Ecological Modelling, 69 (1993) 267-285

267

Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam

Characterisation of mixing patterns

in an anaerobic digester
by means of tracer curve analysis
Lynn C. Smith a, D.J. Elliot b and A. James b
a Binnie Environmental Ltd., Arlesey, UK
b University of Newcastle upon Tyne, Newcastle, UK
(Received 20 May 1992; accepted 27 October 1992)

ABSTRACT
Smith, L.C., Elliot, D.J. and James, A., 1993. Characterisation of mixing patterns in an
anaerobic digester by means of tracer curve analysis. Ecol. Modelling, 69: 267-285.
A range of methods for analysing tracer response curves was evaluated for determining
mixing patterns in a pilot-scale contact process anaerobic digester. The methods considered
included point indices, analytical models such as the dispersion model, and combined
models describing different hydraulic zones. In addition, a computer simulation model was
developed to quantify the mixing zones and the interaction between them. The methods
were compared for (i) ease of use, (ii) accuracy, (iii) consistency, and (iv) application over a
wide range of operating conditions.
The ease of use of the point indices was offset by their inconsistency and inaccuracy in
several cases. Combined models were sensitive to small changes in the form of the tracer
response curve. The results from the simulation model showed a consistent pattern with
changing operational conditions. A further development of the model was proposed to
enable rapid analysis of tracer curves which would promote its use among design engineers.

INTRODUCTION

Knowledge of the mixing pattern in a continuous flow wastewater

treatment plant is valuable at both the design stage and during operation to

Correspondence to (present address): L.C. Smith, Binnie Consultants Limited, 11th Floor,
New Town Tower, Pak Hok Ting Street, Shatin, New Territories, Hong Kong.
0304-3800/93/$06.00 1993 - Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved

268

L.C. SM1TH ET AL.

determine the effectively mixed proportion of the reactor and to assess the
value of different operational procedures as a means of optimizing process
performance.
Several methods are available for measuring the degree of mixing in a
continuous flow system, based on the residence time distribution (RTD) of
material in the system (Dankwerts, 1953). The R T D is usually measured by
injecting a pulse of tracer into the vessel and measuring its concentration in
the effluent over time. The resulting exit age distribution curve is termed
the C curve. In this paper C curves are presented in their normalised form
(Levenspiel, 1962) for comparative purposes.
For design purposes, it is useful to quantify the proportions of the vessel
which exhibit different flow regimes. Bischoff and McCracken (1966) described the intensity function which provides qualitative information on the
presence or absence of a dead zone, but gives no quantitative measure of
the volume of this region. Zoltek and Gram (1975) analysed mixing patterns in different regions of digesters using probes, a technique which has
been criticised by Smart (1978) and Monteith and Stephenson (1981) as
being inaccurate.
Methods of analysing tracer curves to determine mixing patterns in a
vessel have been described by a number of authors (Cholette and Cloutier,
1959; Levenspiel, 1962; Bischoff and McCracken, 1966; Thirumurthi, 1969;
Monteith and Stephenson, 1981). They include single point indices; models
which describe the degree of dispersion in the system; and division of the
curve into regions representing different flow regimes.
The range of methods available creates confusion when evaluating
mixing characteristics, particularly when contradictory results are obtained
using different models. The aim of this paper is to describe the conventional methods available for analysing tracer curves and to evaluate each
method in terms of: (a) ease of use; (b) accuracy; (c) consistency; and (d)
applicability to a range of situations and conditions.
The results from these methods were compared with those obtained
from a simulation model developed to improve the accuracy with which
mixing patterns can be described. A comparison of methods was carried
out using the C curves from a series of tracer studies performed on an
operating pilot scale contact process.
METHODS

Tracer studies

A series of tracer studies was carried out on the SERC Pilot-Scale

Contact Process at Gloucester to assess the effect of impeller speed upon
mixing (Table 1).

