute,Washington, D.C. http://pdf.wri.org/wrr05_full_
hires.pdf
I n t e r l i n k a g e s : T h e E n v i r o n m e n t a n d P o l i c y We b
WRI in collaboration with UNDP, UNEP and the World Bank (2003). World
Resources 2002-2004 Decisions for the Earth, Balance,Voice and
Power.World Resources Institute, United Nations Development
Programme, United Nations Environment Programme and the World
Bank.World Resources Institute,Washington, D.C.
WWF (2005).Asia-Pacific 2005:The Ecological Footprint and Natural
Wealth.The World Wide Fund For Nature, Gland.
http://www.footprintnetwork.org/download.php?id=9
297
SECTION 3
EMERGING CHALLENGES
300
CHAPTER 9
Because biotechnology is such a revolutionary science, and has spawned such a powerful
industry, it has great potential to reshape the world around us. It is already changing agriculture
and what many of us eat. Any major mistakes could lead to tragic and perhaps permanent changes
in the natural world. For these reasons, future generations are likely to look back to our time
and either thank us or curse us for what we do or dont do about GMOs and biosafety.
Doing the right thing is not simple.
CBD AND UNEP 2003
INTRODUCTION
done
elsewhere,
but
also
to
establish
what
Food security is
having sufficient
economic access
to safe, nutritious
and culturally
acceptable food.
and
values
that
promote
private
sector
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
301
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
and encourage desirable traits that improve food production and satisfy
that the original organism did not have. The resultant organisms are
grains into bread and beer, and milk into cheese. Such intentional
Sources: CBD and UNEP 2003, Mackenzie and others 2003, UN 1992, UN Millennium Project 2005b
STATE-AND-TRENDS
Figure 1: Global area of biotech crops
million hectares
80
70
60
50
40
30
90
industrial countries
20
04
20
03
20
02
20
01
20
00
19
99
19
98
19
97
10
developing countries
19
96
20
19
95
total
302
1
USA*
47.6 million ha
soybean, maize, cotton, canola
13
Spain*
0.1 million ha
maize
11
Romania*
0.1 million ha
soybean
17
Germany
<0.05 million ha
maize
5
China*
3.7 million ha
cotton
12
Mexico*
0.1 million ha
cotton, soybean
7
India*
0.5 million ha
cotton
16
Honduras
<0.05 million ha
maize
14
Philippines*
0.1 million ha
maize
15
Colombia
<0.05 million ha
cotton
10
Australia*
0.2 million ha
cotton
6
Paraguay*
1.2 million ha
soybean
2
Argentina*
16.2 million ha
soybean, maize, cotton
9
Uruguay*
0.3 million ha
soybean, maize
4
Brazil*
5.0 million ha
soybean
8
South Africa*
0.5 million ha
maize, soybean, cotton
6 per cent each, and China with 5 per cent of land under
GM crops globally.
Cucumber
Wheat
Maize
Melon
Musk melon
Squash
Cantaloupe
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
303
about 2003, there was a rapid decline in the area under Bt cotton. In the
80 per cent reduction since 2000. This is ascribed to low world prices
and droughts: in 2004 -05 the area planted was 21 700 ha, an
extraordinary 40 per cent drop in area planted with cotton in one year
growing it since 1997. By 2003 it was estimated that about 75 per cent
planted Bt cotton are in debt; the total debt among small-scale cotton
higher cost of Bt cotton seed was offset by lower chemical use and yield
in 2004 (Pschorn-Strauss).
used for food and yellow maize used for feed; soybean
Source: Biowatch
304
Research Objective
Additional Information
Insect-Resistant Maize
for Africa
stem borer
May 2005.
KENYA
Government Authorities
Sustainable Agriculture.
KENYA
KARI
Transgenic virus-resistant
sweet potato
MONSANTO
International Service for the Acquisition of
Agricultural Applications.
Funded by USAID and Monsanto.
BURKINO FASO
In 2003, Monsanto, Syngenta and Burkina
varieties
EGYPT
Monsanto and Egypts Agriculture Genetic
Commercial introduction
resistance
2006.
Sources: Odame and others 2003, Glover 2003a, GRAIN 2005, Mansour 2005
Research
cooperation
between
developing
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
305
Angola
Benin
Cameroon
Chad
Congo
Cte dIvoire
Ghana
Kenya
Lesotho
Mozambique
Nigeria
Rwanda
South Africa
Togo
Uganda
Zambia
Zimbabwe
GM FOOD AID
306
food donors.
farmers who already have their own traditional ways of fighting pests
and weeds. Debate continues over whether GMO crops could help the
of GMO foods.
KENYA Does not permit GMO food imports, but government is in final
GMO products.
alleged that the WFP moved some non-GM food aid stocks out of
the country.
ZIMBABWE Banned import of all GMO produce, except for food aid,
Source: FAO
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
307
Egypt
Cape Verde
Mauritania
Senegal
Mali
Niger
Chad
Eritrea
Sudan
Gambia
Djibouti
Nigeria
Guinea
Ethiopia
Ghana
Liberia
Central African
Republic
Cameroon
Uganda
Democratic Republic
of the Congo
Togo
Burkina Faso
Kenya
Congo
Rwanda
Benin
Tanzania
Seychelles
Mozambique
Zambia
countries who have signed
the biosafety protocol
countries who have ratified
the biosafety protocol
Zimbabwe
Namibia
Madagascar
Mauritius
Botswana
Lesotho
Source: data from African Centre for Biotechnology 2005, CBD 2006, James 2004
308
its
application
has
constrained
African
People accept
new technologies
benefits outweigh
because they
Intellectual Property Rights affect how financial benefits are distributed. The
(TRIPS) asserts IPR on life form, while the Convention on Biological Diversity
(CBD) asserts national sovereignty and thus by implication the right to prohibit
The CBD promotes equitably shared benefits from use of biological resources
(GRAIN 2004).
Article 27.2 of TRIPS allows for the exclusion from patent ability based on
Article 27.3b of TRIPS allows for the development of unique IPR protection
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
309
Farmers in Cte dIvoire select the NERICA rice varieties to grow during PVS trials. Here they
compare panicles of rice varieties during post-harvest evaluation.
Source: World Bank
perspective;
310
highly contested.
FOOD SECURITY
The challenge of
improving food
developing countries;
production.
WCED 1987)
nuts, about 0.4 kg of meat, milk and eggs and the same
amount of fruits and vegetables (Altieri and Rosset
1999). The real causes of hunger are poverty, inequality
and lack of access to food and land. Too many people
are too poor to buy the food that is available (but often
poorly distributed) or lack the land and resources to
grow it themselves (Lappe and others 1998 in Altieri
and Rosset 1999).
Genetically modified crops may be important from a
developing country perspective because specific
nutritional values can be added (UN Millennium Project
2005b). One of the best known genetic enrichment
food crops is vitamin A improved rice, also called
Golden Rice. Insufficient vitamin A intake by children
in developing countries is the leading cause of visual
impairment and blindness, affecting over three million
children in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Muir 2003).
Cajanus cajan (Pigeon Pea) is a perennial legume. This plant is drought-resistant, nitrogen
fixing, and enhances soil fertility. It requires low inputs and can be intercropped with
traditional crops.
Source: A. Conti/FAO
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Box 6: Will the use of Bt cotton result in less pest threats and pesticide use?
In 2002, Bt cotton was planted on 4.6 million ha worldwide,
cotton bollworms.
secondary pests.
technologies
are
still
not
fully
understood.
311
312
CHEMICAL USE
a heavy toll.
BIODIVERSITY
GM
technology
could
result
in
the
Source: P. Lowrey/FAO
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
saw the cotton balls fall off their crops (Spinney 1999).
313
314
Source: CIMMYT
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
(Spinney 1999).
ETHICS
livelihoods
and
conservation
of
environmental
315
316
multinational companies.
other stakeholders:
RESPONSES
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
in Africa.
in Africa.
biotechnology.
biotechnology issues.
pharmaceutical
Two
factors
(Young 2004):
underlie
These
the
standardized
analysis
of
risk
industries.
317
318
socioeconomic aspects.
ignorance
modification of DNA.
Katerere 2003).
(Scoones
2002).
The
precautionary
INTEGRATIVE APPROACHES
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
is
successful
when
it
promotes
have
recognized
this:
participatory
Bacillus thuringiensis.
(Mohamed-Katerere 2003).
Source:University of Georgia
The
AUs
Comprehensive
Africa
Agriculture
decision
which
making,
scenario
approaches
CARTAGENA PROTOCOL
international
environment,
markets,
and
the
319
320
Box 9: Precaution
The Cartagena Protocol applies precaution not just to biodiversity, but to potential
risks to human health as well. Additionally it gives importing countries the right
to take into account socioeconomic concerns (provided their actions are
consistent with their international obligations). Such concerns could include the
risk that imports of genetically engineered foods may replace traditional crops,
indigenous communities.
Source: Secretariat of the CBD 2000, UN 1992, CBD and UNEP 2003
a multifaceted approach;
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Signature
Ratification/accession
Algeria
25 May 2000
5 August 2004
3 November 2004
Angola
Benin
24 May 2000
2 March 2005
31 May 2005
Botswana
1 June 2001
11 June 2002
11 September 2003
Burkina Faso
24 May 2000
4 August 2003
2 November 2003
9 February 2001
20 February 2003
11 September 2003
1 November 2005
30 January 2006
Burundi
Cameroon
Cape Verde
Central African Republic
24 May 2000
Chad
24 May 2000
Comoros
Congo
21 November 2000
Cte dIvoire
Democratic Republic of the Congo
23 March 2005
21 June 2005
Djibouti
8 April 2002
11 September 2003
23 December 2003
21 March 2004
10 March 2005
8 June 2005
9 October 2003
7 January 2004
Egypt
20 December 2000
Equatorial Guinea
Eritrea
Ethiopia
24 May 2000
Gabon
Gambia
24 May 2000
Ghana
Guinea
9 June 2004
7 September 2004
30 May 2003
11 September 2003
24 May 2000
Guinea-Bissau
Kenya
15 May 2000
Lesotho
24 January 2002
11 September 2003
20 September 2001
11 September 2003
Liberia
15 February 2002
11 September 2003
Libya
14 June 2005
12 September 2005
24 November 2003
22 February 2004
Madagascar
14 September 2000
Malawi
24 May 2000
Mali
4 April 2001
Mauritania
Mauritius
28 August 2002
11 September 2003
22 July 2005
20 October 2005
11 April 2002
11 September 2003
11 September 2003
Morocco
25 May 2000
Mozambique
24 May 2000
21 October 2002
Namibia
24 May 2000
10 February 2005
11 May 2005
Niger
24 May 2000
30 September 2004
29 December 2004
Nigeria
24 May 2000
15 July 2003
13 October 2003
Rwanda
24 May 2000
22 July 2004
20 October 2004
Senegal
31 October 2000
8 October 2003
6 January 2004
Seychelles
23 January 2001
13 May 2004
11 August 2004
Sierra Leone
Somalia
South Africa
14 August 2003
12 November 2003
Sudan
13 June 2005
11 September 2005
Swaziland
13 January 2006
13 April 2006
Tanzania
24 April 2003
11 September 2003
Togo
24 May 2000
2 July 2004
30 September 2004
Tunisia
19 April 2001
22 January 2003
11 September 2003
Uganda
24 May 2000
30 November 2001
11 September 2003
27 April 2004
25 July 2004
25 February 2005
26 May 2005
Zambia
Zimbabwe
Source: CBD 2006
4 June 2001
321
322
socioeconomic
incorporated include:
Precautionary;
REGIONAL RESPONSES
in
assessing
risks
and
factors
SUB-REGIONAL APPROACHES
Six regional economic communities in Africa, namely
the Economic Commission of West African States
(ECOWAS), the East African Community (EAC), the
Economic Community of Central African States
(ECCAS),
the
Development
Intergovernmental
(IGAD),
the
Authority
Southern
on
African
Source: Biowatch
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
323
All member states should sign and ratify the Cartagena Protocol on
Biosafety to the CBD.
processes.
source food aid preferably from within the region, and advise all
Capacity-building
and biosafety.
handling food aid in transit that may contain GMOs are encouraged in
evaluation system.
under the African Biosafety Model Law and/or the South African
Guidelines on the handling of transit material which may be GM.
stakeholders.
importation of GM foods.
324
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
production systems are discussed in Chapter 3: Land and
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
325
The Millennium Project Task Force on the Environment identified the following as
obtained;
in Independent Countries.
could include:
Clear
and
fair
responsibility; and
liability
laws
and
producer
326
RESEARCH PRIORITY-SETTING
assessment
procedures
that
incorporate
with them.
RISK MANAGEMENT
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
are affordable;
exchanging seed;
CAPACITY-BUILDING
research,
development,
and
extension,
driven R&D has been unable to fill this gap and it is crucial
investment in capacity-building.
327
328
so
that
multilateral
instruments
do
not
CONCLUSION
Developing a sustainable agricultural strategy that
ensures food security, does not threaten the
environment or biodiversity, and promotes human wellbeing must be a priority for Africa. Africa is faced with
the decision of whether GM crops can be part of this,
and if so, how to manage the risks and uncertainties
associated with GM technology. In evaluating the
options, Africa needs to consider the potential benefits
from possible yield gains and a decrease in the need for
chemical use against the threats posed to biodiversity,
livelihoods and cultural systems.
References
ABSF (undated).About ABSF.African Biotechnology Stakeholders
Forum. http://www.absfafrica.org/php/about_absf.htm
Aerni, P. (2005). Mobilizing Science and Technology for Development:
The Case of the Cassava Biotechnology Network (CBN). Proceedings of
the 9th ICABR International Conference on Agricultural Biotechnology:
Ten years later. Ravello, Italy, 6-10 July. http://www.economia.uniroma
2.it/conferenze/icabr2005/papers/Aerni_paper.pdf
African Centre for Biosafety (2005). GMOs in African Agriculture
Country Status: Southern Africa. http://www.biosafetyafrica.net/
south.htm
Altieri, M.A. (2002).The Case Against Agricultural Biotechnology:Why
Are Transgenic Crops Incompatible With Sustainable Agriculture In The
Third World? Sustainable Agriculture/Final draft/Panel 2/July 2002.
http://www.iucn.org/themes/ceesp/Publications/SL/Miguel%20A.%20
Altieri%20Biotec%20Third%20World2.pdf
Altieri, M.A. and Rosset, P. (1999).Ten Reasons Why Biotechnology Will
Not Help the Developing World. AgBioForum. 2 (3 & 4), 155-62.
http://www.iucn.org/themes/ceesp/Publications/SL/Miguel%20A.%20Ati
eri%20%20and%20Peter%20Rosset-%2010%20Reasons%20Why%20
%20Biotech%20Will%20Not%20Ensure%20%20Food%20Security.pdf
Apps, P. (2005). South Africa leads on GMO, other African states wary.
Reuters News Service, 1 March. http://www.planetark.com/
dailynewsstory.cfm/newsid/29768/story.htm
Australian Broadcasting Corporation (2001). Pests resistant to cotton.
ABC Regional National News, 19 April. http://www.abc.net.au/rural/
news/stories/s279777.htm
SECTION 3
Chapter 9
Finck,A. (1992). Introductory Chapter: Fertilizers and their efficient use.
In World Fertilizer Use Manual (ed.Wichmann,W.). International
Fertilizer Industry Association, Paris. http://www.fertilizer.org/ifa/
publicat/PDF/introd.pdf
Fleury, J.M. (1999). Mountain Biodiversity at Risk. IDRC Briefing 2.
