See

discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at:

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/235287807

The effects of facial image and cosmetic

usage on perceptions of brand
personality
ARTICLE in JOURNAL OF FASHION MARKETING AND MANAGEMENT MAY 2008
DOI: 10.1108/13612020810874863

CITATIONS

READS

20

1,421

3 AUTHORS, INCLUDING:
Hye-Shin Kim
University of Delaware
20 PUBLICATIONS 330 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE

Jaehee Jung
University of Delaware
25 PUBLICATIONS 450 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE

All in-text references underlined in blue are linked to publications on ResearchGate,

letting you access and read them immediately.

Available from: Jaehee Jung

Retrieved on: 06 January 2016

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at
www.emeraldinsight.com/1361-2026.htm

JFMM
12,2

The effects of facial image and

cosmetic usage on perceptions of
brand personality

164

Michelle Guthrie
Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, USA, and

Received August 2006

Accepted January 2007

Hye-Shin Kim and Jaehee Jung

University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, USA
Abstract
Purpose This paper seeks to examine womens perceptions of brand personality in relation to
womens facial image and cosmetic usage. This study seeks to develop a better understanding of how
various factors influence perceptions of cosmetic brands.
Design/methodology/approach An electronic survey was administered to a sample of 225
female participants at a mid-Atlantic university in the USA. The survey included items measuring
facial image, cosmetic usage, brand personality, and brand attitude. Multiple regression analyses were
conducted to determine the relationship among variables.
Findings While the brand personality of competence was found to be important across all three
brands, consumer perceptions pertaining to the remaining brand personality traits differed. This
study found that consumers facial image influenced the total quantity of cosmetics used but not the
variation in quantity in different situations. Results also indicate that a relationship exists between
facial image and brand perceptions. Also, it was found that a different group of brand personality
traits influenced brand attitude for each cosmetic brand.
Research limitations/implications By examining how facial image and cosmetic usage
determine brand perceptions, companies can improve their marketing strategies to enhance customer
satisfaction and increase their customer base. Moreover, by identifying the brand personalities that
attract consumers, companies can pin-point the characteristics customers look for in a product, which
in turn can be used to enhance brand image. Further research on different age groups and cultures
should be conducted to better understand cosmetic consumers.
Originality/value This study contributes to the body of knowledge in the area of consumer
behavior and cosmetics. From this study, a better understanding of cosmetic consumers is gained and
the results provide brand marketers with valuable information.
Keywords Brand image, Cosmetics, Consumer behaviour, Consumer satisfaction, Marketing strategy
Paper type Research paper

Journal of Fashion Marketing and

Management
Vol. 12 No. 2, 2008
pp. 164-181
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited
1361-2026
DOI 10.1108/13612020810874863

Introduction
All aspects of managing ones outward appearance are integral to the fashion process.
Rudd and Lennon (2000, p. 152) define dress as the act of choosing how and with what
items or processes to construct personal appearance. As such appearance
management behaviors include not only apparel, but also cosmetic use and other
intentional behaviors Similar to apparel, cosmetic products are applied to enhance
ones appearance and used to communicate ones style or aesthetic preference. Make-up
application complements the use of clothing to develop and complete a look. Craik
(1993, p. 158) explains that Make-up inscribes the attributes of personality onto the

social body. Therefore, makeup not only assists one in completing an overall look, but
also in conveying a positive declaration of the self (Craik, 1993). The marketing
strategies of cosmetic brands and products mirror those of apparel fashion brands,
which focus on current styles and trends that express a target groups desired image.
In Western cultures, one of the commonly recognized reasons women use cosmetics
is to improve their physical attractiveness. For example, Cash and Cash (1982) found
women to express a more positive body image and self-image when wearing makeup
compared to when not wearing makeup (Cash and Cash, 1982). According to
Creekmore (1974), clothing may act as an adaptive function that can improve ones
feelings about the self. Similarly, the confidence women feel after applying cosmetics
may encourage them to engage in this practice.
Despite the increasing demand for cosmetic products among women as well as men,
little is known about how consumer characteristics and cosmetic usage patterns
influence perceptions of cosmetic brands. This research examines womens perceptions
of brand personality in relation to womens facial image and cosmetic usage. Brand
personality, as part of brand image, associates consumers perceptions of the brand
with human characteristics in a symbolic way. By studying womens cosmetic usage
(quantity and pattern of use) in conjunction with facial image, this study seeks to
develop a better understanding of how these factors influence perceptions of and
feelings toward cosmetic brands. Finally, this study seeks to assist companies in better
understanding their consumers. Jamal and Goode (2001) state that brand managers
must manage the meanings consumers associate with their respective brands. By
examining factors which influence womens cosmetic purchase behavior, including
facial image and perceptions of brand personality, companies can identify a basis for
their marketing strategy.
Literature review
Cosmetics industry overview
The US cosmetics and toiletries industry made $33.5 billion in 2005, at the
manufacturers level, a 4.1 percent increase from the 2004 sales of $32.2 billion (Kline
and Company, 2005, 2006). Kline and Company, an international market research firm,
found that skin care was the highest selling product class, while makeup was the third
highest selling product category in the USA during 2005. In the USA, ten companies
make up 63 percent of the total cosmetics and toiletries sales. This percentage includes
the following companies evaluated in this study: Proctor and Gamblew[1] (owners of
CoverGirlw) holds 18 percent of the US market share, while Estee Lauderw (owners of
M A Cw and Cliniquew) comprises 7.5 percent of the US market share. Kline and
Company predicts the US cosmetics and toiletries industry to reach over $39 billion by
2010, increasing 3.1 percent annually from 2005 and expects skin care products to
dominate the industry in the upcoming years. Euromonitor International (2006a,b), a
market intelligence and consulting company, forecasts the US cosmetics and toiletries
market to grow 2 percent annually from 2005 to 2010. Both Kline and Company and
Euromonitor believe the demand for skin care products will increase, as baby-boomers
age and continue to seek anti-aging cosmetics. A study by Mintel International Group
Ltd (2006) also supports this finding, stating that between 2000 and 2010 the population
of women aged 45 to 64, those constituting the baby-boomer group, will increase by
approximately 30 percent. Finally, Euromonitor found color cosmetic products grew