MIXING

PATTERNS

IN AN ANAEROBIC

269

DIGESTER

TABLE 1
Contact process tracer studies
Criterion

Tracer study
1

Impeller speed (rpm)

Contents of reactor
TSS concn. (mg/l)
VSS concn. (mg/1)
Hydraulic retention time (h)
Recycle : feed ratio

370
Water
33.4
0

270
Sludge
2600
2200
75.2
1.58

370
Sludge
800
700
53.2
1.06

470
Sludge
3500
2800
98.0
2.06

Tracer studies were carried out using lithium chloride. A known quantity
was introduced into the feed line of the system over as short a time as
possible. The effluent lithium concentration was analysed using a flame
photometer (Jenway Model PF77).
The C curves were analysed using the following techniques:

Point analyses
The point indices described below are defined in Fig. 1.
time for 10% of the injected tracer to pass out in the effluent
tl0
time for 90% of the injected tracer to pass out in the effluent
t90
tp
time to reach peak or maximum tracer concentration (modal
value)
tg
time to reach centroid of curve or actual mean detention time

theoretical
retention time T

C
0

/C

curve

0
o

p-

tl0

tp

th t~
time after injection

Fig. 1. Definition of point analyses.

too

270

L.C. SM I T H E T AL,

th

median time or time for 50% of the injected tracer to pass out in
the effluent
T
theoretical hydraulic detention time
t9o/tlo
Morrill Index of mixing
1 - tp/tg
index of short-circuiting

Dispersion model
The dispersion model describes a plug flow model upon which is superimposed some degree of backmixing, the magnitude of which is independent of the position within the vessel. It is based on Fick's Law of
molecular diffusion (Eq. 1.1).
dC
dzC
d--7 = 2 d x 2

(1.1)

where _9= coefficient of molecular diffusion; x = direction of flow; C =

concentration of tracer.
2 is replaced by D in the dispersion model. The dimensionless group
used to characterise this system is the dispersion number D / u L and it is
related to the system variance in Eq. 1.2.
D
o. 2 = 2u--~-

(1.2)

where o.2= variance; u = velocity through system; L = length of system;

D / u L = dispersion number.
This is accurate at low rates of dispersion, but a high rates of dispersion,
Eq. 1.3 is more accurate (Tomlinson and Chambers, 1979).
2--

uL

- 2

(1 -

(1.3)

The dispersion number varies from 0 for plug flow to ~ for a completely
mixed reactor.
An alternative approach to the dispersion model is shown in Eq. 1.4,
which calculates a dispersion coefficient from the variance and mean
retention times of the actual tracer response curve compared with the
variance and mean retention time of a tracer response curve obtained from
a flow system displaying flow distribution.

where E = dispersion coefficient; U = mean velocity of flow; o'az, t, =

variance and mean retention time of tracer response curve in plug flow

M I X I N G P A T T E R N S IN AN A N A E R O B I C D I G E S T E R

271

system; tr 2, t 2 = variance and mean retention time of actual tracer response

curve.
The dispersion coefficient is incorporated into Eq. 1.5 to calculate the C
curve expected for a specified tracer quantity, liquid velocity and vessel
geometry.
C = A 4vr4~-~

exp

4-Et

(1.5)

where C = tracer concentration; W = quantity of tracer added; A = cross

sectional area of reactor; t = time; x = distance downstream-travelled reactor length.
Tanks-in-series model
The vessel is assumed to be represented by a series of N equally sized,
completely mixed vessels. N may be calculated from the variance of the C
curve (Eq. 1.6, Model A),
1
- - = tr 2.
(1.6)
N
Equating this solution with the equation for the dispersion model gives the
analytical solution shown in Eq. 1.7 (Model B),
N-

1
1 - tp"

(1.7)