International Development Research Centre, Ottawa.
http://www.idrc.ca/es/ev-25782-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html
GBDI and IITA (2000). Report of the Global Biodiversity Institute/
International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Training Course on
Biodiversity, Biotechnology, and Law. Ibadan, Nigeria. 1-24 March. Global
Biodiversity Institute and International Institute of Tropical Agriculture.
http://www.aaas.org/international/africa/gbdi/GBDI-Ibadan.pdf
Glover, D. (2003a). Biotechnology for Africa? Democratising
Biotechnology Series: Genetically Modified Crops in Developing
Countries Briefing Series, Briefing 10. Institute of Development Studies,
Brighton. http://www.eldis.org/cache/DOC14356.pdf
Glover, D. (2003b). Public participation in National Biotechnology Policy
and Biosafety Regulation. IDS Working Paper 198. Institute of
Development Studies, Brighton. http://www.ids.ac.uk/ids/bookshop/
wp/wp198.pdf
GMWatch (2005). Rumpus over GMOs in Africa. http://www.non-gmfarmers.com/news_details.asp?ID=2133
Gola, S. (2005). Golden Rice Solution to Vitamin A Deficiency:What Lies
Beneath. http://www.eldis.org/subtemp/docs/5192/Golden%20Rice%
20solution%20to%20VAD.doc
GRAIN (2005). Field trials and commercial releases of Bt cotton around
the world. http://www.grain.org/research/btcotton.cfm?id=306
GRAIN (2004). GM cotton set to invade West Africa:Time to act!
http://www.grain.org/briefings/?id=184
Hansen, M. (2000). Possible Human Health Hazards of Genetically
Engineered Bt Crops. http://www.organicconsumers.org/ge/
btcomments.cfm
Henao J. and Baanante C. (1999). Nutrient Depletion in the Agricultural
Soils of Africa. 2020 Brief No. 62. http://www.ifpri.org/2020/briefs/
number62.htm
IFAD (2001). Rural Poverty Report 2001:The Challenge of Ending Rural
Poverty. International Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome.
http://www.ifad.org/poverty/index.htm
ISIS (2005a). Glyphosate Toxic & Roundup Worse. Institute of Science in
Society. ISIS Press Release, 7 March. Http://www.i-sis.org.uk/GTARW.php
ISIS (2005b).Terminator Trees. Institute of Science in Society. ISIS Press
Release, 1 March. http://www.i-sis.org.uk/full/TerminatorTreesFull.php
ISP (2003).The Case for a GM-free Sustainable World.Independent Science
Panel.Institute of Science in Society and Third World Network,Penang.
http://www.indsp.org/A%20GM-Free%20Sustainable%20World.pdf
IUCN (2004).World Conservation Congress Motions: CGR3.RES011 A moratorium on the further release of genetically modified organisms
(GMO).World Conservation Congress / Bangkok,Thailand 1725
November 2004. http://www.trade-environment.org/output/infoxch/
CGR3.RES011.pdf
Ives, C.L., Johanson,A. and Lewis, J. (2001).Agricultural Biotechnology:
A Review of Contemporary Issues. U.S.Agency for International
Development. http://pdf.dec.org/pdf_docs/PNACN153.pdf
James, C. (2004). Preview: Global status of commercialized Biotech/GM
crops 2004. ISAAA Briefs, No. 32. International Service for the
Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications, Ithaca
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
329
330
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
CHAPTER 10
Invasive alien species are emerging as one of the major threats to sustainable development,
on a par with global warming and the destruction of life-support systems. These aliens come
in the form of plants, animals and microbes that have been introduced into an area from
other parts of the world, and have been able to displace indigenous species.
PRESTON AND WILLIAMS, WORKING FOR WATER PROGRAMME/SOUTH AFRICA 2003
INTRODUCTION
introduced
both
accidentally
and
intentionally.
331
332
IAS are also commonly referred to as invasives, aliens, exotics or nonindigenous species.
IAS are species, native to one area or region, that have been introduced into
an area outside their normal distribution, either by accident or on purpose, and
which have colonized or invaded their new home, threatening biological diversity,
STATE-AND-TRENDS
the state of the receiving ecosystem. An alien species may find a vacant niche and
spread, or it may compete for one already occupied by a native species. Some IAS
Although some species have invaded habitats on their own, human activity such
as exploration, colonization, trade and tourism has dramatically increased the
horticulture,
industries
and
biodiversity-based
are immense,
ISSG 2000).
ecosystems on a
of habitats.
IUCN/SSG/ISSG 2000
development opportunities.
POTENTIAL GROWTH
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 10
number of IAS
09
1019
2029
3039
40 and above
no data
Source: data from IUCN/SSC/ISSG 2004
With
and
improvements
in
communications
333
334
ecosystems
receiving ecosystems.
Invasive alien species may threaten native species as
invasions will continue to increase in number and impact. A further concern is that
multiple human impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems will decrease the natural
maintaining native species assemblages may diminish the ability of exotic species
to become invasive.
repressing
or
excluding
richness and coexistence of exotic species. This suggests that hotspots for
indirectly
diversity are particularly at risk of invasion by introduced species, and that the loss
expected to increase.
transform
the
them
and,
structure
therefore,
and
species
Source: MA 2006
water
assimilation,
nutrient
recycling,
IMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITY
AND ECOSYSTEMS
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 10
335
Cape Town and has been recorded in Port Sudan and even in Cairo. This
Source: J. Chenje
bird kills other species, destroys nests, and steals eggs and chicks of the
domestic chicken. It also spreads disease and is generally a serious pest in
towns along the coast of Eastern Africa (Howard 2003).
agricultural areas. Mynas inflict damage to grape and other fruit crops like
Source: Birdlife 2006, GISP 2004, Howard 2003, IUCN/SSC/ISSG 2004, UNEP 2004
and
(IUCN/SSC/ISSG 2004).
dispersal
by
boats
and
other
vessels
Wilgen 2004).
Marine IAS are a growing problem in Africas coastal
evapotranspiration.
336
multiple level and complex impacts on human wellbeing and the ability to achieve development targets,
such as those set out in the MDGs.
the
and
resources,
upon
which
livelihoods
and woodlands.
to
their
impact
on
the
of
Environmental
State-and-Trends:
supply
20-Year
inaccessible,
environments,
forests
and
woodlands,
and
threatening
native
plants.
and
Water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) is a major invasive alien species in Africa, clogging many water bodies.
Source: M. Chenje
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 10
of grass species.
337
International 2006).
Environmental Impact
Naturalized, minimal
Naturalized, unknown
Not established
Not established
Naturalized
Naturalized
Reportedly naturalized
Naturalized
Unknown
338
its very existence in its native habitat (van der Vaal 2002).
aquaculture
the
sites
and
is
responsible
for
of electricity.
UNEP 2004
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 10
339
TOURISM
HEALTH
340
HIGH COSTS
It also has some well known medical applications, including its use as an
astringent. Plantings of wattle tress have also been used as a soil stabilizer
to decrease erosion. The agroforestry industry promotes the use of the
species (among other similar species) as a potential soil improver.
It is nevertheless a highly invasive species it produces large
Cape Fynbos.
Source: M. Chenje
region, 17-24 per cent have been invaded by acacias (Musil 1993).
desiccated more quickly than it does under grass. Black wattle stands
also destabilize stream banks and support a lower diversity of species.
In South Africa, authorities are fighting to combat black wattle, which
black wattle is one of about 110 IAS of almost 750 tree species and 8
000 shrubby and herbaceous species that were imported into South
More than 5 000 million invasive alien trees, of which many are black
wattle, have been removed since 1995 (de Bakker 2003).
was introduced about 150 years ago to provide bark products. The
annually for manual and chemical control of IAS in the Cape Floral
Kingdom (de Bakker 2003). Of the remaining natural areas of the Cape
Sources: de Bakker 2003, IUCN 2001, IUCN/SSC/ISSG 2004, Musil 1993, Preston 2004
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 10
341
0%, or no data
Pretoria
10 cover
% ratios5 of -plant
> 10 %
Johannesburg
Swaziland
fric a
S o u th A
Bloemfontein
L e s o th o
Durban
Source:
South Af r ica
Depar tment of Wa ter
Affairs a nd Forestry
Wo rking fo r W ate r
200 2/2003 Annual Repor t
Cape Town
Port Elizabeth
Seychelles, undated):
impacts
of
such
invasions
(CBD
2003
and
342
(IUCN/SSG/ISSG 2001):
and
the country).
associated
with
IAS
for
several
decades,
need
to
go
beyond
short-term
crisis-focused
Invasive alien species occur in all major taxonomic groups. They include
viruses, fungi, algae, plants, fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals.
Numerous species including as high as 10 per cent of the worlds 300 000
IAS affect wetlands, forests, drylands, marine and coastal and other
IUCN has estimated that, worldwide, the total economic cost of invasives is
The CBD estimated that Africa spends as much as US$60 000 million annually
effective
to control IAS.
Sources: IUCN/SSG/ISSG 2004, Howard and Matindi 2003, McNeely and others 2001, MA 2006
legal
framework
customs
controls,
demands
adopting
appropriate
trade
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 10
343
simple:
(IUCN/SSC/ISSG 2004).
BUILDING PARTNERSHIPS
economy.
the introduction of
invasive alien
two drivers of
about IAS, there are still many gaps. Some of these gaps
environmental
difficult to reverse.
MA 2006
MAKING CHOICES
integrate
development
and
environmental
344
complement
manual
chemical,
biological
and
A woman holds a
huge Nile perch
skeleton, Kisumu,
Lake Victoria, Kenya.
Source: T. Bolstad/
Still Pictures
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 10
345
Source: UN 1992
brings
MEASURES
together
several
international
non-
346
institutions include:
Health Regulations;
protected areas.
Measures; and
WTO approach.
focus
and
phytosanitary
measures
Imported plants, including those for research and agricultural use, may introduce
many
from Brazil and planted it on a university field station. Unfortunately there was a
new strain of mealie bug on the imported cassava and this spread to all the
FAO introduced sweet varieties of cassava from South America to replace the
bitter varieties used in Africa. Unfortunately, with these varieties they also
economic concerns.
of
the
same
challenges.
Sanitary
and
Imported plants should therefore be held in quarantine and checked for parasites
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 10
347
provides for:
measures;
evidence;
of protection;
CONCLUSION
used as food or feed, and for processing. Such
organisms are also alien species and currently the
the Protocol:
system.
Protecting endemic
species, such as
the sooty tern
(Sterna fuscata) of
the Seychelles, is
an important
conservation
objective.
Source: Seitre/
Still Pictures
348
African governments.
References
Baillie, J.E.M., Hilton-Taylor, C. and Stuart, S.N. (2004). 2004 IUCN Red
List of Threatened Species.A Global Species Assessment. IUCN the
World Conservation Union, Gland
Binggeli, P., Hall, J.B. and Healey, J.R. (1998).An Overview of Invasive
Woody Plants in the Tropics. School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences.
University of Wales, Bangor http://www.safs.bangor.ac.uk/IWPT
Birdlife International (2006). Illegal imports probable cause of Nigeria
flu. BirdLife International. http://www.birdlife.org/news/news/2006/02/
avian_flu_nigeria.html
BirdLife International (2004). Threatened Birds of the World 2004.
BirdLife International, CD-ROM, Cambridge
Bryant, P.J. (2002). Chapter 14: Exotic Introductions. In Biodiversity and
Conservation:A Hypertext Book. http://darwin.bio.uci.edu/~sustain/
bio65/lec14/b65lec14.htm
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 10
349
350
CHAPTER 11
CHEMICALS
Lead Authors: Nelson Manda, Jennifer Mohamed-Katerere
The goal of balancing the economic and social benefits of chemicals with their health and
environmental risks is easy to understand and agree to. But how to achieve this balance is a
highly complex problem or rather, it requires understanding and solving many complex
problems. Managing the risks of chemicals is interconnected with many other issues,
including wastes and pollution, global warming, resource depletion, agriculture,
biotechnology, loss of biodiversity, poverty and womens rights.
UNEP 2004a
eradication
and
infrastructure
development.
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
chemical-related illness; their well-being may be further
Chemicals
OECD
351
countries
to
non-OECD
countries.
STATE-AND-TRENDS
CHEMICALS INDUSTRY
Chemical processing/refining
BASIC
CHEMICALS
SPECIALITY CHEMICALS
Rubber and plastic goods, paints,
adhesives, performance chemicals.
LIFE SCIENCE
Pharmaceuticals, agrochemicals,
biotechnology
Consumers
OTHER INDUSTRIES
Metals, glass, automobiles (brake
fluids), paper, textiles, etc
352
800 000
700 000
EU 15
Japan
EU 10
China
Rest of Asia
600 000
500 000
and
well-developed
infrastructure
and
300 000
200 000
0
European
Union (25)
Asia
United States
Latin
America
other**
rest of
Europe*
* Switzerland, Norway, and other Central & Eastern European countries (excluding the new EU 10 countries)
** including Canada, Mexico, Africa & Oceania
on coal.
Although it is relatively small by international
standards, South Africas chemical industry is the
medium term, this sector can be expected to grow. The
are investing in oil and gas, which are key drivers for the
thousand tonnes
1 200
1 000
Africa
South America
North America
Asia
Europe
800
600
400
7 per cent, but this has also declined from 537 tonnes
in 1998 to 369 tonnes in 2002 (CropLife Africa
0
1998
Source: UNSTATS 2005
1999
2000
2001
2002
chemicals
requires
investment
in
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
353
Chemicals
Africa as
metric tonnes
percentage of global
Product
Global
Africa
production
Gasoline
771 101
24 095
3.12
Naphthas
183 226
Kerosene
82 882
10 401
5.68
6 280
7.58
Biggest producers
in Africa
Country
Tonnes
South Africa
7 948
Egypt
5 616
Egypt
2 801
Libya
2 606
Nigeria
1 210
Egypt
Diesel
1 102 541
Lubricants
39 229
145 913
100 011
36 055
3.27
1 123
2.86
10 334
7.08
2 572
2.57
966
South Africa
7 150
Egypt
6 635
South Africa
402
Egypt
277
Algeria
569
Egypt
517
South Africa
7 150
Egypt
6 635
in other areas.
TRADE
Figure 4: Growth in trade in chemicals between 1979-96 (real terms, per cent/year)
%
20
exports
imports
15
10
0
Western
Europe
Source: OECD 2001
US and
Canada
Australia and
New Zealand
Japan
China
other
Far East
countries
Indian subcontinent
Middle
East
Africa
World
total
354
chemicals to Africa.
chemicals,
(FAOSTAT 2006).
World total
15 382.76 million
Imports
Africa total
805.41 million
Exports
= 2 000 million
World total
15 589.35 million
Africa total
196.55 million
0.51
120
20150
> 150
no data
has
contributed
to
environmental
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
Chemicals
in
the
industrial
sector
creates
new
growth:
in
2003
the
average
rate
of
percentage
of
the
profits
generated
from
AGRICULTURE
Increasing
agricultural
production
is
widely
355
356
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
Chemicals
Genera
carcinogenic; and
infesting
wooden
structures
include
PCBs into the fat in their meat and milk. In fact, most
SECURITY
Management 2003).
357
358
management
systems
based
on
alternatives.
pesticide-related research;
monitoring;
is also threatened.