Facial image and

cosmetic usage

165

JFMM
12,2

166

by 3 percent in 2005, with the most growth in the eye makeup category. Mintel also
found eye makeup to represent the second-largest makeup category in sales, while facial
makeup or facial treatments produced the most sales. Although the US cosmetics and
toiletry industry is presently experiencing moderate growth, this study hopes to assist
marketers by analyzing the cosmetic consumer to ultimately gain market share, increase
sales, and maintain strong and continuous growth. By identifying consumers thoughts
and behaviors, marketers can begin to understand how they choose specific cosmetic
products and brands. This allows cosmetic companies to compete more effectively and to
enhance current marketing strategies.
In the past, the USA cosmetics industry was divided into two distinct categories: the
mass merchandiser level and the department store level (Underhill, 2004). Mass
merchandisers were comprised of drug, grocery, and discounts stores (e.g. Rite Aidw,
Giantw, and Wal-Martw) and sold brands such as Revlonw, CoverGirlw, and
Maybellinew. Cosmetics sold in department stores (e.g. Lancomew, Estee Lauderw, and
Cliniquew) were more expensive giving the false perception of significantly better
quality (Underhill, 2004). The distinction between these cosmetics levels was coined
the difference between mass and class. Today, there is no longer a definitive
difference between cosmetic choices, as many women purchase them from a variety of
channels. For example, a consumer may buy CoverGirlw eye shadow from the drug
store, but M A Cw foundation from the department store.
A well-developed and established brand name is vital in the cosmetics industry. Roy
Morgan identified ten consumer segments (Roy Morgan Values Segments), often
applied to the cosmetics market. Using the value segments, a perceptual map can be
created showing the placement of specific brands in comparison to their competitors.
According to Bulace from Roy Morgan Research (Bulace, 2000)), brands can be
nurtured and their relationship with customers can be cultivated to hold an existence
like living entities in the minds of consumers. Bulace (2000) also illustrates the
relationship between brand qualities and human qualities as:
The way these brands speak (the style and tone of their advertising) determines the audience
because the way we speak, as well as what we say, determines who will listen (Bulace, 2000,
p. 20).

Brand personality
Brand perceptions are the attitudes, perspectives, and views consumers hold toward a
brand. Various traits concerning the brand may influence the development of a positive
brand attitude. Brand personality is defined as the set of human characteristics
associated with a brand (Aaker, 1997, p. 347). Brand personality, which includes
product-related attributes and symbolic associations consumers have with a brand or
product, influences brand image and brand perceptions. Using a brand personality
scale, Aaker (1997) defined five dimensions of brand personality:
(1) sincerity;
(2) excitement;
(3) competence;
(4) sophistication; and
(5) ruggedness.

Each of these five dimensions encompasses several corresponding adjectives. For

example, sincerity includes adjectives such as honesty and genuineness, whereas
ruggedness is described by strong and outdoorsy. Brand personality can be used to
differentiate a brand within a product category and provide characteristics that can be
used to market a brand. It is developed and defined by advertisers in hopes that
consumers will associate their brand with specific adjectives or imageries. When
purchasing a brand, consumers are purchasing the symbolic meaning associated with
the product in addition to the physical product. In essence, they are purchasing the
brand image they perceive to be attached to the product.
Brand personality can be used to convey ones ideal self or different versions of the
self, as well as, ones perceptions and evaluations of the brand. For example, brand
personality can be applied to an individuals own personality. Previous research has
suggested consumers prefer certain brands when the brand personality parallels the
consumers own personality or the personality they hope to achieve (Malhotra, 1981;
Sirgy, 1982). For example, Craik (1993, p. 162) explains that From the consumers
point of view, buying cosmetics is a process of matching the attributes of products with
the ideal self (persona) . . . . Brand personality also indicates how consumers judge the
brand itself and value certain characteristics over others, which may ultimately
influence their brand choice. For example, Kim (2000) found that although personality
expectations for apparel brands differed, the brand personality of competent was
found as a common characteristic for brands that were perceived favorably. Brand
personality has many advantages for marketers including an increase in consumer
preference and usage (Sirgy, 1982), an increase in consumers trust and loyalty
(Fournier, 1994), and the ability to produce emotional responses in consumers (Biel,
1993).
Aaker (1997) provides numerous implications for brand personality research. First,
for a brand to be successful, its personality must match the consumers current or ideal
human personality. This can be done by identifying the brand dimension that
describes the brand, and ensuring the personalities of this dimension are adequately
portrayed to the consumer. The ultimate goal is to ensure the brand personality
influences the consumers preference for a brand in a specific product category.
Additionally, the Brand Personality Scale (Aaker, 1997) can be used to benchmark
ones brand against competitors brands in the same product category. Companies can
easily identify the most successful brands in a product category, learn which
personalities this brand conveys, and copy or adjust their marketing strategies to
capture the same and/or other market segments.
Cosmetic usage and facial image
Facial image and body image. Facial image can be defined as satisfaction with various
areas of the face, which includes eyes, eyebrows, lips, cheeks, skin complexion, and the
overall face. Research that exclusively examines facial image is scarce, but rather
views facial image as a part of body image. Much research conducted on cosmetic
usage examines body image as one entity. Thus, we have reviewed the literature on
body image and cosmetic usage to apply it within the context of facial image.
Body image is the feelings and attitudes one has toward his/her own appearance.
Body image is described as a multi-dimensional attitude influenced by experiences of
the body, particularly based on experiences with appearance (Cash and Henry, 1995;