For large values of N, the residence time distribution becomes increasingly

symmetrical (Fig. 2b) and can be compared with the dispersion model (Fig.
2a). At low values of N, the models increasingly differ from each other.
The dispersion model is more accurate for small deviations from plug
flow, whereas the tanks-in-series model is preferable when the flow pattern
approaches a completely stirred tank reactor (Tomlinson and Chamber,
1979).
Combined models
Several models have been formulated to describe the flow through a
vessel in terms of distinct zones. Fluid flow patterns may include completely mixed zones, plug flow regions and channelling or dead space.
Levelspiel (1962) described mixing in terms of different portions and
volumes of ideal flow units. He produced a catalogue of C curves representing different fluid flow patterns. An example of the model used in the
subsequent analysis is illustrated in Fig. 3.
Cholette and Cloutier (1959) specified mixed and dead zones and a
short-circuiting stream within the reactor volume and divided the influent

272

L.C. SMITH ET AL.

N=9O

2"$

2"0
A

Gi.5

a
b

2"0

1-O

1"5

N-30

I-0

N.I

0-5

,.o
.O..At,SED

~.~

r,.t.

2.0

0"5

I-0

I'$

2"0

NORMALISEO TIME. e

Fig. 2. (a) Dispersion model. (b) Tanks-in-series model.

Curve a: Plug flow, D / uL = 0;
b: Small amount of dispersion, D / u L = 0.002;
c: Intermediate amount of dispersion, D / u L = 0.02;
d: Large amount of dispersion, D / u L = 0.2;
e: Completely mixed, D / uL = ~.
b e t w e e n t h e s e z o n e s (Fig. 4). M o n t e i t h a n d S t e p h e n s o n (1981) a d a p t e d this
m o d e l to give Eq. 1.8.
-v 1-exp
CO

0m

+ Vz6t=O

(1.8)

w h e r e C = exit t r a c e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n at t i m e t; C O = t r a c e r c o n c e n t r a t i o n at
t i m e 0 ( a s s u m i n g c o m p l e t e mixing); v 1 = f l o w r a t e t h r o u g h m i x e d z o n e ;
v 2 = s h o r t - c i r c u i t i n g f l o w r a t e ; V = r e a c t o r v o l u m e ; 0m = m e a n h y d r a u l i c
r e t e n t i o n t i m e for m i x e d z o n e ; v = t o t a l f l o w r a t e ; 6t = d i r a c d e l t a f u n c t i o n .
T h e s l o p e o f t h e d e c a y p o r t i o n o f I n ( C / C o) a g a i n s t n o r m a l i s e d t i m e
p r o v i d e s a m e a s u r e o f t h e m i x e d z o n e r e t e n t i o n time, Om, f r o m w h i c h t h e
f l o w r a t e s a n d z o n e v o l u m e s c a n b e c a l c u l a t e d (Fig, 5).

Computer simulation model

A s i m u l a t i o n m o d e l w a s d e v e l o p e d to d e s c r i b e t h e flow p a t t e r n w h i c h
m o s t closely a p p r o x i m a t e d t h e a c t u a l C c u r v e s o b t a i n e d . T h e a p p r o a c h

M I X I N G P A T T E R N S IN A N A N A E R O B I C

_ " ~

273

DIGESTER

Fraction of vessel volume

actively mixed

=v~.. =VvV,

" ~

Area beyond cut-off point

= 2 equal to~/~_

Measured area only slightly

t~different from unity = ~_
ighr~iiii: ii i i eil~
II
w

beRelin P~e~n~d:~edntnt

( "kL..~r"--'~Shift of O from unity

I~ [
measuresdeodwater
region

VV

~Areo
Va

v.L_

va

ignored

in tail

is

ver~ smoll but contributes

much in shifting g from unity

Fig. 3. Tracer curve analysis (Levenspiel, 1962).