Groundnuts
Maize
Cotton
insecticides.
Sugar cane
Source: UNEP/FAO/Global IPM Facility Expert Group on Termite Biology and Management 2003
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
Chemicals
expensive
pre-construction.
expensive post-construction.
when
implemented
359
CONTROL OF DISEASES
DDT spraying in
Namibia.
Source: N. Duplaix /
Still Pictures
360
WATER
functioning
ecosystems
absorb
and
remove
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
361
Chemicals
Children filling used
containers with water
for cooking and
drinking, Rwanda.
Source: A. Mohamed
Africa still did not have access to safe water (WHO and
362
CHEMICAL EXPOSURE
to lead after eating food from cans that contain lead solder
in the seams.
removed;
women, workers);
Water treatment;
Source: UNEP/FAO/Global IPM Facility Expert Group on Termite Biology and Management 2003
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
Chemicals
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
environmental
International
standards
adopted
Standards
by
Organization
the
(ISO).
integrated approaches.
IMPACTS ON BIODIVERSITY
so
that,
once
released
to
the
to be persistent.
alternatives.
Persistent
chemicals
distances,
leading
to
can,
through
regional
and
natural
global
363
364
affects wetlands and favours invasion of these areas by invasive species such as
Typha and Salvinia molesta. The potential of Senegalese fisheries resources is
electrical appliances.
decrease in the catches and a loss of quality. From 1969 to 1988, official catches
decreased from 20 000 to 8 000 tonnes.
MANAGEMENT CHALLENGES
(SAICM 2006).
contamination.
(WWF 2004a):
The
management
of
obsolete
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
365
Chemicals
Low-cost mosquito netting as on the windows of this hut can reduce the need for chemical
sprays to control mosquitoes.
Source: P. Virot/WHO
deaths per year and that nearly three million people may
and state has not been carried out. Nevertheless, information gathered
Tanzania*
since 1988.
Trade name
Common name
Quantity
Gesaprim
Atrazine
470 litres
10 kg
Benlate
benomyl
11 kg
40 tonnes
DDT
Thiodan
endosulfan
DNOC
8 tonnes
3 000 litres
366
chemical stockpiles
economically acceptable;
Management
and
requires
undertaking
complete
United
Nations
(FAO),
the
United
Nations
Agenda 21 (1992);
accumulation
so
as
to
protect
human
and
includes:
Industrial Accidents);
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
Chemicals
CHEMICAL MANAGEMENT
committed
the
global
community
to
support
Box 8: Agenda 21, Chapter 19: Priority programme areas for managing toxic chemicals
1. Expanding and accelerating international
cycle analyses.
5. Strengthening of national capabilities and
367
368
14000 standards.
liability
management.
and
accountability
approaches
in
management.
priority.
signatories
ratifications
Source: Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2006
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
Chemicals
INTERNATIONAL TRADE
at national level.
369
370
NATIONAL LEGISLATION
synergies
regulatory
building
and
and
coordination
technical
among
illegal
cooperation
and
Strategic Approach.
example,
the
development
of
environmentally
between
technology
complexity
and
the
1990s,
most
African
countries
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
arrangements
for
environmental
Chemicals
management,
levels.
development objectives.
measurable indicators.
371
Table 2: Priority areas for promoting best practice in chemicals management and usage
Priority areas
Actions
Mining
Agricultural usage
Improve laws, licensing and enforcement; health and safety, education and
training; improve enforcement of existing conventions (eg Bamako); apply
technological developments.
Source: Buccini 2004, ECA 2001, SAICM 2004, UN 1992, UNEP 2006
372
Multi-stakeholder participation;
CONCLUSION
generated
broad
health
benefits
through
the
mechanisms;
poisoned persons;
programmes;
stakeholders.
consumer choice;
releases including:
Manufacturing;
Processing;
Handling;
Transportation;
Disposal.
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Chapter 11
Chemicals
References
ASP (2005). Promoting Global Treaties.Africa Stockpiles Programme.
http://www.africastockpiles.org/pdf/treaties.pdf
ASP (2003). Obsolete Pesticide Stocks:An Issue of Poverty.Africa
Stockpiles Programme. http://www.africastockpiles.org/pdf/
obsoletestocks.pdf
AU (2005). List of countries which have signed, ratified/acceded to the
Bamako Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control
of Transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous Wastes
within Africa.African Union,Addis Ababa. http://www.africa-union.org/
root/au/Documents/Treaties/List/Bamako%20Convention.pdf
Buccini, J. (2004). The Global Pursuit of the Sound Management of
Chemicals.World Bank,Washington, D.C. http://lnweb18.worldbank.
org/essd/envext.nsf/50ByDocName/TheGlobalPursuitoftheSoundMana
gementofChemicals/$FILE/GlobalPursuitOfSoundManagementOfChem
icals2004Pages1To67.pdf
CEFIC (2005). Facts and Figures:The European chemical industry in a
worldwide perspective: July 2005. European Chemical Industry
Council. http://www.cefic.org/factsandfigures/downloads/allgraphs/
F&FJuly2005.pdf
CropLife Africa Middle East (undated). Countries. http://croplifeafrica.
org/index.php?action=countrys.display&mid=4&c=true
CSE (1999). Etudes sur lElaboration des Politiques Environnementales
au Sngal. Centre de Suivi Ecologique. Ministry of Environment and
Nature Protection, Dakar
ECA (2005). Economic Report on Africa 2005: Meeting the Challenges of
Unemployment and Poverty in Africa. Economic Commission for Africa,
Addis Ababa. http://www.uneca.org/era2005/front.pdf
ECA (2001). State of the Environment in Africa. Economic Commission
for Africa,Addis Ababa. http://www.uneca.org/eca_resources/
Publications/FSSD/EnvironmentReportv3.pdf
FAOSTAT (2006). FAOSTAT FAO Statistical Databases. Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://faostat.fao.org/
Gordon, B., Mackay, R. and Rehfuess, E. (2004). Inheriting the World: the
Atlas of Childrens Environmental Health and the Environment.World
Health Organization, Geneva. http://www.who.int/ceh/publications/
en/atlas.pdf
373
374
SECTION 3
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
375
CHAPTER 12
INTRODUCTION
including
those
of
the
Millennium
and
for
alongside
sustainable
development,
376
Peace, development
and environmental
protection are
interdependent
and indivisible.
infectious
disease
and
environmental
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
377
The AU objectives and principles are key to promoting peace and security for
Constitutive Act states that the scourge of conflicts in Africa constitutes a major
following responses:
Achieve greater unity and solidarity between the African countries and the
peoples of Africa.
Peaceful coexistence of members and their right to live in peace and security.
The Act also provides for the Assembly to give directives to the AU Executive
Council on the management of conflicts, war and other emergency situations and
the restoration of peace.
Source: AU 2000
378
Sustainable
of the peace.
Development
(WSSD),
held
in
peace-building goals:
DEVELOPMENT
international
has
1992
and
sanitation,
management (IWRM).
UN
conferences
Conference
in
on
which
Africa
Environment
and
integrated
water
resource
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Land).
African
Through
the
NEPAD
process,
379
(ECCAS);
being in one country is only possible where all countries in the region
have achieved that.
Predatory elites, who have thrived on looting national wealth and the
Declines in the standard of living and the quality of life for hundreds of
millions of people.
and technology.
380
(COMESA):
(IGAD):
(ECOWAS).
Water Courses.
their
formation
generally
include
environmental collaboration.
Algeria
Cape Verde
Is.
Mauritania
Libya
Mali
Egypt
Niger
Eritrea
Senegal
Gambia
Guinea-Bissau
Guinea
Sierra Leone
Sudan
Chad
Burkina
Faso
Djibouti
Benin
Nigeria
Cte
dIvoire Ghana
Liberia
Togo
Cameroon
Ethiopia
Central African
Republic
Somalia
Uganda
So Tom
and Prncipe
Gabon
Congo
Equatorial
Guinea
Kenya
Democratic
Republic of
the Congo
Rwanda
Burundi
Seychelles
Tanzania
Comoros
AMU: Arab Maghreb Union (5 member states)
Angola
Malawi
Zambia
Mauritius
COMESA: Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (20 member states)
EAC: East African Community (3 member states)
ECCAS: Economic Community of Central African States (11 member states)
Zimbabwe
Namibia
Botswana
Mozambique
South
Africa
Lesotho
Madagascar
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
fostering
addressing
suspicion
and
conflict,
and
regional
cooperation
through
the
for
democracy
development
and
and
good
governance,
regional
economic
and
integration,
381
environmental issues.
the management of the Lake Victoria basin, and fisheries. This includes,
Its main organs are the Summit of Heads of State and/or Government;
382
MANAGEMENT
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Bujagali Falls, the Nile, Uganda. The Government of Uganda, with help from the World Bank, hopes to construct a 200-megawatt dam in
this vicinity, just downstream from two other large dams.
Source: IRN
383
384
then from that time CIDA, UNDP and the Bank have
Uganda 2002).
Koekoboom tree at
sunrise in South
Africas Richtersveld
National Park which
is part of the AiAis/Richtersveld
Transfrontier Park.
Source: Howes/UNEP/
Still Pictures
MANAGEMENT
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
385
frameworks
to
spatial
for
shared
development
marine
initiatives
(Mohamed-Katerere 2001).
The CITES listing of the African elephant (Loxodonta africana) is one of Africas most divisive
policy issues but elephant and other wildlife offer immense opportunities for improving
tourism and transboundary cooperation.
Source: B. Belcher/CIFOR
386
Logging should
be based on
collaborative
agreements if the
Congo basin forest
is to be managed
sustainably.
for
sustainable
development,
Source: E. Dounias/
CIFOR
ecosystems;
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
387
Up in smoke: over 3 800 weapons were destroyed in Nairobi on 29 June 2005, in an effort of
Norwegian Church Aid (NCA) and partners to bring lasting peace to the GLR and the Horn of
Africa. The NCA is committed to the destruction of small arms and light weapons, a major
cause of human insecurity and crime.
Source: I. Kipyegon/NCAEA
fields.
and
colonialism.
protagonists themselves.
well-being.
388
war prize, with the victors seizing territorial control at the expense of
control over land (and land-based resources) and conflict. Internal conflict
era, which generate conflict. In Southern Africa, for example, these are
often related to the economic dominance and control over prime land
multiple factors.
Foreign support for land administration systems and reform, has often
activities in urban areas as well as large rural farms, and has neglected
Certain areas may be particularly affected, and indeed may not come
should not be pursued at the expense of the rights of the rural majority,
This is especially true where remote areas are inaccessible due to lack of
Sources: Gasana 2002, Huggins 2004, Juma and Ojwang 1996, Katerere and Hill 2002, Mohamed-Katerere and van der Zaag 2003, Moyo 2003
armed
groups,
the
Unio
Nacional
para
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
389
Kenya. It ranges from arid rangeland with sandy soils in the north, to the
Rainfall has been steadily declining over the last 30 years, which
the drier north, which is part of the Sahara, to the more agriculturally
but were not able to effectively implement the new system. In the
The root causes of the conflict have been identified as drought and
same time new systems where not full adopted. Changes in village
lack credibility and have been unable to establish effective laws. For
broken down.
environmental consequences.
Sources: Gasana 2002, Huggins 2004, UNEP and OCHA Environment Unit 2004
The 1980s were the height of the Cold War, and this
390
(Nitzschke 2003).
In the Senegal River basin during the late 1980s, plans to construct a major dam,
which would change the flow of water in the region and allow for increased
some land increased greatly and elite groups moved into the area,
strip many of the affected people of their citizenship. This increased tensions
generate electricity, and make the river navigable. However, the resulting land use
part of the context of these events, because (in combination with a devastating
transforming
sustainable use of land and water resources could have minimized the political
and economic pressure for the dams and therefore avoided conflict.
war
economies:
These
economic
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
391
measures
and
controls
on
financial
The available environmental resources in Breidjing refugee camp in eastern Chad have been
under tremendous strain from overcrowding (2004).
Source: J. Clark/UNHCR
only one actor may win, and all others must logically
392
ENVIRONMENTAL AND
SOCIOECONOMIC IMPACTS
OF ARMED CONFLICT
poorest fifth earns just 4.4 per cent (WRI 2003) and
inequitable
These
patterns
of
conflict
and
Conflict in Darfur, Sudan, has displaced thousands of people. Here IDP with makeshift shelters in a temporary camp in northern Darfur,
December 2004.
Source: J. Prinsloo
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Source: P. Jeffrey/ACT
and
human
vulnerability.
Human
contraction
employment
hunger,
and
in
consequently
formal
promotes
continued
injured
unmarried
women
may
have
393
reduced
394
networks
of
trust
and
support,
undermining
refugee camps
national parks
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
difficult to bear.
Yamindou 2001).
hyper-inflation,
exchange
rate
395
depreciation,
population (millions)
3.5
Luanda
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
Benguela
Huambo
Namibe
1.0
00
20
19
85
19
88
19
91
19
95
78
19
19
70
19
60
0.5
19
40
396
Infrastructure
deterioration
is
particularly
Sources: Arvind and Vines 2004, ECA 2005, UNDP 2005, US Department of State 2006a, US Department of State 2006b
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Source: D. Wilke
CONFLICT TIMBER
In several parts of Africa, timber has become
associated with violent conflict. The links between
timber exploitation and conflict are essentially of two
broad types:
Billon 2003).
degradation,
by
or
social
conflicts
caused
can
forest-dwelling
lead
to
displacement
of
397
398
trade in Africa.
Infrastructural damage is a serious consequence of war and conflict. Shown here what remains of the airport at Greenville, Liberia, in 2005.
Source: Y. Katerere
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
399
in many areas.
points to the fact that the mining is actually paying off for
Where natural resource management systems break down, the illegal use of snares to
support the bushmeat trade may increase.
Source: D. Wilke
400
turtle),
Dermochelys
coriacea
(leatherback),
IDPs
Burundi
432 818
DRC
Tanzania
Uganda
Total
Refugees
28 800
461 618
2 045 000
361 720
2 406 720
not available
543 145
543 145
535 107
175 819
710 926
3 012 925
1 143 418
4 156 343
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Figure 4: Protected areas of the Democratic Republic of the Congo and major political/military divisions 2001
Protected areas
World Heritage site
other protected areas
Political/military divisions
o
C o n g
U G A N DA
Kisangani
Mbandaka
RWANDA
REPUBLIC
OF THE CONGO
Bandundu
BURUNDI
D E M O C R AT IC R E P U B L IC
Kinshasa
OF THE CONGO
TA N Z A N IA
Kananga
South
Atlantic
Ocean
Z A M B IA
ANGOLA
Lubumbashi
401
402
than any other African country and other natural resources. It is also the
armed conflict, particularly over the last 15 years. Both protected and
have been severely looted and trampled, particularly along the eastern
In the 4 900 km2 Garamba National Park, in northern DRC along its
diamonds, timber, and tantalite becomes the only credible tender for
when the entire parks logistical equipment (including fuel, radios and
vehicles) was looted and national park guards disarmed. The Garamba
was one of the first protected areas in the DRC affected by armed
conflict, when 80 000 refugees fleeing the civil war in Sudan were set up
between 1994 and 1996. During the refugee crisis, which saw close to
and gold mining have since 2000, become major problems in the
oldest national park and a natural World Heritage Site the Virunga
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
403
constitutions.
A woman collects
firewood in Darfur,
Sudan, December
2004.