Facial image and

cosmetic usage

167

JFMM
12,2

168

Cash and Labarge, 1996). Kaiser (1997, p. 98) describes body image as the mental
picture one has of their body at any given time. Regardless of objective evaluations
from others, body image is how you see yourself in terms of physical characteristics
and is a collection of feelings and perceptions about your body. Strong positive
relationships have been found between ones body image and self-esteem and
self-confidence (e.g., Jung and Lennon, 2003). Body image includes various attributes of
the body such as weight, height, physical attractiveness, and facial image.
A representative national survey by Cash and Henry (1995) of 803 adult women,
ages 18 through 70 in the USA, reported some interesting findings related to the body
images of women. This study found almost 50 percent of women held negative
evaluations of their appearance and significant evaluations of body dissatisfaction.
Negative evaluations of body image and appearance of American women appear to
have accelerated through the years (Cash and Henry, 1995).
Cosmetic usage, body image, and physical attractiveness. Cash and Cash (1982)
examined many effects of body image on cosmetic usage. Women with poorer body
images who were unsatisfied with their entire physical appearance had recently
increased the number of cosmetic products they applied and the number of situations
in which they wore makeup. Also, women who were more judgmental of their physical
appearance had longer cosmetic application times.
Using the Situational Cosmetics Use Inventory to assess cosmetic usage in various
situations, Cash and Cash (1982) found those women who used more cosmetic products
also tended to use these products in more situations, as compared to women who did
not use an extensive number of products. They suggested that wearing cosmetics in
more situations leads women to be more attentive to how others perceive them. Those
less concerned with their physical attractiveness in social situations were less likely to
use cosmetics in various situations. Finally, they found that women who used
cosmetics in a routine pattern were more satisfied with their facial features, as
compared to those who did not have a consistent pattern of use. Also, a study by
Forbes et al. (n.d.) found women who idealized women in traditional roles were more
likely to use cosmetics in the pursuit of beauty.
Similar to other forms of appearance-related products, women use cosmetics to
correct or modify their flawed self-images. Cash and Cash (1982) found routine
cosmetics use to be associated with facial satisfaction reflecting the psychological
success that many women experience after enhancing their physical appearance.
Similarly, Cash et al. (1989) reported that female participants reported more satisfaction
with their faces and with their overall appearance and believed they would be regarded
by peers as more attractive when they were wearing their makeup than when they
were not. Also, the participants often overestimated their physical attractiveness when
wearing makeup and were even more likely to underestimate their attractiveness in the
absence of makeup. A positive relationship was found between the amount of
cosmetics use and appearance satisfaction as the participants stated a higher
appearance satisfaction when wearing more cosmetics (Cash et al., 1989). The
researchers concluded that facial cosmetics influence womens own self-perceptions
and body image. Enhancing physical appearance will be especially rewarding if
appearance is important for the evaluation of self and others (Jung and Lennon, 2003).
Specifically to this study, the attractiveness of ones face may influence how
individuals evaluate their own appearance, and in return, affect their facial image.

Brown et al. (1986) found evidence that individuals who are more attractive may pay
greater attention to and are more involved with their appearance. Moreover, McDonald
and Eilenfield (1980) found both males and females spent more time looking at their
reflections if they were more physically attractive. Therefore, it is possible that those
individuals who have a more attractive appearance may be more involved, and
subsequently more likely to actively participate in self-expression through grooming
behaviors. In support of this argument, Cash (1988) suggested that physical
appearance might be partially self-created in response to situational norms,
self-presentational goals for social image and body image, and mood states. Finally,
individuals are known to use cosmetics and grooming behaviors to manage and control
not only their social impressions, but also their self-image (Cash et al., 1989). Thus,
previous studies suggest that the use of cosmetics is a tool for self-presentation and
social impression management.
The literature confirming the positive link between body image and cosmetic use
provides strong support for a possible relationship between facial image and cosmetic
use. Consumers image of themselves in relation to satisfaction with their facial
features provides a reasonable explanation on how consumers may use cosmetics to
enhance ones facial appearance or feelings about themselves. Consumers satisfaction
with their face (facial image) and related cosmetic use is predicted to have an effect on
consumers impressions of various cosmetic brands. For example, Tidwell et al.
(1992-1993) found that people use products to enhance self-image, and according to
Wood (2004), participants chose specific brands to convey a certain picture of oneself to
society. Thus, the characteristics of a brands personality that consumers consider as
being favorable (positive brand attitude) may vary based on how consumers feel about
their face (facial image) and the ways they use cosmetics (cosmetic usage).
Purpose of study
The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of facial image, cosmetic
usage, and perceptions of brand personality. Based on prior research, the following
three research questions were developed:
RQ1. How does facial image influence cosmetic usage (quantity and pattern of use)?
RQ2. How do facial image and cosmetic usage (quantity and pattern of use)
influence perceptions of brand personality?
RQ3. How do facial image, cosmetic usage factors (quantity and pattern of use), and
brand personality influence brand attitude?
Figure 1 provides an illustration of the relationships among variables addressed in the
research questions.
Methodology
Data collection
An electronic survey was administered to a randomly drawn list of female students
enrolled at a mid-Atlantic university at the time of data collection. A total of 225 female
students participated in the survey, ages 18 to 49 years, with ages 18 through 22
representing 82 percent of the entire sample. Overall, 86 percent of the women were
enrolled in all academic years at the undergraduate level and 12 percent were enrolled