used was similar to that for other combined models, visualising the vessel
consisting of distinct zones. However, additional features of the model
improve the accuracy with which it described the mixing characteristics of a
vessel.
The basic unit of the model was a completely stirred tank reactor
(CSTR). The mass balance equation for the tracer was solved using a 4th
order R u n g e - K u t t a technique. A flow diagram of the model is shown in
Fig. 6.
In the contact process, three zones may be distinguished. A small initial
mixed zone is included to account for the short delay in the maximum
tracer concentration appearing in the effluent. This has been previously
ignored in conventional methods of analysis. The flow passes from this
initial zone into a large main mixed zone (the effectively mixed volume).
The majority of the influent passes through only the mixed regions.
However, a portion (QD) passes into a 'dead' zone which is represented by
a CSTR through which the rate of flow is greatly reduced. The delay in the
appearance of the tracer from this zone accounts for the 'tail' effect often
observed in tracer response curves from mixed vessels (Bischoff and McCracken, 1966; Stevens et al., 1986). A dispersion coefficient is used to
describe the cross boundary movement of tracer from the mixed zones into
the 'dead' zone.

274

L.C. S M I T H E T A L .

feed shortcircuitinc
=1 - n
1 -

-- - - Completely mixed tank

Tank with shortcircuiting

"~\

C/Co = ne-''Vmv
\

Slope

-n/m

\,

Y axis intercept = n
= fraction of feed
entering mixed zone

,\,

0
time

1--~
~,N~,

y 9xis intercept = mixed zone volume

Slope

2
Norm.

,xedzone1

Completely mixed tank

Tank with partial plug flow

"\

C/Co =

e -'/~"

(-/~

- o

/p,og zone

m~

I.

1
0 4
0

= mixed zone volume

\l \
2

Norm. time
Fig. 4. Tracer curves analysis (Cholette and C]outier, 1959).

Initial estimates of the zone volumes were made from values of the C
curve such as the peak position, the gradient of the downward slope and of
the tail region of the C curve. The values of all parameters were changed
in sequence to obtain the best-fitting simulated curve to the actual data. An
optimization programme was used in the final stage to minimise the sum of
squares between actual and simulated data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A typical C curve from a tracer study carried out on the contact process
is shown in Fig. 7. The form of the curve closely resembles the C curve
expected from a CSTR. A more-detailed evaluation of the mixing pattern
in each case was obtained using the methods described previously. Unfortunately, operational difficulties constrained the times at which tracer
studies were carried out resulting in differences in flow conditions and
sludge concentrations. The resulting set is not ideal, however, certain
inferences may be made from the analysis of the data.

MIXING

PATTERNS

IN AN ANAEROBIC

275

DIGESTER

C/Co = (vm,V/v2)exp-t/tm

vz/v

--Vm

o
L)

Y axis intercept = vm*V~s!9pe

v

osr6~

l
0

Norm. time

mixed zone HRT

Vm

m)exp(-~/~ m

vm

O)

Y axis intercept =_Y._

Vm
I

0
Norm.

= t*

Vm
V

time

Fig. 5. Tracer curve analysis (Monteith and Stephenson, 1981).

QR

QF

initial mixed
zone

I~ k

.\ \

//

,,~Q~ + Q"" Q"

diS:dlindbVDeen \ \ ~

'1 "
dead zone
Fig. 6. Flow diagram of simulation model.

main mixed
zone

~-- QF

276

L.C. S M I T H E T AL.

1.0-

t"

C
0
U

E
--=
t-

0.5

..J

z 0.0
0

Normolised

time

Fig. 7. Typical C curve from contact process.

Point analyses and analytical models

The effect of impeller speeed on the point analyses and analytical
models is shown in Fig. 8. Several of the point values indicate that as the
impeller speed increases, the degree of mixing correspondingly decreases,
for example, a decrease in the dispersion number, and an increase in
t9o/tlo. In contrast, a decrease in t J T and in the number of tanks in series

275 "-~

0.110

25.0

0.105
Y=-O,0184X+30.693

o
o 0.100

200

0.095

17.5

"C.

2.80

.__.-~

2.60
Y=-O.O00819X+2.822

2.40
2.20

Y=O.O0139X+0.7017

I ~

1.2

~_E

1.0
0.8

i"

" 0.006

,r---y=-gE-6X+O.O0879
v

~ ,
~0

0.004

0.002

0.9

E
o

1.~

Y=O.OOO445X+0.5497

1.0075

E
1,~
~

0.8

Y=-5.00023E-~+

3.00-

"~

v
0.6

170

"7 .