Source: J. Prinsloo
404
CONCLUSION
In an effort to
preserve the
environment and
also give back to
the host country,
UNHCR sponsors
tree planting
programmes in
Mkugwa camp,
Tanzania, 2002.
Source: L.Taylor/UNHCR
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Source: T. Voeten/ILO
development,
peaceful space.
and
there
can
be
no
References
freedom
and
peace-building
as
405
ACTS, CISDL, and UNDP (2003). Land Tenure Reform and the Drylands.
The Global Drylands Second Challenge Paper Series.African Centre for
Technology Studies, Centre for International Sustainable Development
Law and the United Nations Development Programme.
http://www.cisdl.org/pdf/LandTenureReform.pdf
ACTS (2005). Environment for Peace and Security. Submission by
African Centre for Technology Studies to the Department of Early
Warning and Assessment, United Nations Environment Project, Nairobi
African Wildlife Foundation (2003).Africa Launches the Great Limpopo
Transfrontier Park.African Wildlife Foundation,White River.
http://www.awf.org/news/10792
Akindele, F. and Senyane, R. (eds. 2004).The Irony of White Gold.
Transformation Resource Centre, Morija. http://www.trc.org.ls/
publications/The_Irony_of_the_White_Gold.pdf
406
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
Ghobarah, H., Huth, P., Russett, B., and King, G. (2001).The Political
Economy of Comparative Human Misery and Well-being. Paper presented
at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, San
Francisco, September 2001. http://www.yale.edu/leitner/pdf/200110.pdf#search=human%20wellbeing%20conflict%20Africa
407
408
SECTION 3
Chapter 12
E M E R GI N G C H A LLE N G E S
409
SECTION 4
OUTLOOK
412
CHAPTER 13
INTRODUCTION
from projections.
advantageous qualities:
implications
also similar.
over
the
period
2005-25.
The
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
DEVELOPING SCENARIOS
and
of
other
development
actions.
Scenarios
413
We are convinced
that an historic
opportunity presents
scourge of
underdevelopment
including capital,
technology and
required to launch a
global war on
poverty and
underdevelopment
exist in abundance
reach. What is
required to mobilize
environmental management.
is bold and
leadership that is
genuinely
committed to a
sustained
human development
imaginative
eradication of
poverty, as well as a
new global
partnership based
on shared
responsibility and
mutual interest.
NEPAD 2001
existing datasets.
414
sub-regional levels.
achieving the MDG targets are still real and will continue
the ten years following 2015, ie, the MDGs target year.
Plan (NEPAD-EAP).
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
415
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
The future is
uncertain, with many
possible pathways.
Source: M.Chenje
416
development
through
positive
and
proactive
down under the Policy Reform scenario. This is the result not
(ICZM)
integrated
coastal
zone
management
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
417
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
while the masses have few resources and are left at the
require
economic
restructuring
and
individuals,
over
institutions
and
governments
418
Self-reliance;
Self-sustenance;
for
such
possibility.
The
renewed
determination of the leaders of Africa to advance panAfricanism, and to reactivate and rejuvenate interand intra-African partnership, including partnership
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
419
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
Africa beats its
own drums for
sustainability,
addressing its
environmental
challenges and
enhancing
opportunities for
its people.
Source: M. Chenje
DRIVING FORCES
The development of scenarios is based on the
At a rate of
fastest-growing
region and it is
expected to have
DEMOGRAPHICS
1 300 million
in 2025.
population
economics,
social
issues,
culture,
technology,
numbers
a population of
over
time,
demographic
420
population thousands
240
Central Africa
Southern Africa
220
Eastern Africa
Western Africa
200
Northern Africa
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
93
19
94
19
95
19
96
19
97
19
98
19
99
20
00
20
01
20
02
92
19
91
19
89
90
19
19
88
19
19
19
19
19
87
85
20
social
Unemployment
services.
This
would
also
result
in
among youth is a
particular problem in
in sub-Saharan Africa
unemployment rate
Central Africa
Eastern Africa
Western Africa
Northern Africa
force in 2003.
ECA 2005
if
Africa
does
not
generate
more
Southern Africa
100
80
60
40
20
investment (FDI).
10
20
00
20
5
19
9
0
19
9
19
8
in
changes
19
7
and
growth
19
6
population
19
50
Rapid
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
HEALTH
OUTLOOK
421
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
ECONOMIC DRIVERS
population living
threshold of 46 per
2.6 per cent between 1990 and 2003. However, this has
significant
improvements in the
growth of African
ECA 2005
economically
active
population,
consequently
realize
negatively
affecting
the
potential
to
2004
2003
2002
Sub-Saharan
Africa
Southern Africa
East Africa
Central Africa
West Africa
North Africa
0
Source: ECA 2005
4
%
agricultural
commodity
prices.
Chapter
8:
adding,
development
have
environmental
and
220
200
Southern Africa
Eastern Africa
Western Africa
Northern Africa
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
20
01
0
20
0
99
19
98
19
97
19
19
96
5
19
9
94
19
3
19
9
2
19
9
19
91
19
90
89
19
19
88
19
87
422
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
423
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
SOCIAL ISSUES
Poverty is both a
environmental
degradation.
population is illiterate.
UNICEF 2004).
introduction
of
cost-recovery
measures.
This
MA 2005
424
governance
Mohamed-Katerere 1997).
CULTURE
and
management
(Steytler
1997,
Africa needs to
improve and
diversify the
range
TECHNOLOGY
of technological
options available
if the demands
of change are
to be met.
UN Millennium Project
2005a, UN Millennium
Project 2005b
is
ethics
aged, the homeless, the sick and the poor, have generally
increasingly
shaped
by
democratic
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
425
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
In 2002,
a year to corruption,
which increases
the costs
of goods by as
NEF 2005
allocating
the
necessary
resources
for
the
to
see
modern
information
technology
and
426
been fought in
including
vast majority of
them were
intra-state in origin.
Kofi Annan,
Secretary-General of the
United Nations
(UN 1998)
in
the
environmental
sector.
Local
military equipment.
such
Retrospective
consider
the
opportunities
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
427
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
Global warming
impacts
2:
temperatures
estimated to
be between
are
discussed
throughout
Section
Africa.
One
effective
response
to
address
human
international solutions.
droughts,
wild-fires,
storms,
cyclones,
428
R E G I O N A L S C E N A R I O N A R R AT I V E S
The interfacing and changes in these key driving forces,
Figure 5: Illustrative patterns of the changes over time of key scenario assumptions
Market Forces
Population
Absolute population
Growth rate
Policy Reform
Fortress World
Great Transitions
of
the
Opportunity
Framework
(see
Urban population
LAND
The future status of land resources has important
Health
Social equity
Economy
Technology
Governance
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
How these factors evolve will shape the regional and sub-
429
targets
and
effectively
implement
NEPAD-EAP
Box 2: Factors influencing land-use change in Africa used in the scenario analysis
1. Former and current land-use systems and changes
- Forestry and agriculture
- Protected areas
- Demographic factors
2. Economic context
- GDP contribution (agriculture, forestry, industry and others)
- Development plans
- Production structure
incentives, etc.)
3. Environmental conditions
- Climate, topography, soil characteristics and water availability
430
directly on the land for survival. Extreme land degradation in the two
options are possible. One set could include policies such as:
production practices;
levels of productivity;
Shortage of fuelwood;
agriculture:
land
scarcity,
degradation
(soil
fertility,
water
as a result of damming.
built environment.
practices
and
improved
livestock
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
incorporates
rapid
431
economic
growth,
greater
The
challenge
is
to
maintain
yield
432
different means:
be less than the Market Forces rate. This rate slows down
resources;
sustainable
agriculture
and
rural
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
ecosystems
Also,
that
support
biodiversity.
433
and
environmental
deterioration
induced
by
the
relating
to
human
settlements,
pastures
and
434
social
existence
based
on
the
pursuit
of
communities
have
considerable
control
over
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
erosion,
salinization
and
fertility
loss.
435
The
responses,
which
can
maximize
development
436
25
Policy Reform
20
Fortress World
Northern Africa
Southern Africa
Eastern Africa
Central Africa
Western Africa
Great Transitions
Africa
Market Forces
other
15
10
5
cropland
25
forest plantation
20
20
20
15
20
10
20
05
20
20
00
natural forest
grazing
15
10
10
15
20
other
built-up area
cropland
natural forest
10
Fortress World
other
15
10
built-up area
forest plantation
grazing
20
15
10
10
15
20
Great Transitions
other
cropland
forest plantation
grazing
10
10
percentage change
15
20
25
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
437
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
Current 2005
ea
S
Red
Gulf of Guinea
Scenario
han
nel
Atlantic Ocean
1 000 ha
mb
iqu
eC
2005
2010
2015
2020
2025
Market Forces
12.0
12.6
13.2
13.8
14.4
15.0
Policy Reform
12.0
12.6
13.5
15.17
16.84
17.0
Fortress World
12.0
12.0
10.5
9.0
7.5
6.0
13.8
15.9
18.0
21.5
25.0
Mo
za
250500
2000
500750
7501 500
over 1 500
Indian Ocean
Mediterranean Sea
Mediterranean Sea
Sea
Sea
Red
Red
Gulf of Guinea
Gulf of Guinea
Atlantic Ocean
Mo
Mo
zam
zam
biq
biq
ue
ue
Cha
nne
Cha
nne
l
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Mediterranean Sea
Indian Ocean
Mediterranean Sea
Sea
Sea
Red
Red
Gulf of Guinea
Gulf of Guinea
Atlantic Ocean
Mo
Mo
zam
zam
biq
biq
ue
ue
Cha
Cha
n
nel
nne
Atlantic Ocean
Indian Ocean
Indian Ocean
438
Figure 9: Sub-regional picture of degraded cropland by 2025 under the various scenarios
absolute (million ha)
Northern Africa
Southern Africa
Western Indian
Ocean islands
Central Africa
Western Africa
Eastern Africa
0.15
Market Forces
Policy Reform
50
Great Transitions
Fortress World
Figure 10: Estimated land use intensity based on crop and pasture under different scenarios
er
oth
p
cro
pa
Africa
stu
re
Southern Africa
Western Indian
Ocean islands
Eastern Africa
Central Africa
Western Africa
Northern Africa
Market Forces (2025)
Africa
Southern Africa
Western Indian
Ocean islands
Eastern Africa
Central Africa
Western Africa
Northern Africa
Africa
Southern Africa
Western Indian
Ocean islands
Eastern Africa
Central Africa
Western Africa
Northern Africa
0
20
40
60
%
80
100
20
40
60
%
80
100
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
439
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
FRESHWATER
potential,
as
blindness)),
water-borne
invasive
alien
diseases
species
(such
(IAS)
and
440
total annual water use is only 292 km3 or just 8 per cent
on health care.
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
441
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
disadvantage.
causing
Used
serious
domestic
damage
to
and
industrial
ecosystems
and
442
sustainability
of
supply.
These
initiatives
are
(UNEP 2002c).
regulations and are safe for disposal, and systems for self-
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
443
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
2 500
50
population (millions)
African governments follow the global move and start adopting policies to
2 000
40
2 102
1 766
33%
1 500
1 678
30
1 581
30%
29%
26%
1 000
20
500
10
0
Market
Forces
Policy
Reform
Fortress
World
Great
Transitions
coordination between government and stakeholders. This builds trust among the
participants and leads to the creation of long-term collaborative relationships.
Figure 12: Water availability and use under the different scenarios
400
12
water use (km3)
water share (m3/capita/year)
water use-to-resource (%)
381
This is particularly true in dealing with issues related to the environment and
sustainable development and management of basic resources, such as water,
which affect people from all segments of society.
However, the introduction of participatory decision making is a relatively long
10%
300
312
292
8%
8%
200
216
of the African societies and is faced with some difficulties. Lack of a clear
212
174
process within the context of the institutional, social and economic characteristics
6%
148
percentages in some of the countries make it difficult for the larger sector of the
134
100
public to grasp the concept. For many, having a say in decision making is seen as
a tool for achieving personal benefits instead of aiming at the national scale.
Training and public awareness programmes are started to help tackle some of
0
Market
Forces
Policy
Reform
Fortress
World
Great
Transitions
domestic share
agricultural share
36%
27%
18%
decision making. They fear that their involvement in resource management will
16%
66%
13%
that they will have to come up with the large sums of money required for
water resources sector, the positive results are both encouraging and promising.
For instance, the negotiations between the various water-user sectors on their
65%
58%
50
many cases very poor under government spending. The stakeholders are worried
11%
32%
75
125
100
these difficulties.
56%
water allocations are now carried out by the stakeholders. The general public
develops better understanding of the severe water shortage problem in the region
and starts to come up with its own demand-management actions. Contacts and
25
links between government agencies and the private sector are improved. The
management and operation burden on governments is reduced leaving them to
0
Market
Forces
Policy
Reform
Fortress
World
Great
Transitions
444
ATMOSPHERE
available resources.
African
carbon
emissions
from
fossil
fuel
cent in 2020.
Carbon emission levels generally mirror patterns of
energy use; thus South Africa and Libya have among the
highest emission levels, and Swaziland and Mauritania
among the lowest (UNSTAT/CDIAC 2005). Under the
Market Forces scenario, energy use increases more rapidly
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
deforestation,
which
the
and
continue.
woodfuel
human
health
Consequently,
finding
in
turn
impacts
deterioration
alternatives
to
on
445
sources. The gas is burned off rather than captured for use
because of limited gas infrastructure. Under the Market
Forces scenario, gas flaring gives way to gas utilization as a
mining
of
and
commercial
government
firms
contracts.
that
undertake
Non-governmental
energy sector.
adopt
legislation
that
requires
energy
and
446
energy-efficient
introduce
practices.
Countries
renewable
energy
equipment
and
machinery.
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
447
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
government-led
priority.
Therefore,
vehicle
age
increases
and
interventionist
strategies
in
based
negative
on
the
ideals
improved
of
awareness
sustainable
of
development.
This
448
regional
environment
sustainable
energy
and
continues
among
to
inform
GDP
calculations
this problem.
crop up. However, the problem with this is the fact that
the MDGs.
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
449
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
Environments
considers
the
opportunities
and
450
their correction.
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
introduced.
tourism sector.
Re-establishing
inshore
fishing
proves
more
451
452
Deep-sea
protection
arrangements
prove
multinational
tourism
companies.
Increasing
becomes
the
basis
for
action.
environmental
and
environmentally friendly.
management,
development
and
service
The
formation
of
international
cooperation
development
development.
The
current
trend
of
creating
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
453
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
Refusing
licences
for
projects
that
affect
society.
people.
454
SUB-REGIONAL SCENARIOS
EASTERN AFRICA
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
455
456
(UNEP 2002a).
Todays temperature
A temperature increase of 2C
command-and-control
strategies.
However,
this
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
457
not ploughed back into the land since they are being
development
hydropower
availability of water.
development
of
hydropower.
This
government.
and
transparency
in
458
between
migratory
peoples
and
permanent
settlements.
Encouraged by their shareholders, multinationals,
CENTRAL AFRICA
the
transboundary
on renewed importance.
integrated
management
of
Market Forces
Target trade and aid support to sustainable energy options for poor people.
Policy Reform
Fortress World
Policy reform processes should be more inclusive and allow for equitable
Great Transitions
cooperation
available opportunities.
offers
important
opportunities
for
Since AEO-1, there have been several conservationfocused initiatives that have significantly contributed to
forging a new vision within the Congo basin on
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
both the need for more land for human settlement and
Commission
(COMIFAC).
