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Why HCCI Engine ?

High efficiency and ultra low emission with respect to conventional Diesel
engine.

To achieve near zero NOx and soot emission

To achieve latest Euro Norms ( E5)

To reduce fuel consumption, greenhouse gas emission.

Law of Diesel HCCI

Every one percent increase of diesel HCCI car saves 90 million liters of fuel per year.
This corresponds to emission saving of some 210000 metric tones of CO2

What Is HCCI?

HCCI is a combustion process. HCCI is not an engine concept. HCCI must be

incorporated in an engine concept.

HCCI is a low temperature chemically controlled (flameless) combustion process.

HCCI can be considered as a hybrid form between the diesel and Otto combustion
process.

However combustion process is different. So there is neither Diffusion flame (as

in a diesel engine) nor a flame front traveling through a premixed charge ( as in SI
engine).

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WORKING PRINCIPLE OF HCCI

Homogenous charge is drawn in to the cylinder during suction and compress to high
enough temperature to achieve spontaneous ignition of the charge.
Combustion starts in almost whole volume of C.C Two degree before TDC
After Combustion initiation the temperature rapidly increases and whole fuel burn
simultaneously As whole mixture burns simultaneously and no flame propagation ,
combustion temperature can be controlled less than 700 deg Centigrade and thus NOx
formation is avoided.

HCCI Drawbacks

Higher load HCCI operation is difficult.

To achieve Transient operation and cold starting are issues.

Start of combustion (SOC) is difficult to control because there is no direct ignition

source such as a spark plug or fuel injection timing. Instead SOC is controlled by
mixture properties at intake valve closing.

Controlling how rapidly the energy is released is also a problem. For this reason
significant EGR dilution is needed.

CO and UHC emissions are also high at light loads

HCCI Benefits

Ultra-low NOx emissions because there is no propagating flame front and the
burning is both locally and globally lean.

Extremely low PM emissions because the mixture is homogeneous and

there are no rich pockets

Significant part load efficiency gains over SI because the engine is operated
unthrottled and load is controlled by fuelling and varying the fuel to air ratio.

Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) engines have the potential of

producing a high thermal efficiency with extremely low PM and NOx emissions.

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LEAN BURN ENGINE
Combustion is considered leanwhen excess air is introduced into the engine along
with the fuel.
Internal combustion engine-powered generator sets fueled by natural gas are
commanding more attention these days as interest grows in on-site power production
equipment that is both efficient and environmentally friendly.
In response to this interest, manufacturers have introduced natural gas engine-powered
generator sets that feature lean-burn technology. The combustion is considered "lean"
when excess air is introduced into the engine along with the fuel.
This produces two positive effects.First, the excess air reduces the temperature of the
combustion process and this reduces the amount of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) produced
by nearly half, compared to a conventional natural gas engine. Second, since there is also
excess oxygen available, the combustion process is more efficient and more power
is produced from the same amount of fuel.
COMBUSTION PROCESS
Any air/fuel reaction requires an energy source to initiate combustion. In natural gas
engines, the spark plug performs this function. In lean-burn engines, the combustion
process is enhanced by pre-mixing the air and fuel upstream of the turbocharger before
introduction into the cylinder. This creates a more homogenous mixture in the
combustion chamber and reduces the occurrence of knocking or detonation. To prevent
either knocking or misfiring, the combustion process must be controlled within a narrow
operating window. Charge air temperatures and volume,together with air to fuel ratio, are
constantly monitored. The microprocessor-based engine controller regulates the fuel flow
and air/gas mixture and ignition timing.
New lean-burn engines from Cummins are designed to operate at a lean air/gas ratio of
Lambda = 1.7.(Traditional stoichiometric natural gas engines have an air/gas ratio of
Lambda = 1.0). In the chart (at left) that plots Break Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP)
against