Facial image and

cosmetic usage

169

JFMM
12,2

170

Figure 1.
Relationship among
variables studied

at the graduate level. A wide variety of academic majors were represented. In terms of
cosmetic purchases, 40 percent of the participants stated they spent under $50 annually
on cosmetics, while 31 percent spent $50 to $100. Only 18 percent spent $101 to $200
and 10 percent spent over $200.
Measures
The electronic survey included items measuring facial image, cosmetic usage, brand
personality, brand attitude, and personal questions. Prior to the survey, a simple
open-ended survey was conducted on 44 female subjects enrolled in an upper-level
fashion merchandising class to determine the three most popular cosmetic brands used
by female students. In the pre-survey, students were asked to list the five cosmetic
brands they used most often in order of preference. The top three brands (M A Cw,
Cliniquew, and CoverGirlw) were included in the electronic survey. Table I provides a
brief description of the three brands used in this study.
Facial image. The facial image scale asks participants to rate five areas of their face
and entire face on two scales: unsatisfied/satisfied and unimportant/important. The six
aspects of the face are eyes, eyebrows, lips, cheeks, skin complexion, and the entire
face. The basis for this measure was taken from the Body Areas Satisfaction Scale
(BASS) of the Multidimensional Body Self-Relations Questionnaire (MBSRQ; Brown
et al., 1990), a widely used index of body site satisfaction, in which individuals rated
how dissatisfied/satisfied they felt with different areas of the body. These two scales

Cosmetic brand Description

Products offered

M A Cw

M A Cw is for every age, sex, and race, but specifically Makeup, Skin Care,
targets professional makeup artists and fashion forward Fragrances, and
Accessories
consumers (The Estee Lauder Companies Incw, 2007).
M A Cw is sold in boutiques and department stores in the
United States

Cliniquew

Cliniquew emphasizes the importance of quality skin care Makeup, Skin Care,
in makeup products. Cliniquew products are fragrance-free Fragrances, and
Accessories
and allergy-tested by dermatologists (The Estee Lauder
Companies Incw, 2007). Recently, Cliniquew has started to
target men in who are concerned with their appearance and
image, by promoting their skin care line for men (New
Media Age, 2006). Cliniquew is commonly sold in various
department stores in the United States

CoverGirlw

CoverGirlw is for women of all ages who want a clean, Makeup and
Accessories
fresh and natural look. (Proctor & Gamblew, 2007).
Compared to M A Cw and Cliniquew brands, CoverGirlw
is lower-priced and sold at discount stores such as grocery
stores, drug stores, and mass-retailers in the United States.
Beginning in the fall of 2005, CoverGirlw began to focus on
American women 35 and older for their anti-aging product
line (OLoughlin, 2006)

also use five-point Likert-type scales. For each facial area, a score was calculated by
weighting the satisfaction level (1 unsatisfied, 5 satisfied) of each facial area by
its importance (1 unimportant, 5 important). Next, all items were summed to
derive a composite score representing facial image. The more participants consider
facial parts important and are satisfied with those areas, the more participants are
satisfied with their facial features and overall face. Thus, a higher score on the facial
image scale reflected a positive facial image.
Cosmetic usage. The cosmetic usage section was adapted from the Cash Cosmetics
Use Inventory (CCUI; Cash and Cash, 1982; Cash et al., 1989) and asked participants to
indicate their usage of various cosmetic products in certain settings. More specifically,
participants were asked to rate how frequently they use each of the eleven facial
cosmetic products in each of the ten different life situations on a 4-point Likert-type
scale (1 never; 2 occasionally; 3 usually; 4 always). The cosmetic products
are foundation, face powder, concealer, mascara, eye liner, eye shadow, eyebrow pencil,
lipstick/lip color, lip gloss, lip liner, and blush. The situations tested include both
public and private encounters with females only, males only, and both genders
simultaneously. Examples include attending class, shopping with female friends, an
informal party with a date, exercising with male and female friends, and staying
indoors with female friends. The CCUI matrix based on frequency of usage and life
situations then generated the quantity of product use and the quality or pattern of
product use. The original sale included 15 facial cosmetics products for 12 different life
situations, but the modifications for the CCUI were taken place by administering the
entire CCUI to a select group of students and adjusting the situations and products
according to their feedback.

Facial image and

cosmetic usage

171

Table I.
Cosmetic brand
descriptions

JFMM
12,2

172

Two indices derived from the CCUI, the quantity of product use and the pattern of
product use, were determined by:
(1) computing the mean of the 11 product use ratings for each situation;
(2) computing the mean (M) of these means (i.e. those computed in 1) across the
situations; and
(3) computing the variance (SD 2) of means across situations.
The grand mean computed in 2) represents the quantity of cosmetics use, while the
variance comuputed in 3) represents the qualitative pattern of use index. The higher
standard deviation scores mirror higher situationality of product use, whereas lower
scores represent a dispositional pattern of use (Cash and Cash, 1982). The former
refers to using cosmetics according to situations with varying degree, whereas the
latter refers to using cosmetics in a routine pattern regardless of situations. Composite
scores for quantity and pattern of cosmetic use were considered global indices and
calculation of reliability statistics was not appropriate.
Brand personality. The brand personality scale was modified from Aakers (1997)
Brand Personality Scale. Participants were instructed to imagine each brand as
possessing human qualities. Then, the participants rated, on a five-point scale
(1 strongly disagree; 5 strongly agree), the extent to which they feel each
personality characteristic describes each brand. This scale measures how the three
cosmetics brands are perceived along 15 brand personality characteristics. The
personality characteristics include items such as down-to-earth, daring, reliable, upper
class, and tough. These 15 personality characteristics ultimately describe the five
dimensions stated previously (sincerity, excitement, competence, sophistication, and
ruggedness). Table II provides a summary of the brand personality characteristics.
Brand personality dimensions were considered global indices and conceptually not
appropriate to measure reliability statistics.