This
involved
459
the
and partners.
importance.
policy choices.
Source: UNEP/DEWA/
GRID 2001; Data
sources: Great apes
ranges: Instituto Ecologia
Applicata (IEA) Rome
1998, African Mammals
Databank (AMD) for the
Directorate-General for
Development (DGVIII/A/1)
of the European
Commission. Project No,
B7-6200/94-15/VIII/ENV;
Ramsar sites, World
Heritage sites and
national protected areas:
UNEP-WCMC; Digital
Elevation Model of the
lakes
Land: Environmental
Systems Research
Institute (ESRI) Base
maps (country
value
high: 8 752
gorilla range
chimpanzee range
low: 407
World. Projection:
Geographic
460
including roads
< 10
< 10
10999
10999
1 000-9 999
1 000-9 999
> 10 000
> 10 000
non-forested areas
non-forested areas
introduced in logging.
strengthen
the
existing
forestry
management
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
Commercial
exploitation
of
medicinal
plants
ensures
minimal
degradation
of
the
human
The
consequences
of
deforestation
461
and
462
NORTHERN AFRICA
Institutionalizing
on
measures,
forestry
operations
in
the
especially
basin
(including
2000
2025
2 500
2 000
1 500
1 000
500
0
Algeria
Egypt
Libya
Morocco
Sudan
Tunisia
Sudan
Tunisia
800
600
400
200
0
Algeria
Egypt
Libya
Morocco
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
463
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
Figure 18: Impact on selected water indicators in Africa as per AEO-1 scenario model
km3
300
40
domestic share
water use
30
200
20
100
10
0
0
Market Forces
Policy Reform
Fortress World
Market Forces
Great Transitions
Policy Reform
Fortress World
Great Transitions
%
100
0.08
agricultural share
industrial share
80
0.06
60
0.04
40
0.02
20
0
Market Forces
Policy Reform
Fortress World
Great Transitions
Market Forces
Policy Reform
Fortress World
Great Transitions
dwellers increases.
drainage water.
464
allocations of water.
problem.
and well-being.
very
sensitive.
Nonetheless,
the
results
are
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
465
increased
demand
for
water,
the
management.
Low-income
activities,
such
as
subsistence
the poor areas are largely unsafe, creating high risks for
466
their
in
industrial
used
in
waste
downstream
before
areas,
disposing
creating
it
serious
and salinization.
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
proposed projects.
models.
Mediterranean coast.
more
experienced
labourers
or
moving
to
467
468
groundwater.
and soil pollution by fuel and oil, and noise pollution are
Closely
related
to
this
is
the
on governments is reduced.
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
public participation. Each of these policy options has
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
WESTERN AFRICA
vulnerable
region
of
the
Sahel.
Increasing
1 500 mm;
18N
150
150
300
150
300
150
300
450
latitude
14N
600
750
900
450
600
1 350
600
750
1 050
450
750
900
1 200
1 500
1 650
2 000
1 800
10N
600
900
1 050
1 050
2 200
2 400
2 600
1 200
750
1 200
1 650
1 500
1 050
1 650 1 3501 200
1 350
1 800
1 500
2 200
2 000
14W
9W
4W
1E
longitude
900
1 050
1 200
1 350
1 200
1 800 1 500
1 650
2 000
6N
19W
300
450
6E
1350
1500
1 200
2 000
2400 2 200
2 600 1 800
2 800
1 650
11E
1 500
16E
469
470
vulnerability.
Measures
are
taken
to
increase
change
and
conflict-prevention tool.
and
desertification
are
ratified
in
this
sector
is
increased
and
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
471
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
level,
climate
Environmental
variability
degradation
continues
leads
to
and land that was previously used for grazing and left to
km2
of
forested
and
wooded
areas
and
promoting
472
Agrometeorology
and
Operational
Hydrology
climate vulnerability;
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
national and regional policies. Taking climate change into
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
zone
473
management
encouraged
with
the
lagoon environment.
474
solicited
for
development.
Massive
these measures.
Soft
engineering
solutions
such
as
beach
sand mining.
expanding
tourism
increasingly
affect
coastal
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
bribe
restrictions
public
the
EIA
bypass
for
coastal
Coastal
in
and
removed,
construction.
imposed
officials
vegetation
is
475
fish stock.
476
fishing.
Training
is
provided
through
capacity
to
complement
and
support
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
OUTLOOK
477
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
Dawn to dusk the
possibilities are
endless.
Source: A. Mohamed
CONCLUSION
From the scenario narratives it is clear that contrasting yet
Fortunately or
unfortunately, much
of the success or
failure of this
endeavour is in our
something that we
passively.
NELSON MANDELA,
SPEAKING IN TRAFALGAR SQUARE, LONDON,
478
References
Achebe, C., Hyden, G., Okeyo,A.P. and Magadza, C. (1990). Beyond
Hunger in Africa: Conventional Wisdom and a Vision of Africa in 2057.
Heinemann, Nairobi
Adger,W. N., S. Huq, K. Brown, D. Conway and Hulme, M. (2003).
Adaptation to climate change in the developing world. Progress in
Development Studies 3.3: 179-195
AfDB (2004). Africa Development Report 2004:Africa in the Global
Trading System.African Development Bank / Oxford University Press,
Oxford
Ahamada, S., Bijoux, J., Bigot, L., Cauvin, B., Kooonjul, M., Maharavo, J.,
Meunier, S., Moine-Picard, M., Quod, J., and Pierre-Louis, R. (2004).
Status of the coral reefs of the South West Indian Ocean Island States. In
Status of Coral Reefs of the World: 2004 (ed.Wilkinson, C.),Vol. 1.
http://www.aims.gov.au/pages/research/coral-bleaching/scr2004/
pdf/scr2004v1-07.pdf
Blank, H.G., Mutero, C.M. and Murray-Rust, H. (eds. 2002). The
Changing Face of Irrigation in Kenya: Opportunities for Anticipating
Change in Eastern and Southern Africa. International Water
Management Institute, Colombo
Chidi Ibe,A. (1996).The Coastal Zone and Oceanic Problems of SubSaharan Africa. In Sustaining The Future; Economic, Social And
Environmental Change In Sub-Saharan Africa (ed. Benneh, G.,
Morgan,W.B., and Uitto, J.I.). United Nations University,Tokyo.
http://www.unu.edu/unupress/unupbooks/80918e/80918E0p.htm#Th
e%20coastal%20zone%20and%20oceanic%20problems%20of%20S
ub-Saharan%20Africa
Cisin-Sain, B. and Belfiore, S. (2003). Linking Marine Protected Areas to
Integrated Coastal and Ocean Management:A Review of Theory and
Practice. http://www.earthlore.ca/clients/WPC/English/grfx/sessions/
PDFs/session_2/CICIN.pdf
Cicin-Sain, B., and Knecht, R.W. (1998). Integrated Coastal and Ocean
Management: Concepts and Practices. Island Press,Washington, D.C.
Cole, S. (1981). Methods of analysis for long-term development issues.
In Methods for Development Planning (UNESCO). United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris
Conway, G. (1997). The Doubly Green Revolution: Food for All in the 21st
Century. Penguin Books, London
DfID (2000). Eliminating World Poverty: Making Globalization Work for
the Poor. Department for International Development, London.
http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/whitepaper2000.pdf
ECA (2005). Economic Report on Africa 2005: Meeting the Challenges of
Unemployment and Poverty in Africa. Economic Commission for Africa,
Addis Ababa. http://www.uneca.org/era2005/front.pdf
ECA,AU and AfDB (2000). The African Water Vision for 2025: Equitable
and Sustainable Use of Water for Socioeconomic Development.
Economic Commission for Africa,African Union and African
Development Bank.Addis Ababa. http://www.uneca.org/awich/
African%20Water%20Vision%202025.pdf
El-Fattal, L. (2006). IDRC-Supported Research for Better Water
Governance Through Community-Based Water Management
Approaches.WADImena News, 14 February. http://www.idrc.ca/en/ev93759-201-1-DO_TOPIC.html
FAO (2005a). Foodcrops and Shortages, No. 1, February 2005.
ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/fao/007/j4273e/j4273e00.pdf
FAO (2005b). State of the Worlds Forests 2005. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, Rome. ftp://ftp.fao.org/docrep/
fao/007/y5574e/y5574e00.pdf
SECTION 4
Chapter 13
MA (2005). Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Synthesis. Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment. Island Press,Washington, D.C.
http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/products.synthesis.aspx
Make Poverty History (2005). Nelson Mandelas Speech to Trafalgar
Square Crowd. http://www.makepovertyhistory.org/docs/mandela
speech.doc
Makinwa-Adebusoye, P. (2000). Population and Development. Electronic
Roundtable International Policies,African Realities hosted by the Africa
Policy Information Centre and the Economic Commission for Africa with
assistance from Bellanet. http://apic.igc.org/rtable/ade0001.htm
MI (2002).Threshold 21 Introduction. Millennium Institute.
http://www.threshold21.com/
Miles, I. (1981). Scenario analysis: identifying ideologies and issues. In
Methods for Development Planning (UNESCO). United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, Paris
Mohamed-Katerere, J. and van der Zaag, P. (2003). Untying the Knot of
Silence Making Water Policy and Law Responsive to Local Normative
Systems. In History and Future of Shared Water Resources (Hassan, F.A.,
Reuss, M.,Trottier, J., Bernhardt, C.,Wolf,A., Mohamed-Katerere, J. and
van der Zaag, P.). IHP Technical Documents PCCP Series No.6. United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization-International
Hydrological Programme, Paris http://webworld.unesco.org/water/
wwap/pccp/cd/pdf/history_future_shared_water_resources/indigenuou
s_approaches.pdf
Mohamed-Katerere, J.C. (1997). International and Regional
Agreements for Environmental Management: Constraints and
Opportunities for Development. In Democracy, Human Rights and
Economic Development in Southern Africa (ed. Steytler, N), pp 143-169.
Lex Patria, Johannesburg.
NEPAD (2003). Action Plan for the Environment Initiative. New
Partnership for Africas Development, Midrand. http://nepad.org/2005/
files/reports/action_plan/action_plan_english2.pdf
NEPAD (2001).The New Partnership for Africas Development.The New
Partnership for Africas Development,Abuja. http://www.nepad.org/
2005/files/documents/inbrief.pdf
OUTLOOK
T h e F u t u r e To d a y
NEF (2005). A Big Deal? Corporate Social Responsibility and the Finance
Sector in Europe. New Economics Foundation. Corporate Responsibility
Coalition, London. http://www.globalpolicy.org/socecon/tncs/2004/
0904bigdeal.pdf
479
480
WRI in collaboration with UNEP, UNDP and the World Bank (2005). World
Resources 2005:The Wealth of the Poor Managing Ecosystems to Fight
Poverty.World Resources Institute in collaboration with the United Nations
Environment Programme, the United Nations Development Programme
and the World Bank.World Resources Series.World Resources Institute,
Washington, D.C. http://pdf.wri.org/wrr05_full_hires.pdf
WRI in collaboration with UNEP and UNDP (2004). World Resources
Report 2002-2004: Decisions for the Earth. Balance,Voice and Power.
World Resources Institute in collaboration with United Nations
Environment Programme and United Nations Development Programme
World Resources Institute,Washington, D.C.
WRI in collaboration with UNEP and UNDP (1994). World Resources
Report 199495: People and the Environment.World Resources
Institute in collaboration with United Nations Environment Programme
and United Nations Development Programme World Resources
Institute,Washington, D.C.
WWF (2005). Central African countries commit to protect the natural
wealth of their forests. Gift to the Earth 98 Summary.
http://assets.panda.org/downloads/y5finallr.pdf
SECTION 5
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
482
CHAPTER 14
Sustainable
Development
(WSSD)
recognized,
including
(OECD
improved
economic
growth
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
483
economic
performance
to
about
and
EGP14
ultimately
500
human
million
(or
policies
the
Well-being is the
environment and
that
sustain
and
expand
development
policies.
Brundtland Commission
(WCED 1987)
resources;
environmental resources;
and
environment
development.
to
benefit
from
Percentage of GDP
Global environment
US$309.95
Waste
US$97.88
Coastal zones and cultural heritage
US$163.13
Freshwater
US$473.08
Soil US$587.28
Source: World Bank 2004a
5.4%
484
environmental change.
to
utilize
the
environment
could be taken.
for
The
roles
of
the
various
stakeholders
in
term
highlighted.
strategies
and
interventions
by
African
from
transboundary
natural
resource
Although
some
AEO-2
findings
are
could
yield
insights
on
how
diseases
is
major
factor
for
such
Source: CIFOR
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
environment
Mozambique
into
have
these
strategies
progressively
has
partly
improved
the
Outlook
Figure 2: Countries affected by food insecurity due to natural hazards during the 2005-06 cropping seasons
485
486
Foreign
Direct
Investment
(FDI),
overseas
Action
consideration
(UN
Millennium
Project
2005).
The production of herbs and plants used in traditional medicine. Ethiopia supports local
livelihoods and increases the value placed on indigenous knowledge systems.
Source: P. Virot/WHO
Promote
indigenous
knowledge
systems
in
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
and
ecosystems.
Negotiate
effectively
to
487
ensure
that
the
between
sub-regions
and
countries.
The
Outlook
With the slow pace of industrialization, many African
Stakeholders
ATMOSPHERE
Issues
The issues range from extreme weather events, such as
drought and floods related to climate variability, to
access to energy for the majority of the people in the
region. These extremes in weather mean too much rain in
some areas or too little rain in others. The consequence of
such extremes is that ecosystem functions are disrupted,
with disastrous consequences for biodiversity and the
people who are affected. For example, both drought and
floods negatively impact food production and food
security as well as hydroelectricity generation which
supplies energy for domestic and industrial use.
Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen emissions resulting
from the use of fossil fuels such as coal and diesel in the
power generation and smelting industries are important
contributors to air pollution. In trying to address the
negative aspects of the atmosphere there is a tendency
to focus on such emissions and air pollution, while taking
The Global Atmospheric Watch Station at Mount Kenya provides important data collection
and atmospheric monitoring and assessment services.
Source: C. Lambrechts/UNEP
488
Stakeholders
appropriate standards.
Action
LAND
Issues
implementation.
resource
and
carbon sinks.
for
planning.
the
realization
Such
of
degradation
development
undermines
Livestock offer opportunities for rural communities across the region providing household security including during periods of drought.
Source: M. Chenje
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
489
Ethiopia (74 per cent) and Kenya (87 per cent). The
degradation-drought-famine
exacerbates
vulnerability.
These
linkage
development
challenges,
hotspots
present
requiring
serious
thorough
Throughout Africa cotton is a valuable drylands crop and securing favourable market terms
will help improve livelihoods. Burkina Faso.
Source: D. Tiveau/CIFOR
490
Outlook
Given the slow development of the industrial and
service sectors in many African countries, huge sections
of the population will continue to depend directly on
land for their livelihoods. Overall, land degradation is
likely to continue in the short to medium term. The
worsening poverty situation, sustained high rates of
population growth, and negligible growth in the
industrial and service sectors will combine to
perpetuate extensive rather than intensive land use
Africa cannot realize the full opportunities associated with its natural resources if it does not
address its infrastructural problems.
Source: Z. Tchoudjeu
measures
to
promote
agricultural
and
rural
increase by 2025.