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Air Excess (Lambda), the operating window is a very narrow band where efficiency
peaks and where NOx is near its minimum. A richer mixture (stoichiometric) can
potentially produce knocking and higher NOx emissions; a leaner mixture than Lambda
1.7 may not combust reliably and cause misfiring, which raises HC emissions. Fullauthority electronic engines,sensors and microprocessors in the new lean-burn
engines are critical for maintaining combustion within these boundaries.
The design of the lean-burn engine incorporates a simple open combustion chamber
housed in the piston crown. The shape of the piston crown introduces turbulence in the
incoming air/fuel mixture that promotes more complete combustion by thoroughly
exposing it to the advancing flame front. The flame plate of the cylinder head is regular
(flat) and the spark plug is centrally located.The air and gas fuel are correctly mixed
under the control of the engine management system.
REDUCED EMISSIONS
One of the results of this technology is significantly reduced emissions in the exhaust.
Cummins new lean-burn gas engine generators have NOx emissions as low as .85
grams/BHP-hr, and produce low amounts of hydrocarbons (HC), carbon monoxide
(CO) and particulate matter (PM). This allows the generator sets to meet the most
stringent air quality regulations without aftertreatment devices in the exhaust stream. For
even lower emissions, lean-burn gas engine generator sets are also available with factoryintegrated aftertreatment options such as Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) and
Oxidation Catalysts, resulting in NOx levels at or below 0.15 grams/BHP-hr.With these

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aftertreatment options, the gas engine generators have been shown to meet the most
stringent prime power emissions regulations anywhere in the world.
FUEL FLEXIBILITY
Another advantage of the lean-burn technology with full-authority electronic engine
controls is the ability to operate on gas with a wide range of quality. A measurement
called the Methane Number (MN) is used to determine fuel gas suitability as an engine
fuel.Most natural gas has an MN from 70 to 97, and pipeline quality gas typically has an
MN of about 75. Resource recovery gas from landfills or sewage treatment facilities is
typically of lower quality, but is often suitable for use in lean-burn engines.
Cummins lean-burn gas engine generators will operate on gas with an MN of 50 or
greater,providing excellent fuel flexibility. However, gas with a MN below 70 may
require derating of the generator output.
Lean-burn gas engine generator sets are setting a new standard for fuel efficiency, high
power output for their size, and for low emissions. In regions with supplies of natural gas,
these generator sets are providing highly reliable electric power for utility peaking,
distributed generation, prime power and for combined heat and power systems

STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINE

The stratified charge engine is usually defined as a spark ignition internal combustion
engine* in which the mixture in the zone of spark plug is very much richer than that in
the rest of the combustion chamber, i.e.,one which burns leaner overall fuel-air mixtures.
Advantages Of Burning Leaner Overall Fuel-Air Mixtures
(i) Higher thermodynamic efficiency. The relatively flatter specific fuel consumption
curve for the diesel engine as compared to the petrol engine has some relevance to the
method of output control used in the two engines. The spark ignition engine output is
controlled by means of a throttle which varies the quantity of the mixture inducted during
the suction stroke while keeping the mixture strength nearly constant. In contrast to it, in
the diesel engine,which is an unthrottled engine, the output is controlled by varying the
amount of fuel injected into a constant amount ofair every cycle.Thus the petrol engine
operates within a very narrow range of fuel-air ratios whereas the diesel engine operates
over a much wider range of mixture strength.
The thermodynamic efficiency of the Otto cycle is given by

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The value of y for air is 1.4 and for chemically correct carbureted fuel-air mixture is 1.3.
A leaner mixture will have higher values ofy and by . Eqn. (21.1) would result in higher
thermodynamic efficiency (see Fig. 21.1).This is one reason of better part load efficiency
of the diesel engine. The unthrottled diesel engine has an excess air of about 20 to 40 per
cent at full load which increases progressively as reduced amounts of fuel are injected
at part load. This is in direct contrast to the almost constant mixture strength operation of
the petrol engine.

Fig. 21.1 shows the theoretical efficiencies of Otto, diesel and stratified charge engine
cycles as obtained with different mixture strenghts. These efficiencies are for fuel-air
cycles with no heat loss with instantaneous events.and with idealized combustion.Le.,
constant volume combustion for petrol and stratified charge engines and constant
pressure combustion for the diesel. It can be seen that the part load efficiency of the
stratified charged engine is much better than the petrol engine of comparable
compression ratio, and almost approaches the efficiency of the diesel engine. It must be
noted that the diesel engine has a muchhigher compression ratio and hence has an
efficiency advantage due to this factor also.
Thus, with use of leaner mixtures and a slightly higher compression ratio in a sparkignition engine a performance level approaching that of the diesel engine can be obtained.
This allows us to overcome many disadvantages of diesel operation, e.g. a mandatory
high compression ratio for better starting and good combustion oyer a wide range of
mixture strength, and poor air utilization. Use of high compression ratio brings with