Table II.
Summary of Brand
Personality items

Brand personality dimensions

Items

Sincerity

Down-to-earth
Honest
Wholesome
Cheerful

Excitement

Daring
Spirited
Imaginative
Up-to-date

Competence

Reliable
Intelligent
Successful

Sophistication

Upper class
Charming

Ruggedness

Outdoorsy
Tough

Source: Aaker, 1997

Brand attitude. The brand attitudes scales include two items: negative/positive and
dislike/like. Brand attitude was measured for each of the three cosmetic brands. Mean
scores were derived using items measuring each of the five brand personality measures
and brand attitude. Reliability statistic for the brand attitude measure yielded a
Cronbachs alpha ranging from 0.90 to 0.92 across the three brands.
Sample characteristics. Demographic questions concerning the participants
personal background were included in the survey. Questions include the amount
spent on cosmetics annually, age, gender, major, academic major, and current
level/year at the university.
Data analysis and results
First, mean and correlation tables were developed to initially examine the variables in
the study (see Table III). The overall mean for facial image was moderate (M 96.58)
with 150 being the highest score possible. The mean score representing the quantity of
cosmetic used across situations was low at 1.07 with four being the highest possible
score. The pattern of use represented by the standard deviation across the mean
cosmetic usage score for each subject was a moderate 0.59.
Next, consumer perceptions of brand personality traits for each brand were
examined. Consumer perceptions for personality traits excitement, competence, and
sophistication for the M A Cw brand were moderately high (M . 3.50) with mean
scores ranging from 3.63 to 3.97. Competence was a highly regarded trait for Cliniquew
(M 4.05). Personality traits sincerity (M 3.85) and sophistication (M 3.75) were
also favorable for Cliniquew. CoverGirlw showed a high score for personality trait
Sincerity (M 3.81). Consumer attitudes for all three brands (brand attitude) were
favorable with mean scores ranging from 3.69 to 3.94. Results from the correlation
table showed indications of relationships among the study variables.
Facial image, cosmetic usage, and brand personality
A multiple regression analysis was first conducted to determine the relationship
between cosmetic usage factors and facial image. It was determined that only quantity
of cosmetic use was influenced by facial image (b 0.14, p , 0.05). Multiple
regression analyses were then employed to test how each dimension of brand
personality was influenced by facial image and the two factors of cosmetic usage.
These results are summarized for each of the three brands, as seen in Table IV. Facial
image influenced perceptions of competence (b 0.19, p , 0.01) of the M A Cw
Brand and Sincerity (b 0.15, p , 0.05) of the Cliniquew brand. The quantity factor of
cosmetic usage was a significant predictor for the excitement (b 0.15, p , 0.05) and
sophistication (b 0.15, p , 0.05) dimensions for the M A Cw brand. Pattern of use
was a significant predictor for the excitement (b 0.17, p , 0.05) dimension of the
Cliniquew brand.
Facial image, cosmetic usage, brand personality, and brand attitude
A multiple regression analysis was used to determine the relationship the following
variables have with brand attitude: facial image, cosmetic usage (quantity and pattern
of use), and the five personality dimensions. For the M A Cw brand, facial image
(b 0.15, p , 0.01) and quantity of cosmetic usage (b 0.17, p , 0.01) were
significant predictors of positive brand attitudes. Additionally, Excitement (b 0.39,

Facial image and

cosmetic usage

173

Table III.
Correlation for study
constructs

Cliniquew brand
1. Facial image
Cosmetic usage
2. Quantity
3. Pattern
Brand personality
4. Sincerity
5. Excitement
6. Competence
7. Sophistication
8. Ruggedness
9. Brand attitude
Mean
SD

M A Cw brand
1. Facial image
Cosmetic usage
2. Quantity
3. Pattern
Brand personality
4. Sincerity
5. Excitement
6. Competence
7. Sophistication
8. Ruggedness
9. Brand attitude
Mean
SD

96.58
21.31

1.00

96.58
21.31

1.00

3.85
0.70

3.31
0.65

4.05
0.68

1.00

0.59
0.23

0.51 * * *
0.36 * * *
1.00

0.21 * *
1.00

0.22 * *
0.25 * *

0.37 * *
1.00

1.00

1.07
0.46

0.14 *
0.16 *
0.04
0.16 *

0.18 * *

0.06

3.63
0.77

0.08

0.00

3.97
0.78

0.38 * * *
0.65 * * *
1.00

0.18 * *
1.00

1.00

2.98
0.65

0.13 *
0.05

0.20 * *

0.17 * *
0.08

0.13

0.08
0.01

20.10

0.14 *

0.59
0.23

0.37 * * *
1.00

1.00

1.07
0.46

0.08

0.14 *

3.75
0.71

0.31 * * *
0.37 * * *
0.60 * * *
1.00

0.19 * *
0.16 *

0.06

3.64
0.81

0.26 * * *
0.55 * * *
0.65 * * *
1.00

0.22 * *
0.14 *

0.15 *

2.35
0.92

0.19 * *
0.21 * * *
20.13 *
20.05
1.00

20.00
0.05

0.02

2.37
0.87

0.32 * * *
20.16 *
2.04
20.14 *
1.00

20.09
20.17 * *

0.07

174

Items

0.48 * * *
0.36 * * *
0.47 * *
0.31 * * *
0.07
1.00
3.94
0.77
(continued)