Action
productivity
agriculture,
adverse
agroclimatic
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
FRESHWATER
Issues
Most countries
public investments
resources.
to overcome the
regions high
transport costs,
means
generally small
desertification.
markets, low-
sanitation
productivity
agriculture, adverse
agroclimatic
conditions, high
slow diffusion of
technology from
abroad.
UN Millennium Project
2005a
of
reducing
land
degradation
and
has
been
described
as
the
silent
Stakeholders
491
combat
land
degradation,
drought
and
Source: M. Marzot/FAO
492
as a percentage of available
resources, 2001
more than 100%
40100%
2040%
1020%
110%
less than 1%
insufficient data
Philippines
Somalia
Yemen
Switzerland
South Africa
Brazil
Venezuela
Israel
Romania
Sweden
Poland
Cambodia
Tunisia
Belarus
Ireland
Panama
Serbia and Montenegro*
Colombia
Nicaragua
Trinidad and Tobago
Zimbabwe
Slovakia
El Salvador
United Kingdom
Algeria
Jordan
Niger
Kuwait
Czech Rep.
Guinea
Mongolia
Guatemala
Senegal
Zambia
Bolivia
Jamaica
Slovenia
Namibia
Honduras
Denmark
Haiti
Latvia
Gabon
Paraguay
Malawi
Sierra Leone
Botswana
Guinea-Bissau
Eritrea
Nigeria
Burkina Faso
Cte dIvoire
Tanzania
Kenya
Cameroon
Ethiopia
Benin
Togo
Burundi
Liberia
Mozambique
Chad
Lesotho
Angola
Ghana
The Gambia
Papua New Guinea
Uganda
Congo, Dem. Rep.
Rwanda
Congo
Central African Rep.
(Curtin 2003).
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
493
Source: H. Wagner/FAO
deal
with
these
challenges.
Cooperation,
fairer
and
equitable
regime
for
Outlook
other
organizations,
sub-regional
resource
change.
and
Water
regional
stress
and
scarcity,
494
Harness
water
resources
for
hydropower
Source: FAO
resources.
Action
The objective of action should be an Africa where there
Stakeholders
development,
civil society.
regional
cooperation,
and
the
target dates are 2015 and 2025, but water issues will
Issues
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
495
Outlook
medium-
to
long-term
development.
These
of
the
Marine
and
Coastal
of
the
Marine
and
Coastal
The ocean holds immense opportunities from wave energy to fish to oil. Ensuring it is
sustainably used is a priority. Morocco.
(Abidjan Convention).
496
Many of Africas SIDS, such as the Seychelles, have idyllic beaches that support a vibrant tourism industry.
Source: M. Chenje
Action
erosion.
These
of coastal areas.
actions
are
best
complemented
by
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
497
Stakeholders
challenges
include
incomplete
Issues
resources (goods-and-services).
income.
Forests
and
woodland
can
invasive species.
Forests and woodlands have multiple values at all
levels of human society, including the community,
national, sub-regional, regional or global levels. At the
local (community) level forests and woodlands have
multiple uses, which vary extensively with the type of
forest, and the community. These include construction
materials, foods, energy, medicines, catchment
protection, soil protection, shelter and shade, habitat
for wild life and grazing as well as cultural values (sacred
groves, shade, peace trees and plants, meeting places,
boundaries, training areas). Local communities
therefore use forests and their products in a multitude
of ways that differ from direct commercial exploitation
or conversion to agricultural land. At the national level
and regional level forests and woodlands also play an
important role in catchment protection for water
quality, hydropower, and regulation of river flows,
Adding value to timber is essential for improving national and local income. Craftsperson
making wooden furniture.
Source: J. Maillard/ILO
498
Outlook
institutions
responsible
for
forestry
resources
Action
forming
partnerships
with
other
Establishing systems for managing timber extraction is essential. Officials check log numbers
of timber intended for market.
Source: J. Vanday/CIFOR
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
499
Managing transboundary resources increases the opportunities for all countries. The tropical
moist rain forest of the western Congo basin, Gabon.
Source: M. Harvey/Still Pictures
harvested volumes.
Additionally,
energy
investing
and
woodlands
is
an
in
alternative
The
important
action.
Stakeholders
international community.
BIODIVERSITY
Issues
for
freshwater
fish
diversity,
with
more
than
500
hotspots
Source: CI 2006b
pharmaceutical industries.
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
Outlook
However,
and
for
many
of
these
501
reporting
Action
of
and
transactions on biodiversity.
the
national
biodiversity
strategies
Baboon (Papio
anubis). Nakuru
National Park,
Kenya.
Source: C. Lambrechts/
UNEP
502
sustainable management.
Issues
Initiative (APAI).
their Utilization.
concerning
food
production
and
security,
protected areas.
Stakeholders
Partnerships with other stakeholders are essential to
implementing the recommended actions. These
partnerships in the first instance should be with resource
users and managers, such as local communities and other
landholders. For some areas partnerships with the private
sector, civil society organizations, farmers, the scientific
and research community, and the donor community will
be important.
Source : Biowatch
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
503
Genetic improvement of coffee (coffea spp.) through hybridization is used to enhance yield
and quality. However, the success of the hybrid Catimor (above) grown in Malawi in achieving
this is disputed.
Source: A. Conti/FAO
Outlook
possibly lag behind and it may take even longer for the
in
2004
passed
the
National
Environmental
individual
and
institutional
capacity.
Where
Action
504
Stakeholders
Develop
biosafety
and
implement
decisions,
mechanisms
national
for
monitoring
and
facilitated.
enforce regulations.
from cradle-to-grave".
Issues
to
challenges.
sustainable
development
in
Africa,
forcing
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
505
Source: M. Harvey/Still
Pictures
Outlook
Invasive alien species will not be eradicated, at least in
the foreseeable future. The only options available to
policymakers are to control and manage the species
which are already creating havoc for peoples
livelihoods, economies and ecosystems. The costs of
managing IAS will continue to be high.
Action
Urgent action is required to undertake a comprehensive
inventory of both floral and faunal IAS, including spatial
extent in the region and impacts on people, various
on endemic species.
Stakeholders
organizations
and
regional
and
sub-regional
lacking.
CHEMICALS
socioeconomic development.
Issues
506
threatening
developments
will
ecosystem
place
viability.
both
These
human
and
Source: Topham/UNEP
Action
increased
agricultural
sector,
may
lead
to
pesticides
have
accumulated
(NEPAD
2003).
Outlook
management.
wastes.
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
507
and
promotion
of
Many African governments still need to develop effective systems for chemical management.
Pesticide factory, Matola, Mozambique.
Source: J. Schytte/Still Pictures
more
and
accountability
approaches
in
management.
relevant
coordinating
legal
for
instruments
structure
and
for
harmonizing
organizations
responsible
data
and
information
on
chemical
Stakeholders
should be enforced.
COOPERATION
Issues
508
The Victoria Falls are a natural attraction shared by Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Source: P. Springett/Still Pictures
programmes; and
MEAs has grown over the decades, and now include the
programmes
framework.
part
of
national
development
freshwater
resources.
The
Southern
African
integration programmes;
policies;
integration process;
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
509
facilitate
the environment.
regional
cooperation,
including
the
for peace.
effort,
the
breakdown
of
environmental
Outlook
In Africa a combination of historical, internal and
external factors converge to exacerbate conflict.
Internal factors include patterns of governance, poverty
and competition over resources. (OSSA 2005a). Unless
efforts, by improving governance, addressing poverty
Source: Y. Katerere
510
Stakeholders
All governments and institutions, the private sector, civil
society, universities and the public have a stake in
ensuring that regional cooperation is a major
consideration in their activities.
Action
DEVELOPING STATES
Issues
governments.
important focus.
between
conserving
their
land
and
marine
drawing
international
attention
to
the
many
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
in SIDS in Africa:
Develop
strategies
that
balance
economic
development.
Outlook
regional.
Action
in environmental management.
Stakeholders
adopted.
face
However,
many
of
these
still
Public-private partnership can make a valuable contribution to GDP: vanilla production in Madagascar.
Source: J.L.Maher/WCS
511
512
Source: W. Wagner/FAO
the targets of the MDGs are also critical in the SIDS and
POLICY INTERLINKAGES
Issues
especially
bureaucratic
arrangements
and
the
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
Action
term are:
Outlook
involvement,
augurs
well
for
more
effective
Sustainably managing water resources - for energy, social needs and biodiversity requires interlinkages between environment and
development sectors. Nyanga, Zimbabwe.
Source: Y. Katerere
513
514
Stakeholders
role to play.
(NEPAD 2001).
interlinkages
of
human
development
and
CONCLUSION
improvements
its interest.
economically
and
An old mosque at Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso, built in 1880. Africa has a glorious past and it can claim the future.
Source: C. Cossalter/CIFOR
politically,
an
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
References
AMCEN (1985). Resolution adopted by the conference at its first
session.African Ministerial Conference on the Environment. UNEP/AEC
1/2: Proceedings of the First Session of the African Ministerial
Conference on the Environment, Cairo, Egypt, 16-18 December.
http://www.unep.org/roa/Related_Programmes/AMCEN/AMCEN_Deci
sions/PDF/Amcen%201%20decision.pdf
AU (2000). Constitutive Act of the African Union.African Union, Lome.
http://www.africa-union.org/root/au/AboutAU/Constitutive_Act_en.htm
Ben Mohamed,A. (1998).Wind Erosion in Niger: Extent, current
research and ongoing conservation activates. In Wind Erosion in Africa
and West Asia: Problems and Control Strategies (eds. Sivakumar, M.K.,
Zobisch, M., Koala, S. and Maukonen,T.P.). International Centre for
Agricultural Research in Dry Areas,Aleppo
Blaikie, P. and Simo, J.M. (2000). Cameroons Environmental Accords:
Signed, Sealed, but Undelivered. In Engaging Countries: Strengthening
Compliance with International Environmental Accords (eds.Weiss, E.B.
and Jacobson, H.K.), pp. 437-74. Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Press, Boston
Brown, D. (1999). Principles and Practice of Forest Co-Management:
Evidence from West-Central Africa. European Tropical Forestry Paper 2.
Overseas Development Institute, London. http://www.odi.org.uk/
fpeg/publications/papers/eutfp/eutfp-02.pdf
CARE (2005).Tsunami damage hits hard in already vulnerable Somalia.
CARE Press Release, 21 January. http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/rwb.nsf/
0/6b1a009e70c063d8c1256f94004cf26e?OpenDocument
CBD (2006). Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety (Montreal, 29 January
2000) Status of Ratification and Entry into Force.
http://www.biodiv.org/biosafety/signinglist.aspx?sts=rtf&ord=dt
Chenje, M. (2003). Hydro-politics and the quest of the Zambezi RiverBasin Organization. In International Waters in Southern Africa (ed.
Nakayama, M.). UNU Series on Water Resources Management and
Policy. United Nations University Press,Tokyo.
CI (2006a). Biodiversity Hotspots. Conservation International
Washington D.C. http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org
CI (2006b). Eastern Afromontane. Conservation International,
Washington D.C. http://www.biodiversityhotspots.org/xp/Hotspots/
afromontane/
CIFOR (2005). Payments for Environmental Services: Some Nuts and
Bolts. CIFOR Infobrief No. 9. Centre for International Forestry Research,
Bogor. http://www.cifor.cgiar.org/publications/pdf_files/infobrief/009Infobrief.pdf
Commission for Africa (2005). Our Common Interest: Report of the
Commission for Africa. Commission for Africa, London.
http://www.commissionforafrica.org/english/report/thereport/english/
11-03-05_cr_report.pdf
Curtin, F. (2003). On the water front. Times Educational Supplement, 14
March. http://www.tes.co.uk/search/story/?story_id=376820
Davis, S.D., Heywood,V.H. and Hamilton,A.C. (eds. 1994). Centres of
plant diversity.A guide and strategy for their conservation.Vol. 1:
Europe,Africa and the Middle East. IUCN Publications Unit, Cambridge
DfID (2001).The causes of conflict in Africa. Department for International
Development, London. http://www.dfid.gov.uk/pubs/files/ conflictafrica.pdf#search=causes%20of%20conflict%20in%20africa
Dobie, P. (2001). Poverty and Drylands. United Nations Development
Programme Drylands Development Centre, Nairobi.