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it a host of problems like greater maintenance, higher mechanical losses and higher
weight-to-power ratio. The poor air utilization results in poor"fuel economy and smoky
operation at higher loads
Another important point shown in Fig. 21.1is the rather limited range of mixture
strength whichcan be used in a petrol engine. For complete combustion,propagation of
flame throughout the mixture isnecessary or in other words only those mixtures through
which flame propagation is possible can be used. For a single-cylinder engine a mixture
strength below a relative fuel-air ratio of 0.8 results in misfiringwhile for a multi-cylinder
engine this becomes 0.85 due to imperfect distribution among the cylinders.The
maximum output mixture strength is about 1.05 to 1.1 (1.2 for multi-:cylinder engine)
and minimum specific fuel consumption is obtained at a relative fuel-air ratio of 0.85 to
0.9 below which flame propagation becomes slow and cycle to cycle fluctuations occur.
This limits the use of leaner mixtures and hence limits the gain-in thermodynamic
efficiency.The stratified charge engine provides an ignitable mixture near the spark plug
by charge startification while the overall mixture strength is low. This is in one wayquite
similar to the gas turbine combustion wherein the primary combustion zone, a
stoichiometric mixture is provided but just after that the air-fuelratio ismade about 60 : 1
for reducing the turbine inlet temperature. In stratified charge engines a relative fuel-air
ratio as low as 0.2 (corresponding to idlingconditions) can be used.
Another major disadvantage of the nearly constant mixture strength operation of the Otto
engine is that it results in almost constant peak cycle temperature over the fun load range.
This means that the heat transfer losses,losses due to dissociation at high temperature,
and losses due to variation of specific heats would be much higher at part loads for the
petrol engine than that for the diesel engine,because in the latter case the combustion
temperature decreases rapidly as the output is decreased. This shortcoming of the Otto
engine can be avoided by using charge stratification.
(ii) Reduced airpollution. The use of lean overall mixture strengths result in reduced
amounts of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and carbon monoxide.The hydrocarbons are also
low. The single most important factor resulting in higher hydrocarbons in exhaust is the
flame quenching at the combustion chamber walls.If charge stratification is used, this
quenching is drastically reduced, if not altogether removed, because almost pure air

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will be present near the cold combustion chamber walls at part loads.
Other important advantages of using lean mixture strengths by charge stratification are
avoidance of losses due to throttling, increased resistance to knock due to reduced
residence time under high pressure and temperature conditions, and multifuel capability.

METHODS OF CHARGE STRATIFICATION

The stratified charge engines can he classified into two main types, according to the
method of formation of the heterogeneous mixture in the combustion chamber.
1. Those using fuel injection and positive ignition (including swirl stratified charge
engines).
2. Those using carburetion alone.
STRATIFICATION BYFUEL INJECTION AND POSITIVE IGNITION

The first approach.

The first attempt to obtain charge stratification was made by Ricardo around 1922.The
plan and elevation illustrating the fuel spray arrangement in this first charge stratification
experiment is shown in Fig. 21.2.A relatively rich mixture was formed at the spark plug
by an auxiliary spray while another spray injecting fuel along the major axis of the
combustion chamber formed a leaner mixture

This arrangement could give combustion over a relatively wide range of overall mixture
strengths and allowed very lean engine operations giving efficiencies as high as 36
percent. However, the range was limited at higher speeds and at loads higher than about
50 percent of the full load the engine did not work properly, presumably due to too rich a
mixture near the sparkplug.
Prechamber stratified charge engine

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In this method used a small prechamber with injector and the spark plug.In this a rich
mixture is formed near the sparkplug by fuel supply from the injector and carburetor
supplies lean mixture to the main combustion chamber. The auxillarly charge burns in
prechamber and issues out, through its throat,into the main chamber,and burns lean
mixture present there.Thus a leaner overall mixture can be burned.