0.24 * * *
0.30 * * *

0.10

0.25 * * *
0.54 * * *
0.50 * * *
0.34 * * *
0.02
1.00
3.74
0.90

0.27 * * *
0.06

0.26 * * *

JFMM
12,2

96.58
21.31

1.00

0.59
0.23

0.37 * *
1.00

1.00

1.07
0.46

0.08

0.14 *

3.81
0.65

1.00

0.13
2 0.00

0.05

3.39
0.77

0.33 * * *
1.00

0.09
0.08

0.01

3.56
0.72

0.46 * * *
0.51 * * *
1.00

0.05
0.01

0.00

3.01
0.72

0.28 * * *
0.57 * * *
0.58 * * *
1.00

0.07
20.03

0.09

2.59
0.90

0.24 * * *
0.23 * * *
0.26 * * *
0.26 * * *
1.00

0.13 *
2 0.03

0.02

0.33 * * *
0.39 * * *
0.60 * * *
0.50 * * *
0.26 * * *
1.00
3.69
0.79

0.13 *
20.01

20.05

Note: *p , 0.05, * *p , 0.01, p , 0.001. Facial image score is a composite score with level of satisfaction weighted by importance for each facial area.
Facial image-related items were measured on a 5-point scale. Cosmetic usage quantity was measured on a 4-point scale. For discussion on cosmetic usage
pattern, please see methodology section. Items measuring brand personality were measured on a 5-point scale

Brand personality
4. Sincerity
5. Excitement
6. Competence
7. Sophistication
8. Ruggedness
9. Brand attitude
Mean
SD

CoverGirlw brand
1. Facial image
Cosmetic usage
2. Quantity
3. Pattern

Items

Facial image and

cosmetic usage

175

Table III.

Table IV.
Multiple regression
results
0.09
0.39 * * *
0.23 * *
20.12
20.04

0.15 * *
0.17 * *

0.09
20.06
20.13

0.12
0.15 *
0.09

0.19 * *
0.08
0.02

0.10
0.15 *
0.03

20.02
0.08
20.00

0.08

20.01

0.48

0.03

0.06

0.05

0.04

0.00

0.00

0.02

M A Cw Brand
R-square

0.14 *

Note: *p , 0.05, * *p , 0.01, * * *p , 0.001

Independent variables
Cosmetic usage: quantity
Facial image
Cosmetic usage: pattern
Facial image
Brand personality: sincerity
Facial image
Cosmetic usage: quantity
Cosmetic usage: pattern
Brand personality: excitement
Facial image
Cosmetic usage: quantity
Cosmetic usage: pattern
Brand personality: competence
Facial image
Cosmetic usage: quantity
Cosmetic usage: pattern
Brand personality: sophistication
Facial image
Cosmetic usage: quantity
Cosmetic usage: pattern
Brand personality: ruggedness
Facial image
Cosmetic usage: quantity
Cosmetic usage: pattern
Brand attitude
Facial image
Cosmetic usage: Quantity
Cosmetic usage: pattern
Sincerity
Excitement
Competence
Sophistication
Ruggedness

Cliniquew

0.26 * * *
0.18 * *
0.25 * *
20.03
0.01

0.00
0.10

0.02
20.05
0.08

0.03
0.13
0.13

0.04
0.10
0.11

20.01
20.02
0.17 *

0.15 *
0.10
0.22 * *

0.08

0.14 *

0.12

0.37

0.00

0.05

0.03

0.02

0.13

0.00

0.02

R-square

CoverGirlw

0.03
0.02
0.43 * * *
0.19 * *
0.06

20.08
0.11

0.01
0.14
20.11

0.09
0.06
20.08

0.00
0.03
20.03

0.00
0.05
0.04

0.04
0.12
20.07

0.14 *
0.00
0.08

176

Dependent variable

20.06

0.41

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.00

0.01

0.00

0.02

R-square

JFMM
12,2

p , 0.001) and competence (b 0.23, p , 0.01) both influenced the brand attitudes of
M A Cw. The brand attitudes of Cliniquew were significantly related to the brand
personality dimensions of sincerity (b 0.26, p , 0.001), Excitement (b 0.18,
p , 0.01), and competence (b 0.25, p , 0.01). Facial image and cosmetic usage
factors did not influence brand attitudes for the Cliniquew brand. Finally, for
CoverGirlw only two brand personality dimensions, competence (b 0.43, p , 0.001)
and sophistication (b 0.19, p , 0.01), were predictors of brand attitude. No
significant results were found for facial image, cosmetic usage, and other brand
personality dimensions for the CoverGirlw brand.

Discussion and implications

Young female consumers perceived M A Cw to be a relatively exciting, competent,
and sophisticated brand. Cliniquew was perceived to be sincere, competent, and
sophisticated and CoverGirlw was perceived to be competent. Consistent with findings
by Kim (2000), the brand personality of competence emerged as a characteristic found
across all three cosmetic brand types. Comparing across the three brands, M A Cw
was the only brand with a high mean score (M . 3.50) for the brand personality of
excitement and the lowest score on sincerity. Cliniquew had the highest score on
sophisticated. These results provide evidence that each cosmetic brand holds a unique
set of brand personality traits identified by consumers. Although the brand personality
of competence might be a universal trait desired in cosmetic brands, other personality
traits differed. Overall, consumers perceived all three cosmetic brands positively
(brand attitude) with the Cliniquew brand being the highest scored.