270

.370

470

Impeller

speed

(r.p.m.)

170

270

370

470

Impeller

speed

(r.p.m.)

Fig. 8. Effect of impeller speed on point analysis values during pilot-scale contact process
tracer studies.

277

M I X I N G P A T F E R N S IN AN A N A E R O B I C D I G E S T E R

(Model B) suggest that mixing is e n h a n c e d by an increase in impeller

speed.
These contradictory result suggest that point analyses are inadequate for
distinguishing small differences between flow patterns in a vessel. It may be
argued that if the change in the flow pattern is small, accurate characterisation of the flow pattern is unnecessary. However, small differences which
occur at one scale of reactor may be more important at a larger scale. Pilot
scale reactors are often operated for the purpose of determining the
controlling factors in the process.
The effect of the presence of sludge on the mixing patterns is shown by
comparing studies 1 and 3, both performed at an impeller speed of 370
rpm. The point analyses again show contradictory results. The higher tp
value when water was present indicates a reduced degree of mixing. This is
supported by an increase in the Morrill Index and the n u m b e r of tanks and
a decrease in the dispersion number. In contrast, the dead zone volume
(described by tg/T) is smallest in the study with water present, indicating
that the presence of sludge increases the a m o u n t of dead space and
therefore reduces the effectively mixed volume.

Combined models
The results of the tracer curve analysis using the various combined
models are shown in Table 2. Applying the model described by Levenspiel
(1962) indicates that the vessel was least well mixed when only water was

TABLE 2
Results from pilot-scale contact process tracer studies using combined models
Tracer study
1

Impeller speed (rpm)

370

270

370

470

Method

volume

volume

volume

volume

Levenspiel
(1962)

4912
1088
2.54
2934
3066
1.97
1489
5796

82
18
85
49
51
66
74
97
88

6295
1005
1.13
6697
603
1.33
5009
6919

86
14
85
92
8
100
91
95
98

6227
1073
1.58
7113
187
1.88
3780
6604

85
15
84
97
3
100
97
90
100

6617
683
0.87
1190
6110
0.18
1287
6803

91
9
85
16
84
18
18
93
91

Vm
Vd
vm
Monteith and Vm
Stephenson Vd
(1981)
vm
tm
Cholette and Vm
Cloutier
fm
(1959)

Vm = mixed volume (1); Vd = dead volume (1); vm = mixed zone tlowrate (1/min); tm =
mixed zone retention time (min); fm = fraction of feed passing through mixed zone.

278

L.C. SM I T H E T AL.

present. This was also shown by the m e t h o d described by Monteith and

Stephenson (1981). Levenspiel's m e t h o d indicates that the largest main
mixed zone and the smallest dead zone occurred during the tracer study at
the highest impeller speed. Using Monteith and Stephenson's method, a
large degree of short-circuiting was present during this study, resulting and
in a very small completely mixed zone. This result is due to the dependence
of the m e t h o d on the value of the Y-axis intercept for the best fitting line to
the decay portion of the C curve. Above 1.0 the vessel is considered to
comprise a mixed zone and a dead volume. Below 1.0 a fraction of the
influent shortcircuits directly to the effluent. The close approximation of
the influent shortcircuits directly to the effluent. The close approximation
of the study at 470 rpm to a CSTR resulted in an intercept value marginally
below 1.0, resulting in a major change in the interpretation of the flow
pattern. This m e t h o d is particularly sensitive to the value of the intercept.
Analysis using Cholette and Cloutier's (1959) m e t h o d showed that the
largest mixed zone occurred at the lowest impeller speed (270 rpm) in the
presence of sludge. This zone increased to 97% of the reactor volume in

TABLE 3
Computer simulation results from pilot-scale contact process tracer studies
Tracer study
1

Impeller speed (rpm)

370

Parameter

volume

Mixed zone 1 (VM1)