This approach also involves many problems of engine operation. The first problem is that
of getting good performance over the fun load range.
At part loads, the lean mixtures are effectively burned but at full-load due to improper
fuel distribution and incomplete scavenging of the prechamber the rich mixture is not
properly burnt. The use of prechamber means loss of thermal efficiency due to throttling
and rather costly fuel injection equipment.
The fuel injection equipment bas to be highly sophisticated in order to provide regular
injection at low fuel deliveries, good distribution in prechamber and avoiding an over all
rich mixture at high loads.
SWIRL STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINE
It is well known that by proper tuning of the injection system a wide range of mixture
strengths can be burnt in an open combustion chamber. This suggests that the
disadvantages associated with a divided-chamber stratified charge engine can be avoided
if the fuel injection and air swirl are properly matched to give charge stratification in an
open combustion chamber.Consequently, quite a few designs of stratified charge engines
utilizing air swirl in an open combustion chamber have come up, These are:
1. Witzky swirl stratification process.
2. Texaco combustion process (TCP)
3. Ford combustion process (FCP)
4. Ford PROCO

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5. Deutz combustion process (AD-Process).
Witzky swirl stratification process.
The Witzky swirl stratification process is shown in Fig. 21.6. This is basically unthrottled
spark ignition process with fuel injection and no carburetion, During the suction stroke a
high velocity swirl is imparted to the intake air by proper design of the intake port. The
fuel is injected during the compression stroke against the swirl direction at some suitable
angle. The swirling air forces the fuel droplets to follow a spiral path by virtue of drag
forces and directs them towards the centre of the combustion chamber, where a spark
plug is provided for initiating the combustion. This produces a good degree of
stratification - a rich-ignitable mixture near the spark plug over the full load range and
leaner mixtures a distance from the spark plug increases. Near the walls almost pure air is
present. The thickness of this pure air layers decreases as the load is increased.

STRATIFICATION BYCARBURETION ALONE

Russiart stratified charge concept.
Fig. 21.13 shows the Nilov 'jet ignition' engine developed by Russians. This is a divided
chamber design using carburetion to supply both the prechamber and the main chamber.
A special carburetor and an inlet valve supply relatively rich mixture to the pre chamber

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while another carburetor supplies a lean mixture to the main chamber. Ignition is initiated
by a spark plug situated in the prechamber.

The flame front advances from the prechamber and burns the lean mixture in the main
chamber.This system gave an economy of about 10 per cent over the conventional
carburetted engines. The high losses due to prechamber result in reduced maximum
engine output and full potential obtainable from the use of lean overall mixtures cannot
be realized.
Institute Francias Du Petrels (IFF) Process.

Fig. 21.14 shows the arrangement of the I.F.P. process for charge stratification. In this
process' the mixture is fed into two separate streams of different mixture strengths. A
small diameter pipe is placed in the intake port such that it supplies, through an auxiliary
carburettor, a rich mixture near the intake valve. Pure air or very lean mixture is inducted
by the main carburetor during the suction stroke. Therefore, a heterogeneity or
stratification is obtained which persists during the compression stroke and a rich mixture
near the spark plug is obtained by proper orientation of the rich mixture tube.

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This system runs satisfactorily down to a relative fuel-air ratio of 0.55 at full throttle. The
IFP system is quite tolerant to variation in the mixture strength of the two streams and
gives less cycle to cycle fluctuations.
GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF STRATIFIED CHARGE ENGINES
The following are some general characteristics of stratified charge engine:
1. All types of stratified charge engines have good part load efficiency while the full load
performance is either equivalent to the petrol engine or slightly inferior.
2. Almost all stratification processes have inherent in them some degree of knock
resistance, smooth combustion, and multifuel capability.Depending upon the particular
design, it can operate on low-octane gasoline or a range of quality down to diesel fuel and
kerosene.
3. The volumetric efficiency of the unthrottled engines is higher than that of the
carburetted engines.
4. The exhaust emission characteristics of most of the stratification schemes are good.
Advantages
1. It can tolerate a wide quality of fuels.
2. It has low exhaust emission levels.
3. It can be manufactured by the existing technology.
Disadvantages
1. Charge stratification results in reduced power for a given engine size.
2. It has a higher weight than that of a conventional engine.
3. Its manufacture is more complex and hence, its manufacturing cost is higher.
4. Its reliability is yet to be well established.
OVERHEAD CAMSHAFT OR OVERHEAD CAM (OHC)
OHV means Over Head Valve - an engine design where the camshaft is installed inside
the engine block and valves are operated through lifters, pushrods and rocker arms (an
OHV engine also known as a "Pushrod" engine).