Facial image and cosmetic usage

Facial image influenced the quantity of cosmetic usage, or amount of cosmetics used.
(Question 1). The current study found consumers facial image to influence the total
quantity of cosmetics used, but not the variation in quantity in different situations.
Although descriptive statistics report that different patterns of cosmetic use based on
different situations exist, we found no evidence to suggest that an individuals facial
image may affect the pattern of cosmetic use. The current findings contradict prior
reports by Cash and Cash (1982) that cosmetic usage is affected by ones overall body
image and not specifically by facial image, and the level of dissatisfaction with ones
physical appearance increases the number of cosmetic products applied. Also, our
findings do not support Cash and Cashs (1982) findings that women who were
satisfied with their facial features were more likely to use cosmetics in a routine pattern
rather than a varied pattern. Instead, our study found facial image to positively
correspond to the quantity of cosmetics used. Thus, the conclusion can be drawn that
women who are more satisfied with their facial image tend to use more cosmetics. The
cause and effect relationship between facial image and cosmetic usage should be
further examined. That is, it could be equally understood that cosmetic usage increases
facial image, as well as, those consumers with positive facial images have more
confidence in using cosmetics to further enhance and creatively manipulate their facial
features resulting in higher levels of cosmetic use.

Facial image and

cosmetic usage

177

JFMM
12,2

178

Facial image, cosmetic usage, and brand personality

Results indicate a relationship exists between facial image and brand personality and
between cosmetic usage factors and brand personality (Question 2). Our study found a
positive facial image influences perceptions of competence in the M A Cw brand and
sincerity in the Cliniquew brand. These findings indicate that womens satisfaction
with their facial image does indeed influence how they perceive the brand. Also, a
relationship was found between cosmetic usage (quantity and pattern) and brand
personality for two brands: M A Cw and Cliniquew. For the M A Cw brand, higher
quantity users of cosmetics perceived the M A Cw brand to be exciting and
sophisticated whereas, women who reported a more varied pattern of usage perceived
the Cliniquew brand to be exciting. These findings provide important implications for
marketers in terms of strategies for brand management. By understanding consumer
perceptions of brands in relation to their cosmetic usage patterns and facial image,
marketers are able to develop brand images by emphasizing and leveraging their
knowledge about their consumers. For example, in relation to the M A Cw brand, the
excitement characteristic appears to be a very important characteristic for consumers
with higher levels of cosmetic usage. In addition, this particular characteristic is unique
in comparison to the more traditional or conservative image held by its closest
competitors Cliniquew and CoverGirlw.
Facial image, cosmetic usage, brand personality, and brand attitude
Facial image and quantity of cosmetic usage influenced positive brand attitudes for
only the M A C w brand, however, results concerning brand personality
characteristics were more varied (Question 3). Our results suggest the brand
personality of competence to be important across all three brands, suggesting that
successful brands are viewed as being competent, a characteristic or brand image that
is earned. In regards to other brand personality traits, our study found a different
group of brand personality traits to positively influence brand attitude for the three
cosmetic brands. For example, competence and sophistication are the two main brand
personality traits that influence positive perceptions for the CoverGirlw brands.
Therefore, the CoverGirlw brand should focus on the prior two brand personality traits
to improve the image of their brand, as the female participants viewed these as the
factors which determine their feelings toward the brand. In another example, for the
Cliniquew brand, consumer perceptions for the brand personality trait of excitement
were not high (M 3.31). However, findings showing that excitement influences
positive feelings towards the Cliniquew brand indicate that marketers for this
particular brand will need to focus and emphasize this characteristic as part of the
brands image.
This research study contributes to the body of knowledge in the area of consumer
behavior and cosmetics by examining consumer perceptions and preferences for
brands in conjunction with personal characteristics (cosmetic usage and facial image).
From this study, a better understanding of cosmetic consumers is gained. Findings
from this study also provide companies with valuable information to apply to their
marketing strategies. By investigating how facial image and cosmetic usage determine
cosmetic brand perceptions, companies can improve their marketing strategies to
enhance customer satisfaction and increase their customer base. Moreover, by
identifying the brand personalities that attract certain types of consumers, companies

can pinpoint the characteristics customers look for in a product, which in turn can be
used to enhance brand images.
Further research must be conducted to better understand cosmetic consumers.
Using cosmetic brands most popular among young college women, the results are
confined to young college women and results for a broader population may differ. It
would be valuable to determine the differences between different age groups, cultures,
and residential areas (urban vs. rural) throughout the country. Moreover, further
research is needed in examining the relationship between cosmetic usage factors and
facial image. Also, future studies may examine the entire physical appearance (in
addition to facial features) in relation to cosmetic usage. This would show whether
consumers who are dissatisfied with other areas of the body have a different cosmetic
usage pattern. Additionally, brand personalities for cosmetic brands can be compared
to consumers own personalities. This would explain if consumers choose cosmetic
brands that parallel their own personalities, or if they choose brands that portray the
personality they desire to achieve. Finally, it would be worthwhile to include a variety
of different cosmetic brands with different personalities to determine the effects on the
participants perceptions.
Note
1. All brand names with w notations are registered trademarks of their respective owners.
References
Aaker, J.L. (1997), Dimensions of brand personality, Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 34,
pp. 347-56.
Biel, A. (1993), Converting image into equity, in Aaker, D.A. and Biel, A. (Eds), Brand Equity
and Advertising, Laurence Erlbaum Associates, Hillsdale, NJ.
Brown, T.A., Cash, T.F. and Mikulka, P.J. (1990), Attitudinal body-image assessment: factor
analysis of the Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, Journal of Personality Assessment,
Vol. 55, pp. 135-44.
Brown, T.A., Cash, T.F. and Noles, S.W. (1986), Perception of physical attractiveness among
college students: selected determinants and methodological matters, The Journal of Social
Psychology, Vol. 126 No. 3, pp. 305-16.
Bulace, W. (2000), Is branding more than a cosmetic issue?, Retail World, Vol. 53 No. 15, p. 20.
Cash, T.F. (1988), The psychology of cosmetics: a research bibliography, Perceptual and Motor
Skills, Vol. 66 No. 2, pp. 455-60.
Cash, T.F. and Cash, D.W. (1982), Womens use of cosmetics: psychosocial correlates and
consequences, International Journal of Cosmetic Science, Vol. 4, pp. 1-13.
Cash, T.F. and Henry, P.E. (1995), Womens body images: the results of a national survey in the
USA, Sex Roles, Vol. 33 Nos 1/2, pp. 19-28.
Cash, T.F. and Labarge, A.S. (1996), Development of the appearance schemas inventory: a new
cognitive body-image assessment, Cognitive Therapy and Research, Vol. 20 No. 1,
pp. 37-50.
Cash, T.F., Dawson, K., Davis, P. and Bowen, M. (1989), Effects of cosmetics use on the physical
attractiveness and body image of American college women, Journal of Social Psychology,
Vol. 129 No. 3, pp. 349-55.
Craik, J. (1993), The Face of Fashion: Cultural Studies in Fashion, Routledge, London.