Mixed zone 2 (VM2)
Dead zone (VD)

6
5 200
794

0.1
14
87.0 5956
12.9
30

Feed flowrate (QF)

Recycle flowrate (QR)
Total flowrate (Q)
Dead zone flow
coefficient
Dispersion coefficient
(KB)
Flow rate through dead
zone (QD * Q)
HRT of dead zone
% VD/QD
VM1/Q (Mixingtime)

270

370

470

volume %

volume %

volume %

0.23
25
99.3 5960
0.47
15

0.4
15
99.3 5975
0.3
10

0.25
99.6
0.15

2.99
0.00
2.99

1.33
2.10
3.43

1.88
2.00
3.88

1.02
2.10
3.12

0.10

0.002

0.001

0.0007

0.14

0.2

0.32

0.45

0.299

0.0069

0.0039

0.0022

2656
129
2.01

4 373
235
4.08

Volumes in 1; flowrates in 1/min; times in min.

3 866
300
6.44

4 579
214
4.81

MIXING

PATrERNS

IN AN ANAEROBIC

DIGESTER

279

the water-only study. The fraction of feed which passed into the mixed
zone was least in the water-only study, suggesting a large degree of
short-circuiting. These results contradict the observations using the mixed
models described previously.

Computer simulation model

The evaluation of the contact process mixing characteristics using the
simulation model developed by the authors is shown in Table 3 and Fig. 9.
An important difference between this model and those previously described in the presence of an additional mixed zone (VM1) to simulate the
delay to the peak tracer concentration. This was found to be an important
parameter in determining the mixing time or the time to reach uniformity
in the main mixed zone. VM1 was smallest in the water study (study 1)
indicating more rapid mixing. The presence of sludge in the reactor
marginally increased this volume but there was no clear pattern with
changing impeller speed.
The effect of an increase in the impeller speed was evident from the
change in other model parameters: (a) the main mixed zone (VM2)
increased in volume; (b) the dead zone volume (VD) decreased; (c) the
dispersion coefficient (KB) increased; (d) the flowrate through the 'dead'
volume decreased.
The effectively mixed volume of the vessel increased as the impeller
speed increased, which is confirmed by the reduction in the dead zone
volume and the increase in the degree of dispersion. The reduction in
flowrate through the dead zone appears to be an anomalous result. This
may be due to the difficulty of accurately modelling the tail region of the C
curve (Young and Young, 1988). An additional factor affecting the degree
of mixing is the sludge concentration. The bacterial suspension alters the
viscous characteristics of the fluid. Sludge is a pseudoplastic fluid, which
means that its viscosity decreases with increasing shear rate (or impeller
speed). The sludge concentration was lowest during tracer study 2 (370
rpm). The hydraulic retention time of the dead zone was lowest during this
study and highest during the study at 470 rpm when the total solids
concentration was almost five times higher. This indicates that the solids
concentration can have a significant effect on the mixing characteristics of
the vessel.
The dead zone during the water study was unexpectedly large compared
with the volume during the tracer studies with sludge present. However,
the flowrate through this zone was high, resulting in a dead zone retention
time much lower than during the sludge tracer studies. The nature of the
fluid being mixed affected the mixing patterns which developed.

280

L.C. SM I T H E T AL.

1 O0 -

E
=
-6
>

99"
Y=O.OO149X+98.845

"0

98'

97
E

0.6

-6
o

0.3

"0

0.0
E
.~- 0 . 0 0 9

y=x-Z~,677.63
0

0.006

tO
N

0.003

"0
0

"
~"

0.000

--7

0.5
Y=O.O0125X-0.1392

~,,I~*

~2
o
U

0.3

0.0
170

I
I
270
370
Impeller speed (r,p.m.)

I
470

Fig. 9. Effect of i m p e l l e r s p e e d on c o m p u t e r s i m u l a t i o n m o d e l p a r a m e t e r s for p i l o t - s c a l e

c o n t a c t p r o c e s s tracer studies.