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4-cylinder inline 8-valve OHV engine

valvetrain configurations place the engine camshaft within the cylinder heads, above the
combustion chambers, and drive the valves or lifters in a more direct manner compared to
overhead valves (OHV) and pushrods. Compared to OHV pushrod (or I-Head) systems
with the same number of valves the reciprocating components of the OHC system are
fewer and have a lower total mass. Though the system that drives the cams may become
more complex, most engine manufacturers easily accept that added complexity in trade
for better engine performance and greater design flexibility. Another performance
advantage is gained as a result of the better optimized port configurations made possible
with overhead camshaft designs. With no intrusive pushrods the overhead camshaft
cylinder head design can use straighter ports of more advantageous crossection and
length.
Single overhead camshaft
In a SOHC engine the camshaft is installed in the cylinder head and valves are operated
either by the rocker arms or directly through the lifters (as in the picture).
The advantage is that valves are operated almost directly by the camshaft, which makes it
easy to achieve the perfect timing at high rpm.

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4-cylinder 8-valve SOHC engine

It's also possible to install three or four valves per cylinder.The disadvantage is that an
OHC engine requires a timing belt or chain with related components, which is more
complex and more expensive design.
The SOHC design has less reciprocating mass than a comparable pushrod design. This
allows for higher engine speeds, which in turn will increase power output for a given
torque. The cam operates the valves directly or through a rocker arm, as opposed to
overhead valve pushrod engines which have tappets, long pushrods, and rocker arms to
transfer the movement of the lobes on the camshaft in the engine block to the valves in
the cylinder head.SOHC designs offer reduced complexity compared to pushrod designs
when used for multi-valve heads in which each cylinder has more than two valves
Double overhead camshaft

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4-cylinder 16-valve DOHC engine

DOHC means Double OverHead Cam, or sometimes it could be called "Twin Cam". A
Advantage: High efficiency, possible to install multiple valves per cylinder and adopt
variable timing.
Disadvantage: More complex and more expensive design
A double overhead camshaft (also known as dual overhead camshaft) valve-train layout
is characterized by two camshafts located within the cylinder head, one operating the
intake valves and one operating the exhaust valves. Some engines have more than one
bank of cylinder heads (ie: V6, V8 where 2 cylinder banks meet to form a 'V') and these
have two camshafts in total, but they remain SOHC, unless each side has two camshafts.
The term "twin cam" is imprecise, but will normally refer to a DOHC engine. Some
manufacturers still managed to use a SOHC in 4-valve layouts. Honda, for instance, with
the later half of the D16 family, utilizes the 4-valve per cylinder, SOHC layout to reduce
overall costs. Also not all DOHC engines are multivalve enginesDOHC was common
in two valve per cylinder heads for decades before multivalve heads appeared. Today,
however, DOHC is synonymous with multi-valve heads since almost all DOHC engines
have between three and five valves per cylinder.

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4-VALVES/CYLINDER.
It's all about inertia and breathing here. The key to high specific output (meaning HP per
liter, or cu. in.) is breathing and low pumping losses. In the '60's and 70's, to get more HP
out of a given displacement a manufacturer would install bigger valves. HP comes from
cramming more air and fuel into the cylinder, so a bigger "door" (valve) can let in a
bigger air/fuel mixture per stroke . The problem with a bigger valve is that a bigger valve
weighs more than a smaller one (assuming the same metallurgy), and this means to
control the extra weight as it's flung open is the spring that closes the valve has to be
stiffer. A stiffer valve spring (multiplied by the number of valves), means more energy is
spent overcoming the valve pressure, thus partially offsetting the gains of a bigger valve.
Another disadvantage of a big valve is that at lower RPM's, the intake charge has a lower
velocity and low RPM torque and drive ability suffer.