515
516
SECTION 5
Chapter 14
POLICY OPPORTUNITIES
517
ANNEXES
ABBREVIATIONS
CONTRIBUTORS
INDEX
ANNEX 1
MILLENNIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Table 1
Millennium Development Goal
Target
and hunger
Target 3: Ensure that all boys and girls complete a full course of
primary schooling
empower women
Target 8: Halt and begin to reverse the incidence of malaria and other
major diseases
for development
519
520
Goal 2
Eradicate extreme
Targets
Indicators
HDI rank
Undernourished people
(as % of population)
(%)
(%)
106
Algeria
Slipping back
On track
On track
161
Angola
Slightly off
On track
Data unavailable
158
Benin
On track
On track
Data unavailable
126
Botswana
Slipping back
Achieved
On track
169
Burkina Faso
On track
Slipping back
Data unavailable
171
Burundi
Slipping back
Slightly off
Data unavailable
135
Cameroon
Slightly off
Slightly off
Data unavailable
100
Cape Verde
Cape Verde
On track
Data unavailable
165
Far behind
Far behind
Data unavailable
166
Chad
On track
Far behind
Far behind
137
Comoros
Slipping back
Slightly off
Data unavailable
136
Congo
Slightly off
On track
Data unavailable
155
Slipping back
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
156
Cte dIvoire
Slightly off
Slipping back
Far behind
149
Djibouti
On track
Slipping back
Slipping back
115
Egypt
On track
On track
Data unavailable
111
Equatorial Guinea
Data unavailable
On track
Data unavailable
157
Eritrea
Far behind
Slightly off
Data unavailable
168
Ethiopia
Slipping back
Far behind
Data unavailable
117
Gabon
Slipping back
Achieved
Data unavailable
160
Gambia
Far behind
On track
Data unavailable
129
Ghana
Achieved
On track
Data unavailable
159
Guinea
Slipping back
Far behind
Data unavailable
167
Guinea-Bissau
Data unavailable
Far behind
Data unavailable
134
Kenya
Far behind
Achieved
Data unavailable
132
Lesotho
Slightly off
Achieved
Data unavailable
999
Liberia
Slipping back
Slightly off
Data unavailable
64
Libya
Achieved
Achieved
Data unavailable
147
Madagascar
Slipping back
Achieved
Data unavailable
163
Malawi
On track
On track
Data unavailable
164
Mali
Far behind
Far behind
On track
152
Mauritania
On track
On track
Slipping back
67
Mauritius
On track
Achieved
On track
123
Morocco
Slipping back
On track
Far behind
170
Mozambique
Slightly off
Slipping back
Data unavailable
122
Namibia
Achieved
Achieved
Data unavailable
172
Niger
Slightly off
Far behind
Data unavailable
148
Nigeria
Achieved
Slightly off
Data unavailable
521
Annex 1
Goal 3
Goal 4
Goal 7
Ensure environmental
sustainability target
Reduce by 2/3
Number of Goals
under-5 infant
without access to
on target to be
mortality rates
safe water
achieved
Under-five mortality
Access to improved
as % of male ratio
as % of male ratio
safe water
(%)
On track
On track
Slipping back
Slipping back
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
Slipping back
On track
of 7
Far behind
Far behind
Far behind
On track
of 7
Achieved
Achieved
Slipping back
On track
of 7
Far behind
Data unavailable
Far behind
On track
of 7
Far behind
Data unavailable
Far behind
On track
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
Slipping back
On track
of 7
Achieved
Achieved
On track
On track
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
Far behind
Achieved
of 7
Far behind
Far behind
Far behind
On track
of 7
Data unavailable
On track
On track
Achieved
of 7
On track
Far behind
Far behind
Achieved
of 7
On track
Data unavailable
Far behind
Data unavailable
of 7
Far behind
Far behind
Slipping back
Data unavailable
of 7
Far behind
On track
Far behind
Achieved
of 7
On track
On track
On track
Achieved
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
On track
Data unavailable
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
On track
On track
of 7
Slipping back
Slipping back
Far behind
Slightly off
of 7
Achieved
Data unavailable
Far behind
Data unavailable
of 7
On track
On track
Far behind
Data unavailable
of 7
On track
Data unavailable
Slightly off
Achieved
of 7
On track
Far behind
On track
Far behind
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
of 7
Achieved
On track
Slipping back
Slightly off
of 7
Achieved
Achieved
Far behind
On track
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
Far behind
Data unavailable
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
On track
Far behind
of 7
Achieved
Achieved
Far behind
Far behind
of 7
Achieved
On track
Slightly off
Slightly off
of 7
On track
Slipping back
Far behind
On track
of 7
On track
Far behind
Far behind
Far behind
of 7
Achieved
Achieved
On track
Achieved
of 7
On track
On track
On track
On track
of 7
Far behind
Far behind
Far behind
Data unavailable
of 7
Achieved
Achieved
Far behind
Achieved
of 7
Far behind
Data unavailable
Far behind
Data unavailable
of 7
Slightly off
Data unavailable
Far behind
Slightly off
of 7
522
Goal 2
Eradicate extreme
Targets
Indicators
Undernourished people
(as % of population)
(%)
(%)
HDI rank
162
Rwanda
Far behind
Achieved
Data unavailable
119
Data unavailable
On track
Data unavailable
154
Senegal
Slipping back
On track
On track
47
Seychelles
Data unavailable
Achieved
On track
173
Sierra Leone
Slipping back
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
999
Somalia
Slipping back
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
107
South Africa
Data unavailable
On track
Data unavailable
139
Sudan
On track
Slightly off
Data unavailable
125
Swaziland
Far behind
On track
Far behind
151
Tanzania
Slipping back
Achieved
Far behind
141
Togo
On track
On track
Data unavailable
97
Tunisia
Achieved
Achieved
On track
150
Uganda
Slightly off
On track
Data unavailable
153
Zambia
Slipping back
Slipping back
Data unavailable
128
Zimbabwe
Far behind
On track
Data unavailable
Achieved
12
On track
10
19
16
Slightly off
Far behind
Slipping back
Data unavailable
Total
39
53
53
53
28.3%
58.3%
13.2%
Reference
OECD Development Centre and AfDB (2005). African Economic Outlook 2004/2005. Development Centre of the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development and the African Development Bank. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, Paris
523
Annex 1
Goal 3
Goal 4
Goal 7
Ensure environmental
sustainability target
Reduce by 2/3
Number of Goals
under-5 infant
without access to
on target to be
mortality rates
safe water
achieved
Under-five mortality
Access to improved
as % of male ratio
as % of male ratio
safe water
(%)
Achieved
Data unavailable
Slipping back
Data unavailable
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
Far behind
Data unavailable
of 7
On track
Far behind
Far behind
On track
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
On track
Data unavailable
of 7
On track
Data unavailable
Far behind
Data unavailable
of 7
Data unavailable
Data unavailable
Far behind
Data unavailable
of 7
On track
Achieved
Slipping back
On track
of 7
Slightly off
On track
Far behind
On track
of 7
On track
On track
Slipping back
Data unavailable
of 7
Achieved
On track
Far behind
Achieved
of 7
Far behind
Far behind
Far behind
Far behind
of 7
Achieved
On track
On track
On track
of 7
On track
Far behind
Slightly off
Slightly off
of 7
On track
Data unavailable
Slipping back
On track
of 7
Achieved
Far behind
Slipping back
On track
of 7
13
16
12
11
19
11
27
11
12
21
15
53
53
53
53
54.7%
35.8%
20.8%
50.9%
524
ANNEX 2
SOCIOECONOMIC INDICATORS
Table 1a: Sub-Saharan Africa socioeconomic indicators
Population
(average
PPP
gross
gross
Gross
Gross
national
national national
national domestic
income
income
income
income
product
rate
Carbon
(GNI)a
(GNI)b
(GNI)b
(per
Life
Under-5
(% of
dioxide
Population (GNI)a
annual % (density
PPP
Gross
Adult
literacy
(thousand (per
(thousand
(per
capita %
expectancy
mortality
people emissions
Population growth
people
millions
capita
millions of
capita
growth
at birth
(rate per
15 and (millions
(millions
1990-
per sq km
of dollars
dollars
dollars
dollars
2002-
(years
1 000
above
of tonnes
2003)
2003)
2003 )
2003)
2003 )
2003 )
2003)
2003 )
2002 )
2002 )
2002)
2000)
702.6
2.5
30
346.8
490
1 243
1 770
1.3
46
174
65
478.8
Agricultural
Gross
productivity
productivity
domestic
Agricultural
Agricultural
product
value-
value-
(avgerage
added per
added per
annual %
agricultural
agricultural
growth
worker
1990-
(dollars
2003)
2.7
General
Value-
Value-
Household
governments
External
Value-
added
added
final
final
Gross
balance
added as
as % of
as % of
consumption consumption
capital
of goods-
worker
% of GDP
GDP
GDP
expenditure
expenditure
formation
and-
(dollars
Agricultural
Industry
Services
% of GDP
% of GDP
% of GDP
services
1988-90)
2000-02 )
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
2003
382
360
14
29
57
68
16
18
-1
Reference
World Bank (2005). World Development Indicators 2005.World Bank,Washington D.C. http://devdata.worldbank.org/wdi2005/index2.htm
525
ANNEX 3
GENETICALLY MODIFIED ORGANISMS
Table 1: National, sub-regional and regional biosafety organizations
Organization
Countries
Purpose
(SARB) 2000-2001
Zambia
implement them.
ASARECA
ASARECA
planning process.
Eastern Africa
Forum (ABSF)
Studies (ACTS)
Africa
526
Countries
Purpose
Sub-Saharan Africa
Foundation (AATF)
African Harvest Biotech Foundation
Africa
International
Sub-Saharan Africa
SADC
(FANRPAN)
East African Research Network for
building.
Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda
Capacity-building.
Western Africa
Association (WARDA)
Western Africa
Agriculture (IITA)
Development (CORAF)
527
Annex 3
Countries
Purpose
Eastern Africa
Research.
(KARI),
Technology (Kenya),
Partners/donors
Safety in Biotechnology
Outputs include:
Outputs include:
Secretariat
biosafety.
Outputs include:
528
Partners/donors
USAID
debates.
USAID
making.
USAID
Research in Africa)
ECOWAS
Acquisition of Agri-Biotech
Applications)
AATF (African Agricultural Technology
Public -private-partnership.
Foundation
technology transfer.
ABBREVIATIONS
AAT
BPoA
ABSF
BSE
Bt
Bacillus thuringiensis
ACCNNR
CAADP
ACT
CAMPFIRE
AEC
AEIN
Cap-Net
AEO
CAR
AEO-EIS
CARPE
AfDB
CBD
AFLEG
CBFP
CBNRM
AGERI
CBO
Community-based organization
AGOA
CDM
AGRHYMET
CEDARE
Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe
AIACC
CEMAC
AMCEN
CEN-SAD
AMCOW
CEOSS
AMMA
CFC
Chlorofluorocarbon
AMU
CGIAR
ANBO
CI
Conservation International
ANC
CI
Consumers International
AOSIS
CIDA
APAI
APRM
CILSS
ARI
ARI
CIMMYT
ASAL
CITES
ASP
ATO
AU
African Union
CMS
bbl/d
BCLME
COMESA
BOTT
COMIFAC
529
530
COP
EU
European Union
COTS
Crown-of-thorns starfish
FAO
CPUE
CRDB
FAR
FAS
CRIC
FAWE
FDI
CSIR
FEWS-NET
CSO
FNLA
DANIDA
FRIEND
DDT
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
G8
Group of 8
DGEF
GAFRD
DGIS
GBM
GCM
GDI
GDP
DNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid
GE
Genetic engineering
DNOC
DiNitroOrthoCresol
GEF
DRC
GEM
DTF
GENK
EAC
GEO
ECA
GFMC
GHG
Greenhouse gases
ECCAS
GISP
ECOFAC
GIWA
GLCN
GLR
GM
Genetically modified
ECOSOCC
GMMR
GMO
ECOWAS
GNP
EEZ
GSM
EGRAP
GURT
EIA
GWP
EIB
HAT
EMS
HDI
ENGDA
HIPC
HYDROMET
IAS
IATC
IBA
DIVERSITAS
ECOSOC
ENSO
El Nio/Southern Oscillation
EPARM
Ethiopian Pharmaceuticals
Manufacturing
EPZ
ESA
ICAM
LADA
ICCM
LCBC
LDCs
LEAP
LEED
LME
LMO
LNG
LOICZ
LPA
LPG
LPG
LVD
LVEMP
MA
MANR
MARPOL
ICPAC
ICT
ICZM
IDPs
IFAD
IGAD
Intergovernmental Authority on
Development
ILO
ILRI
IMF
INERA
IOC
IOC
Intergovernmental Oceanographic
Commission of the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization
IPCC
IPCC
IPM
IPR
IRMA
ISAAA
ISO
ITC
ITCZ
ITDG
MEA
MedWet
MI
Millennium Institute
MIKE
MJO
Intra-Seasonal Oscillations
MPA
MPLA
MSY
NAP
NAP
NAPA
NASA
IUCEA
IUCN
IUCN-EARP
NBCBN-RE
IUU
NBI
IWRM
NCA
NEAP
KARI
NEH
KWS
NELSAP
531
532
NEMC
NEPAD
NEPAD-EAP
PNV
POP
PPP
PPP
Public-private-partnership
PPP
NERICA
PRS
NESDA
PRSP
PRSP
NGO
Non-governmental organization
PV
Photovoltaic
Nile-COM
PVS
QBO
Quasi-Biennial Oscillations
Nile-SEC
NBI Secretariat
R&D
Nile-TAC
RAP
NIP
RAPAC
NPACD
RATES
NTBF
NTFP
RBDA
O&M
REC
OAU
REFAD
OAU/SEAF
RELMA
ODA
RES
ODA
RISDP
ODS
OECD
RUF
SABRE-Gen
SADC
SADC-DMC
OHADA
OPEC
PA
Programme Area
PANAFCON
Pan-African Conference on
Implementation and Partnership on
Water
SAICM
SAP
PBT
SARCOF
PCB
Poly-chlorinated biphenyls
PCFV
SARDC
PELUM
SARS
SDC
SDI
PFP
SEI
PIC
SFIT
PLEC
SHS
SIDS
PM
Particulate Matter
PERSGA
SME
SNEL
SOI
SPLASH
UNFCCC
UNHCR
UNITA
SPLM/A
UNSO
SPS
UNU
SRAP
SSA
Sub-Saharan Africa
STAP
USAID
STAP-TWR
UV
ultra violet
SWIOFP
UXO
Unexploded ordinance
VAD
Vitamin A deficiency
T21
Threshold 21
VMT
TARDA
WA-Net
TBNRM
WARDA
TDR
WAVE
WCD
WCED
WDM
WFP
WHO
WIMSA
WIO
WIO-LaB
WMO-DMC
WRI
WRM
WSP
TECCONILE
TIGER-SHIP
TPN
TPRI
TRIPS
TWh
Terawatt hours
ULIMO
UN
United Nations
UNCCD
UNCED
WSSD
UNCLOS
WTO
WWF
UNDP
ZAMCOM
ZIMOZA
UNEP
Zimbabwe-Mozambique-Zambia
Transboundary Natural Resource
Management Initiative
UNESCO
533
534
CONTRIBUTORS
Franck A. Attere
Consultant, Kenya
Hassan Awad
Aaboubacar Awaiss
WWF The World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF), Egypt
Uneysa Ayair
Tenalem Ayenew
Department of Earth Sciences,Addis Ababa University, Ethiopia
Samuel N. Ayonghe
Department of Geology and Environmental Science, Faculty of Science, University of Buea,
Cameroon
Hichem Azafzaf
Tunisia
Allali Abdelkader
Ministry of Agriculture, Rural Development and Fishing, Morocco
Ahmed Abdelrehim
Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE), Egypt
Samuel Aboah
Sambus Company Limited, Ghana
Gustave Aboua
Universit dAbobo-Adjam, Cte dIvoire
Adebisi Adebayo
Consultant, Switzerland
M. Adrabou
Egypt
Kouadio Affian
Universit de Cocody-Abidjan, Cte dIvoire
Abel Afouda
Dpartement de Mathmatiques, Universit dAbomey-Calavi, Benin
Justin Ahanhanzo
Oceanography-Fisheries and Global Environment, IOC/UNESCO, Benin
Maha Akrouk
Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE), Egypt
Osman M. Ali
Institute of Environmental Studies, University of Khartoum, Sudan
Hossam Allam
Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE), Egypt
Jonathan Allotey
Environment Protection Agency (EPA), Ghana
Sylvia Amisi
Consultant, Kenya
Russell Arthurton
Consultant, United Kingdom
Joe Asamoah
EnerWise Africa, South Africa
Peter Ashton
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Natural Resources and the Environment,
South Africa
Randha Baligh
Faculty of Arts, Mansoura University, Egypt
Abou Bamba
Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Switzerland
Dansala Bambe
Agence Internationale pour le Dveloppement de lInformation Environnementale, Cameroon
Antoine Banvidi
Ministre de lEconomie Forestire et de lEnvironnement, Congo
Kristen Barney
Millennium Institute, USA
Andre Bassol
EIS-Africa, Burkina Faso
Hans E. Beekman
Consultant, South Africa
Reinette Biggs
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Natural Resources and the Environment,
South Africa
Stephen Blake
Wildlife Conservation Society,Washington D.C.