The mixing time during the tracer studies when sludge was present
showed no correlation with impeller speed. Mixing time is dependent upon
the value of VM1. The discontinuity of sampling during the tracer study
limits the accuracy of determining the peak tracer concentration upon
which the volume of VM1 depends. The increased mixing times compared

281

M I X I N G P A T T E R N S IN AN A N A E R O B I C D I G E S T E R

with the water study result from the viscous nature of the sludge suspension.
COMPARISON OF MODELS

Table 4 summarises the conclusions about mixing pattern in the contact

process using different methods.
These results illustrate the problem of evaluating the mixing characteristics of a stirred vessel using point analyses or combined models based on
division of the C curve. Use of a single m e t h o d can produce erroneous
results, while comparing a variety of methods can give confusing and
contradictory results. It is essential when using a certain m e t h o d of analysis
that the user is aware of the basis of the model and the meaning of the
result.
The point analyses are based on single values from the C curve which
attempt to describe the degree of mixing in the reactor. The limitation of
the point analyses is that they cannot take into account changing conditions
such as flowrate through the vessel or the ratio of r e c y c l e : f e e d flowrates.
Their use is therefore limited to studies where all conditions except the
p a r a m e t e r being studied are unchanged.

TABLE 4
Summary of results from different methods of tracer curve analysis
Increased impeller speed implies increased
mixing

Increasing impeller speed implies decreased

mixing

tp

Morrill Index
Tanks in series (Model A)

1 -

tp/tg

Tanks in series (Model B)

Levenspiel (1962)

Monteith and Stephenson (1981)

Cholette and Cloutier (1959)

Computer simulation model-larger VM2

-smaller VD
Water is more completely mixed than sludge Sludgeis more completely mixed than water

tg/T
Morrill Index

tp
1- tp/tg

Tanks in series (Models A and B)

Dispersion number
Cholette and Cloutier (1959)
Levenspiel (1962)
Monteith and Stephenson (1981)
Computer simulation model-shorter
Computer simulation model-larger main
retention time
mixed volume
dead zone
(VM2)

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L.C. S M I T H E T A L .

The dispersions and tanks-in-series models have been criticized by

Naumann and Buffham (1983) for being too generalised over the whole
system. They do not consider the variable types of flow regime in different
regions of the vessel.
The contradictory results using the combined models (1981) are due to
the sensitivity of these models to the shape of the C curve. Monteith and
Stephenson's (1981) method assumes that the first point is in the highest
tracer concentration. This was not true in the present series of tracer
response curves and there was a degree of subjectivity in evaluating the
decay portion of the curve. All small difference in the value of the intercept
can result in a large difference in the estimated volumes of zones and the
extent of shortcircuiting.
Levenspiel's method illustrates the fact that if the peak tracer concentration occurs within a short time compared with the mean hydraulic retention
time, the system is usually assumed to be completely mixed. This oversimplifies the true mixing characteristics of the system.
The computer simulation model results showed a consistent pattern of
increased mixing with an increased impeller speed. Several of the model
parameters confirmed this trend, despite the different solids concentrations
between studies, a factor which could not be accounted for without further
studies. This model has several advantages over the conventional methods
of analysis:
(a) The finite time over which the pulse injection of tracer occurred may
be modelled precisely. (Analytical methods of analysis assume an
instantaneous injection)
(b) Fluctuating flowrates during the study may be accurately simulated.
(c) Different operating conditions between studies, such as the recycle : feed
ratio, may also be incorporated into the model.
(d) Additional zones were readily accommodated and dispersion processes
occurring at the boundaries of different zones were modelled.
(e) The conceptual zones in the model may be related to physical processes.
DISCUSSION
An accurate evaluation of the mixing characteristics of biological systems
is required for detecting the presence of dead zones, determining the
effectively mixed volume, and relating mixing parameters to physical processes and operating conditions. The mixing pattern of a system is of
particular importance in a biological system (Murphy, 1971; Verhoff et al.,
1974). Effective substrate conversion depends upon both the presence of a
sufficient biomass concentration and effective contact between bacteria