ELECTRONIC INJECTION SYSTEMS

In case of automotive engines a continuous metered quantity of the gasoline-air mixture
must be ensured to make the engine run smoothly. In a gasoline injection system, the fuel
is injected into the intake manifold or near the intake port through an injector. The
gasoline is received by the injector from the pump and is sprayed into the air stream in a
finely atomized form. Compared to carburetion the mixing of gasoline with the air stream
is better in this case.
WHY GASOLINE INJECTION?
In a carburettor engine, uniformity of mixture strength is difficult to realize in each
cylinder of a multicylinder engine. Figure 10.1 shows a typical pattern of mixture
distribution in an intake manifold of a multicylinder engine. As may be noticed that
theintake valve is open in cylinder 2. As can also be observed the gasoline moves to the
end of the manifold and accumulates there. This enriches the mixture going to the end
cylinders. However, the central cylinders, which are very close to the carburettor, get the
leanest mixture. Thus the various cylinders receive the air-gasoline mixture in varying
quantities

and richness. This problem is called the maldistribution and can be solved by

the port injection system by having the same amount of gasoline injected at each intake
manifold. Therefore, there is an urgent need to develop injection systems for gasoline

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engines. By adopting gasoline injection each cylinder can get the same richness of the
air-gasoline mixture and the maldistribution can be avoided to a great extent.

As already mentioned, some of the recent automotive engines are equipped with gasoline
injection system, instead of a carburetion for one or more of the following reasons:
(i) To have uniform distribution of fuel in a multicylinder engine.
(ii) To improve breathing capacity i.e. volumetric efficiency.
(iii) To reduce or eliminate detonation.
(iv) To prevent fuel loss during scavenging in ~ase of two-stroke
engines.
Types of Injection Systems
The fuel injection system can be classified as:
(i) Gasoline direct injection into the cylinder (GDI
(ii) Port injection
(a) Timed, and (b) Continuous
(iii) Manifold injection

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The above fuel injection systems can be grouped under two heads,viz., single-point and
multi-point injection. In the single point injection system, one or two injectors are
mounted inside the throttle body assembly. Fuel sprays are directed at one point or at the
center of the intake manifold. Another name of the single point injection is throttle body
injection. Multipoint injection has one injector for each engine cylinder. In this system,
fuel is injected in more than one location. This is more common and is often called port
injection system.
As already mentioned the gasoline fuel injection system used in a spark-ignition engine
can be either of continuous injection or timed injection.
(i) Continuous injection systems: This system usually has a rotary pump. The pump
maintains a fuel line gauge pressure of about 0.75 to 1.5 bar. The systeminjects the fuel
through a nozzle located in the manifold immediately downstream of the throttle plate. In
a supercharged engine, fuel is injected at the entrance of the supercharger. The timing and
duration of the fuel injection is determined by Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
depending upon the load and speed.
(ii) Timed fuel injection system: This system has a fuel supply pump which sends fuel at a
low pressure of about 2 bar when the engine is running at, maximum speed. A fuel
metering or injection pump and a nozzle are the other parts of the system.The nozzle
injects the fuel in the manifold or the cylinder head port at about 6.5 bar or into the
combustion chamber at pressures that range from 16 to 35 bar. Timed injection system
injects fuel usually during the early part of the suction stroke.
During maximum power operation injection begins after the closure of the exhaust valve
and ends usually after BDC. Direct in-cylinder injection is superior and always desirable
and better compared to manifold injection. In, this case both low and high volatile fuels
call be used and higher volumetric efficiencies can be achieved. However, it was noticed
that direct injection caused oil dilution in the frequent warm up phases if the car is used
for daily transportation.
Typical fuel injection methods used in four stroke and two stroke gasoline engines are
shown in Fig.1O.2.

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Components of Injection System

The objectives of the fuel injection system are to meter, atomize and uniformly distribute
the fuel throughout the air mass in the cylinder. At the same time it must maintain the
required air-fuel ratio as per the load and speed requirement of the engine. To achieve all
the above tasks, a number of components are required in the fuel injection system, the
functions of which are mentioned below.
(i) Pumping element - moves the fuel from the fuel tank to the injector. This includes
necessary piping, filter etc.
(ii) Metering element - measures and supplies the fuel at the rate demanded by load and
speed conditions of the engine.
(iii) Mixing element - atomizes the fuel and mixes it with air to form a homogenous
mixture.
(iv) Metering control-adjusts the rate of metering ill accordance with load and speed of
the engine.
(v) Mixture control- adjusts fuel-air ratio as demanded-by the load and speed.
(vi) Distributing element - divides the metered fuel equally among the cylinders.
(vii) Timing control- fixes the start and stop of the fuel-air mixing process.
(viii) Ambient control-compensates for changes in temperature and pressure of either air
or fuel that may affect the-various elements of the system.