Foday Bojang
African Union, Ethiopia
Yadowsun Boodhoo
Meteorological Services, Mauritius
Tricia Colagiovanni
Consultant, Kenya
Abdoulie Danso
Permanent Interstate Committee for Drought Control in the Sahel (CILSS), Burkina Faso
Berhe Debalkew
Inter-Governmental Authority on Development (IGAD), Djibouti
Charles-Elie Doumambila
Agence Internationale pour le Dveloppement de lInformation Environnementale, Gabon
Salim Ebrahim
Joan Kariuki
The International Network for Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE), South Africa
Ismail Elbagouri
Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE), Egypt
Ahmed El-Kholei
Eucharia U. Kenya
Consultant, Kenya
NDah Etien
Bothepha Kgabung
Chukwudozie Ezigbalike
Ahmed El Kholei
Cheikh Fofana
Secrtariat Intrimaire charg du suivi du Volet Environnement du NEPAD (SINEPAD/ENV),
Ministre de lEnvironnement et de lAssainissement, Senegal
Poornima Kirloskar-Saini
Mamadou Fofana
Jean Folack
Souleymane Konate
Agricultural Research Institute for Development (IRAD), IRAD Polyvalent Research Institute for
Development, Cameroon
Regina Folorunsho
Kasim Kulindwa
Anthony T. Forbes
Wolfgang Kper
Keith Forbes
Elton Laisi
Elizabeth Gavin
Centre for Development Research and Information in Southern Africa (CEDRISA), Malawi
Birguy Lamizana
Heshham A. Ghany
Kate Lance
Sarjoo Gooroochurn
Services Sans Frontires, Mauritius
USGS/EROS Data Centre and Global Spatial Data Infrastructure Secretariat, USA
Earth Resources Observation and Science (EROS) Data Centre / US Geological Survey (USGS)
Sives Govender
Ousmane Laye
Elizabeth Gowa
Michel Laverdire
Kolethi Gumbo
Dagnachew Legesse
Jacob Gyamfi-Aidoo
Hashali Hamukuaya
Etienne Louw
Benguela Current Large Marine Ecosystem (BCLME) Living Marine Resources Activity Centre,
Namibia
Hans R. Herren
Irene G. Lungu
Antonio Hoguane
Clever Mafuta
Qongqong Hoohlo
National Environment Secretariat, Ministry of Tourism, Environment and Culture, Lesotho
Bettina Horstmann
Nathaniel Makoni
Pascal Hounou
Network for Environment and Sustainable Development in Africa (NESDA), Cte dIvoire
Geoffrey Howard
Victor Mamoneke
IUCN The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Eastern Africa Regional Office (EARO), Kenya
Chris Huggins
Nelson Manda
Abdulrahman S. Issa
Bora Masumbuko
Network for Environment and Sustainable Development in Africa (NESDA), Cte dIvoire
Jane Mbendo
Christopher O. Justice
Neema Mbeyu
Kenya
Harry Kaane
Kagumaho Kakuyo
A. Mmochi
Patricia Kameri-Mbote
Hezron Mogaka
Alioune Kane
Rajendranath Mohabeer
Consultant, Kenya
K. A. Koranteng
Peter Lowry
535
536
Ali Mohamed
Jennifer Mohamed-Katerere
James Ochanda
Washington Ochola
Andrew Mondoka
Eric Odada
Pedro Monteiro
G.B.A. Okelo
Stanley Mubako
Tom O. Okurut
Ambrose Mugisha
Alfred Opere
Joseph Opio-Odongo
M. Osore
Charles Musisi
Wilber Ottichilo
Regional Centre for Services in Surveying Mapping and Remote Sensing, Kenya
Constansia Musvoto
Mamadou Ouattara
Francis Mutua
Lekan Oyebande
Evans Mwangi
Kevin Pietersen
Lawrence Mwangi
Consultant, France
Wagaki Mwangi
Kim Prochazka
Consultant, Kenya
Emmanuel Naah
Justin Prosper
Medhat Nagi
Weishuang Qu
Arab Office for Youth and Environment (AOYE),Arab Network Environment and Development
(RAED), Egypt
Stephen Nanthambwe
Consultant, Mauritius
Strategic Planning, Gender and Policy Harmonization Department, SADC Secretariat, Botswana
Jeanny Raharimampionona
M. Oliver Nasirwa
Berthin Rakotonirina
John L. Roberts
Jan Robinson
Mayar Sabet
Fatou Ndoye
Centre for Environment and Development for the Arab Region and Europe (CEDARE), Egypt
Network for Environment and Sustainable Development in Africa (NESDA), Cte dIvoire
Anjali Saini
Ahmed El Nemr
Consultant, Kenya
Ossama Salem
Marie Nguessan
Alioune Sall
Madiodio Niasse
Melita Samoilys
LUnion mondiale pour la nature (UICN) Le Bureau rgional de lUICN pour lAfrique de lOuest
(UICN-BRAO), Burkina Faso
Marine and Coastal Ecosystems, IUCN The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Eastern Africa
Regional Office (EARO), Kenya
Deborah L. Nightingale
D. Sanga
Sustainable Development Unit, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA), Ethiopia
Orlando Nino-Fluck
Bob Scholes
Musisi Nkambwe
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) Natural Resources and the Environment,
South Africa
Craig A. Schwabe
Stefan Schwarzer
Andr Nonguierma
Consultant, UNEP/GRID-Geneva
Mohamedain E. Seif-Elnasr
Dorothy Nyamhanza
El Hadji Sne
Sachooda Ragoonaden
Dakar, Senegal
Yohanna W. Shaghude
Nirmal Shah
Regional Coordinator Eastern and Southern Africa International Maritime Organization (IMO),
Nairobi, Kenya
Luc Sigha-Nkamdjou
Centre de Recherches Hydrologiques de PIRGM, Cameroon
George M. Sikoyo
Kenya
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Nairobi, Kenya
Maria Snoussi
Senior Environment and Land Management Expert, Southern African Development Community
(SADC) Secretariat, Gaborone, Botswana
Emilia Sunkutu
Georgina Tackie
Senior Programme Analyst Industry, Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa,
(COMESA), Lusaka, Zambia
Fanuel Tagwira
Faculty of Agriculture and Natural Resources,Africa University, Zimbabwe
Susan Taljaard
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR), South Africa
Consultant, Cameroon
Lenka Thamae,
Head, Sustainable Development Unit, United Nations Economic Commission for Africa (ECA),
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
IUCN The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Regional Office for Southern Africa (ROSA),
Zimbabwe
Assize Tour
Centre de Suivi Ecologique (CSE), Senegal
Oussouby Tour
LEAD Afrique Francophone, Senegal
Dan Tunstall
World Resource Institute (WRI),Washington D.C., USA
Gloria Ujor
Director, GIS Centre, Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC), Pretoria, South Africa
Greg Wagner
University of Dar es Salaam,Tanzania
Judi Wakhungu
African Centre for Technology Studies (ACTS), Kenya
Philips Weech
United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), Germany
Kelly West
IUCN The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Regional Office for Eastern Africa (EARO), Kenya
Tesfaye Woldeyes
Environmental Protection Authority, Ethiopia
Alaphia Wright
University of Zimbabwe, Zimbabwe
Yongxin Xu
University of Western Cape, South Africa
Amoyaw-Osei Yaw
Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana
Humberto Zaqueu
Mozambique Debt Group, Mozambique
UNEP
Peter Acquah
Hugo Ahlenius
Johannes Akiwumi
Christopher 0. Ambala
Anna Balance
Robert Barnes
Ivar Baste
Marion Cheatle
Jacquie Chenje
Munyaradzi Chenje
Gerry Cunningham
Volodymyr Demkin
Salif Diop
Norberto Fernandez
Marianne Folgen
Tessa Goverse
Beth Ingraham
Velma Kiome
Johnson Kitheka
Angele Luh
Timo Maukonen
Patrick Mmayi
Abdel Monem
John Mugwe
Henry Ndede
Nick Nuttall
Akpezi Ogbuigwe
Valerie Rabesahala
Audrey Ringler
Charles Sebukeera
Mohamed Sessay
David Simpson
Morten Sorensen
Skou Tour
Frank Turyatunga
Njeri Wamukonya
Mick Wilson
Jaap van Woerden
537
538
INDEX
Africa Convention on the Conservation of Nature
and Natural Resources (ACCNNR) 22, 23, 27,
30, 238, 281, 346
Africa Environment Outlook 1 (AEO-1) 413-14
Africa Forest Law Enforcement and Governance
(AFLEG) 398
Africa Stockpiles Programme (ASP) 366
Africa Water Vision 119-20, 151
African Biosafety Model Law 322
African Biotechnology Stakeholders Forum (ABSF)
317
African Ministerial Conference on the Environment
(AMCEN) 22, 23, 288, 378-9, 493-4
African Ministerial Council on Water (AMCOW)
378-9, 493
African Peer Review Mechanism (APRM) 291, 405
African Renaissance Institute 379
African Union (AU)
creation of 22
peace objectives 377
policy initiatives 24, 27
Agenda 21
chemicals management 367
peace objectives 378
poverty eradication 27
agriculture
Central Africa 99
chemical use 312, 352-3, 355-7
coastal regions 161
drought-resistant crops 62
Eastern Africa 100-2
food production 83-4
and forest areas 204-6
future strategies 324-5
and invasive alien species 336-7
land resources 78
Northern Africa 104-5
policy responses 84-5
productivity 14-15, 82-5
research priorities 326-7
Southern Africa 106-7
threats to 91-5
urban areas 269
Western Africa 109-10
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 110-11
see also genetically modified crops
agroforestry 208
Ai-Ais/Richtersveld Transfrontier Park 385
aid
food aid 305-7
interlinkages 273-4
AIDS see HIV/AIDS
air pollution 48, 51, 59-60
Eastern Africa 65
Northern Africa 66-8
Western Africa 71
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 73-4
alien species see invasive alien species (IAS)
amphibians, biodiversity 228, 229
Angola, conflict 388-9, 396-7
animals, biodiversity 227-8, 243
aquaculture
coastal areas 159, 161
invasive alien species 337-8
Southern Africa 179, 181-2
Tanzania 28
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 189
Arab Maghreb Union (AMU) 28, 322, 380
arable lands, resources 78
aridity, Western Africa 109
atmospheric resources
challenges to development 61-4
Eastern Africa 64-6
endowments and opportunities 51-8
inventory 48-51
Northern Africa 66-8
policy options 487-8
scenario analysis 444-9
food production
and biodiversity 107, 236
and climate change 62
Southern Africa 108
storage systems 62
termite damage 358
food security
and chemicals 356-7
and genetically modified crops 307, 310-12
and invasive alien species 336-7
and land resources 83-5
Southern Africa 109
and water resources 127
foreign direct investment (FDI) 274
forests and woodlands
biodiversity 232-3, 241-2
Central Africa 209-11
challenges to development 202-6
and conflicts 204, 221, 397-8, 399, 497
Eastern Africa 211-13
endowments and opportunities 196-202
fires 95, 206, 242
invasive alien species 333
Northern Africa 213-16
policy options 497-9
reforestation 207-8
resources 78, 196
Southern Africa 216-19
strategies for development 206-9
Western Africa 219-21
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 221-3
woodlots 448
see also deforestation
fortress world scenario
atmospheric resources 446-7
Central Africa 460-1
characteristics 416-17
coastal and marine environments 452
Eastern Africa 455-7
land resources 433-4
Northern Africa 465-6
water resources 441-2
Western Africa 471-2
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 474-5
fossil fuels 52
freshwater
biodiversity 229, 232
see also water resources
fuel
biomass 60
charcoal 198-9, 232
fossil fuels 52
woodfuel 198-9, 220, 448, 498
future projections see scenario analysis
gas reserves
flaring 279, 445
offshore 156-7, 161, 172, 177, 183-4
gender relations
conflicts 376
divisions of labour 8-9
inequalities 423
water resources 130-1
genetic resources 236-7
genetic use restriction technologies (GURT) 314
genetically modified (GM) crops
and biodiversity 312-14
biosafety organizations 525-7
biotechnology 300-1
concerns 306, 308-9, 413-14
drivers and constraints 307-9
ethics 315-16
food aid 305-7
future 324-8
global growth of 301-3
human health concerns 314-15
opportunities and risks 309-16
policy options 502-4
policy responses 316-17, 319-24
research and development 303-5
research priorities 326-7
responses to 316-24
risk analysis 317-19, 325-6
trade 309-10
Gini index 35
global community, partnerships 31-2
global cooperation, invasive alien species control
343
539
540
Kenya
genetically modified crops 304
Green Belt Movement (GBM) 207
rainwater harvesting 58
water resources 137-8
Kgalagadi Desert 81
knowledge gaps, water resources 127
Kyoto Protocol 37, 65, 98
labour, gendered divisions 8-9
Lake Chad 132-3, 242
Lake Malawi 143
Lake Maryout 174
Lake Victoria 137, 138
Lake Victoria Environmental Management
Programme (LVEMP) 138
land degradation
biodiversity threat 250-1
causes 92
Central Africa 99-100
Eastern Africa 102-3
interlinkages approach 282-3
and invasive alien species 336-7
Northern Africa 105
scenario analysis 438
Southern Africa 108
Western Africa 110, 250-1
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 111
land resources
Central Africa 98-100
challenges to development 91-8
and conflict 388
Eastern Africa 100-3
endowments and opportunities 82-90
governance 95-6
legal frameworks 96-7
Northern Africa 104-5
overview 78-81
policy options 488-91
scenario analysis 428-39
Southern Africa 106-9
values of 82, 83
Western Africa 109-10
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 110-12
land tenure
Eastern Africa 103
Southern Africa 107-8
land-use management 96
landmines 393, 395, 400
Large Marine Ecosystems (LMEs) 156, 178, 183
lead, poisoning 362
leaded petrol 63
legal framework
chemical management 370
genetically modified crops 327
interlinkages 286-7
land resources 96-7
Liberia, conflict 397-8, 399-400
Libya
air pollution 67
Great Man-Made River (GMMR) project 140
lighting, sunlight 57
literacy 11
livelihood diversification 15-17
livelihoods, sustainable 18-19
livestock production
and biodiversity 232
and invasive alien species 336-7
Southern Africa 107
locusts 93-4, 356-7
logging 204, 228, 241-2, 278
see also forests and woodlands
Madagascar
climate change 72
see also Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands
malaria 10, 69, 113, 149, 359-60
mangrove forests
Eastern Africa 168
resources 156, 159-60
Southern Africa 177, 178-9
threats to 163, 170
Western Africa 183
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 186-7
Mano River Womens Network (MARWOPNET) 25
manufacturing, productivity 15
marine environments see coastal and marine
environments
market forces scenario
atmospheric resources 444-5
Central Africa 459-60
characteristics 415-16
coastal and marine environments 449-51
Eastern Africa 454-5
land resources 430-1
Northern Africa 463-4
water resources 439-40
Western Africa 469-70
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 473-4
Mauritania
biodiversity 183
Diawling National Park 251
Mauritius
climate change 72
land use 112
see also Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands
Mauritius Strategy 150, 189
medicinal plants 199-200, 233
Mediterranean, coastal zone 172
mercury, health impacts 17
migration
conflict-induced 6
development impacts 7
economic impacts 16-17
health professionals 10-11
Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
environmental linkages 280-5
health-related 266
land management 114
poverty reduction 485
and Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers 276-7
progress towards 482-3, 520-3
and scenario analysis 414
targets 519
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 282
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) 334
mineral resources
coastal 157, 161, 178, 182
see also mining
mining
artisan mining 16, 17
exports 15
541
542
T21 413
Tana River dam 171
Tanzania
aquaculture 28
obsolete pesticides 365-6
tea 233
technology
and development 17-18, 39-42
environmental impacts 269-70
and scenario analysis 424-5
telecommunications 18, 293
termites 339, 357-9
timber
and conflicts 397-8, 399
products 197-8
see also forests and woodlands
Toshka project 141
tourism
coastal areas 157-8, 161, 164, 169, 173-4,
184, 187
development of 113
Eastern Africa 169
forests and woodlands 201
impacts of 88-90
and invasive alien species 339
nature-based 235-6
Northern Africa 105, 173-4, 175
and water resources 125, 175
Western Africa 184
Western Indian Ocean (WIO) islands 187, 188
trade
chemicals 353-4, 369
genetically modified crops 309-10
inequalities 292
interlinkages 272-3
intra-regional 290
and invasive alien species 333
Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property
Rights (TRIPS) 23
traditional knowledge 11, 40, 41-2, 200
transboundary cooperation
chemical management 366-72
Are there special issues, which affect the environment and development,
that require immediate attention and new approaches?