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M I X I N G PA'Iq'ERNS IN AN A N A E R O B I C D I G E S T E R

and substrate. Smart (1978) and Monteith and Stephenson (1981) found
that inadequate mixing explained the poor performance of full-scale anaerobic digesters. They demonstrated the importance of considering mixing
patterns in reactor design.
The theory of mixing has been the subject of many texts (Uhl and Gray,
1966; Nagata, 1975; Oldshue, 1983). However, biological treatment systems
are usually designed on the basis of experience and simple indicators of
flow type.
For ease of use, point indices are superior to other methods. They have
been considered to provide quick and accurate information about mixing
patterns (Thirumurthi, 1969). Thirumurthi (1969) calculated the order of
reliability of point values and simple models (in decreasing order):
Dispersion number D/uL,

1 --

tp/tg,

tg,

tp.

The previous analysis has demonstrated that point indices can often give
misleading and confusing results. For example, the dispersion number
decreased as impeller speed increased, indicating a reduction in the degree
of mixing. Reliance upon the hydraulic retention time (HRT) as an indicator of mixing is also dangerous. The same H R T may exist in a completely
mixed system as in a vessel in which there is a short-circuiting stream and a
large dead volume. Sawyer and King (1969) recommended the use of
models which considered the form of the whole curve rather than a single
descriptive value.
The graphical models were shown in this study to give inconsistent
results due to the fluctuating operational conditions during and between
studies. The absence of transfer of flow between zones also limits in the
accuracy of these models (Bischoff and McCracken, 1966; Smart, 1978).
The simulation model presented in this paper has many advantages over
other methods. By using conceptual zones to describe the mixing process,
the different regions of flow may be quantified. Evaluation of the volume
and retention time of dead space is particularly important (Smart, 1978). In
addition, the 'zones' may be related to physical processes in the vessel. For
example, the impeller region is a zone of turbulence and rapid mixing
(Bates et al., 1966; Keairns, 1969; Oldshue, 1983) which corresponds to the
initial mixed zone in the model, VM1. The pumping capacity of the
impeller determines the velocity with which liquid leaves that region and is
dispersed throughout the vessel (Sterbacek and Tausk, 1965). The higher
circulation rate at a faster impeller speed increases the effectively mixed
volume (VM2) and reduces the degree of stagnancy (VD). Understanding
of how physical processes affect mixing is valuable in optimising the design
of system to achieve a desired flow pattern.

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L.C. SM I T H E T AL.

A disadvantage of this model is the lack of a formal m e t h o d of quantifying model parameters except by trial and error. However, certain correlations were established which facilitated p a r a m e t e r estimation. For example,
the peak position is correlated with VM1, while the gradient of the
downward slope is affected by the parameters Q D and KB (Smith, 1991).
The time required to gain an understanding of the model structure and the
effect of parameters on the form of C curves is minimal compared with the
improvement in accuracy which is achieved compared with conventional
analytical methods. The requirement for accurate information about hydraulic characteristics when designing a biological systems encourages the
widespread use of this model.
CONCLUSIONS
The ease of obtaining tracer response data is not matched by a simple,
accurate and informative method of analysis. Design engineers require
information about the type of mixing occurring under different physical
and operational conditions in order to achieve maximum process efficiency.
Analytical models do not give consistently accurate results because they
oversimplify the mixing process in a mixed system. Different flow regimes
exist within one vessel and these zones interact with each another. Combined models are based on the concept of different flow regimes, but
d e p e n d upon constant operating conditions and do not account for transport of materials across zone boundaries. The simulation model was able to
accurately describe flow patterns and indicate the important processes
occurring in the contact process. The mixed and dead volume were quantified and the transfer mechanisms also included in the flow pattern. The
model has the potential for adaptation to include hydrodynamic and kinetic
equations which will enable process performance to be predicted for a
specified set of operating conditions.
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