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ELECTRONIC FUEL INJECTION SYSTEM

Modern gasoline injection systems use engine sensors, a computer and solenoid operated
fuel injectors to meter and inject the right amount of fuel into the engine cylinders. These
systems called electronic fuel injection (EFI) use electrical and electronic devices to
monitor and control engine-operation.
An electronic control unit (ECU) or the computer receives electrical signals in the form
of current or voltage from various sensors.
It then uses the stored data to operate the injectors, ignition system and other engine
related devices. As a result, less unburned fuel leaves the engine as emissions, and the
vehicle gives better milage.
Typical sensors for an electronic fuel injection system includes the following:
(i) Exhaust gas or oxygen sensor - senses the amount of oxygen in the engine exhaust and
calculates air-fuel ratio. Sensor output voltage changes in proportion to air-fuel ratio.

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(ii) Engine temperature sensor - senses the temperature of the engine coolant, and from
this data the computer adjusts the mixture strength to rich side for cold starting.
(iii) Air flow sensor - monitors mass or volume of air flowing into the intake manifold for
adjusting the quantity of fuel.
(iv) Air inlet temperature sensor - checks the temperature of the ambient air entering the
engine for fine tuning the mixture strength.
(v) Throttle position sensor - senses the movement of the throttle plate so that the mixture
flow can be adjusted for engine speed and acceleration.
(vi) Manifold pressure sensor - monitors vacuum in the engine intake manifold so that
the mixture strength can be adjusted with changes in engine load.
(vii) Camshaft position sensor- senses rotation of engine camshaft / crankshaft for speed
and timing of injection.
(viii) Knock sensor - microphone type sensor that detects ping or preignition noise so that
the ignition timing can be retarded;
The fuel injector in an EFI is nothing but a fuel valve. When it is not energized, spring
pressure makes the injector to remain closed and no fuel will enter the engine. When the
computer sends the signal through the injector coil, the magnetic field attracts the injector
armature. Fuel then spurts into the intake manifold.
The injector pulse width is an indication of the period for which each injector is
energized and kept open. The computer decides and controls the injector pulse width
based on the signals received from the various sensors.
Under full load, the computer will sense a wide open throttle,high intake manifold
pressure, and high inlet air flow. The ECU willl then increase the injector pulse width to
enrich the mixture which will enable the engine to produce higher power.
Under low load and idling conditions, the ECU will shorten the pulse width by which the
injectors are kept in the closed position over a longer period of time. Because of this,
air-fuel mixture will become leaner and will result in better fuel economy.
Electronic fuel injection system has a cold start injector too. This is an extra injector that
sprays fuel into the center of the engine intake manifold, when the engine is cold. It

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serves the same purpose as the carburettor choke. The cold start injector ensures easy
engine startup in very cold weather.
Merits of EFI System
The spark ignition engine with an EFI' system compared with a carburetor unit have the
following favourable points:
(i) Improvement in the volumetric efficiency due to comparatively less resistance in the
intake manifolds which will cause less pressure losses. It eliminates majority
ofcarburettor pressure losses and almost eliminates the requirement of manifold heating.
(ii) Manifold wetting is eliminated due to the fuel being injected into-or close to the
cyljnder and need not flow through the manifold.
(iii) Atomization of fuel is in4ependent of cranking speed and therefore starting will be
easier.
(iv) Better atomization and vapourization will make the engine less knock prone.
(v) Formation of ice on the throttle plate is eliminated.
(vi) Distribution of fuel being independent of vapourization, less volatile fuel can be
used.
(vii) Variation of air-fuel ratio is almost negligible even when the vehicle takes different
positions like turning,. moving on gradients, uneven roads etc.
(viii) Position of the injection unit is not so critical and thereby the height of the engine
(and hood) can be less.
Demerits of EFI System
Some of the disadvantages of EFI system are:
(i) high maintenance cost,
(ii) difficulty in servicing, and
(iii) possibility of malfunction of some sensors.
MULTI-POINT FUEL INJECTION (MPFI) SYSTEM