Facial image and

cosmetic usage

179

JFMM
12,2

180

Creekmore, A.M. (1974), Clothing related to body satisfaction and perceived peer self, Research
Report No. 239, Technical Bulletin, Agricultural Experiment Station, Michigan State
University, East Lansing, MI.
(The) Estee Lauder Companies (2007), The Estee Lauder Companies Inc. Family of Brands,
available at: www.elcompanies.com/our_brands.asp (accessed January 4, 2007).
Euromonitor (2006), Colour Cosmetics in the USA, available at: www.euromonitor.com/
reportsummary.aspx?folder Colour_Cosmetics_in_the_USA&industryfolder
Cosmetics_and_toiletries (accessed June 20, 2006).
Euromonitor International (2006), Cosmetics and Toiletries in the US, available at: www.
euromonitor.com/Cosmetics_and_Toiletries_in_the_US (accessed January 10, 2007).
Forbes, G., Jung, J. and Haas, K. (n.d.), Benevolent sexism and cosmetic use: a replication with
three college and one adult sample, The Journal of Social Psychology (in press).
Fournier, S. (1994), A consumer-brand relationship framework for strategy brand
management, unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
Jamal, A. and Goode, M.M.H. (2001), Consumers and brands: a study of the impact of self-image
congruence on brand preference and satisfaction, Marketing Intelligence & Planning,
Vol. 19 No. 7, pp. 482-92.
Jung, J. and Lennon, S.J. (2003), Body image, appearance self-schema, and media images,
Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, Vol. 32 No. 1, pp. 27-51.
Kaiser, S.B. (1997), The Social Psychology of Clothing, 2nd ed., Fairchild, New York, NY.
Kim, H.-S. (2000), Examination of brand personality and brand attitude within the apparel
product category, Journal of Fashion Marketing and Management, Vol. 4 No. 3, pp. 243-52.
Kline and Company (2005), Cosmetics and Toiletries USA 2004, available at: www.klinegroup.
com/reports/brochures/cia4c/brochure.pdf (accessed June 20, 2006).
Kline and Company (2007), Cosmetics and Toiletries USA 2005, available at: www.klinegroup.
com/brochures/cia4d/brochure.pdf (accessed January 10, 2007).
McDonald, P.J. and Eilenfield, V.C. (1980), Physical attractiveness and the approach/avoidance
of self-awareness, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, Vol. 6, pp. 391-5.
Malhotra, N.K. (1981), A scale to measure self-concepts, person concepts, and product concepts,
Journal of Marketing Research, Vol. 23, pp. 456-64.
Mintel International Group (2006), Makeup US, February 1, available at: www.marketresearch.
com/product/display.asp?productid 1224041&SID 67099889-355613004-382592445
(accessed January 10, 2007).
New Media Age (2006), Clinique uses AOL to target male grooming market, New Media Age,
October 5, p. 3.
OLoughlin, S. (2006), CoverGirl adds layer to anti-aging line, Brandweek, Vol. 47 No. 5, p. 9.
Proctor & Gamble (2007), P&G US Product Information by Brands: CoverGirl, available at: www.
pg.com/product_card/brand_overview.jhtml?document %2Fproduct_cards
%2Fprod_card_main_covergirl.xml&brand_name CoverGirl (accessed January 4,
2007).
Rudd, N.A. and Lennon, S.J. (2000), Body image and appearance-management behaviors in
college women, Clothing and Textiles Research Journal, Vol. 18 No. 3, pp. 152-62.
Sirgy, M.J. (1982), Self-concept in consumer behaviour: a critical review, Journal of Consumer
Research, Vol. 17, pp. 412-25.
Tidwell, P.M., Horgan, D.D. and Kenny, C.T. (1992-1993), Brand character as a function of brand
loyalty, Current Psychology: Research and Reviews, Vol. 11 No. 4, pp. 347-53.

Underhill, P. (2004), Is there a better way of selling beauty? In his latest book, Paco Underhill
takes readers on a tour of the mall (Health & Beauty Merchandiser), Retail Merchandiser,
44(4), 24(2), available at: General BusinessFile ASAP online database (accessed June 6,
2004).
Wood, L.M. (2004), Dimensions of brand purchasing behaviour: consumers in the 18-24 age
group, Journal of Consumer Behaviour, Vol. 4 No. 1, pp. 9-24.

Facial image and

cosmetic usage

181
Corresponding author
Hye-Shin Kim can be contacted at: hskim@udel.edu

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com

Or visit our web site for further details: www.emeraldinsight.com/reprints