The main ~purpose of the Multi-Point Fuel Injection (MPFI) system is to supply a
proper ratio of gasoline and air to the cylinders. These systems function under two basic
arrangements, namely (i) Port injection (ii) Throttle body injection

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Port Injection
In the port injection arrangement, the injector is placed on the side of the intake manifold
near the intake port (Fig.10.3), The injector sprays gasoline into the air, inside the intake
manifold. The gasoline mixes with the air in a reasonably uniform manner. This mixture
of gasoline and air then passes through the intake valve and enters into the cylinder.
Every cylinder is provided with an injector in its intake manifold.If there are six
cylinders, there will be six injectors. Figure 10.4 shows a simplified view of a port or
multi point fuel injection (MPFI) system.

Throttle Body Injection System

The fig 10.5 illustrates throttle body injection (mono point) system.This throttle body is
similar to the carburetor throttle body,with the throttle valve controlling the amount of air
entering the intake manifold.

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An injector is placed slightly above the throat of the throttle body. The injector sprays
gasoline into the air in the intake manifold where the gasoline mixes with air. This
mixture then pass through the throttle valve and enters into the intake manifold.
As already mentioned, fuel injection systems can be either timed or continuous. In the
timed injection, gasoline is sprayed from the injectors in pulses. In the continuous
injection system, gasoline is sprayed continuously from the injectors. This port injection
system and the throttle body injection system may be either pulsed systems or continuous
systems. In both systems, the amount of gasoline injected depends upon the engine speed
and power demands.
D-MPFI System
The D-MPFI system is the manifold fuel injection system. In this type, the vacuum in the
intake manifold is first sensed. In addition,It senses the volume of air by its density.
Figure 10.6 gives the block diagram regarding the functioning of the D-MPFI system. As
air enters into the intake manifold, the manifold pressure sensor detects the intake
manifold vacuum and sends the information to the ECU.
The speed sensor also sends information about the rpm of the engine to the ECU. The
ECU in turn sends commands to the injector to regulate the amount of gasoline supply for
injection. When the injector sprays fuel in the intake manifold the gasoline mixes with
the air and the mixture enters the cylinder.
L-MPFI System
The L-MPFI system is a port fuel-injection system. In this type the fuel metering is
regulated by the engine speed and the amount of air that actually enters the engine. This
is called air-mass metering or air-flow metering. The block diagram of an L-MPFI
system is shown in Fig.IO.7. As air enters into the intake manifold, the air flow sensor
measures the amount of air and sends information to the ECD. Similarly, the speed sensor
sends information about the speed of the engine to the ECU. The ECD processesthe
information received and sends appropriate commands to the injector, in order to regulate
the amount of gasoline supply for injection. When injection takes place, .the gasoline
mixes with the air and the mixture enters the cylinder.

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FUNCTIONAL DIVISIONS OF MPFI SYSTEM
The MPFI system can be functionally divided into the following three main components:
(i) Electronic control system.
(ii) Fuel system.
(iii) Air induction system.
These functional divisions are described in the following sections.
MPFI-Electronic Control System
The MPFI-electronic control system is shown in the form of block diagram in Fig.IO.8.
The sensors that monitor intake air temperature, the oxygen, the water temperature, the
starter signal and the throttle position send signals to the ECU. The air-flow sensor sends
signals to the ECU regarding the intake air volume. The ignition sensor sends information
about the engine speed.
The ECU processes all three signals and sends appropriate commands to the injectors, to
control the volume of the fuel for injection. When necessary the cold-start injector timing
switch off the ECU operates the cold start injector which is a part of the fuel system.
MPFI-Fuel System
The MPFI-fuel system is shown in the form of block diagrams in Fig.IO.9. In this system,
fuel is supplied by the fuel pump. At the time of starting, the cold start injector is
operated by the cold start injector time switch. The cold start injector injects fuel into the
air intake chamber, thus enriching the air-fuel mixture. The pressure regulator regulates
the pressure of the fuel. The injectors receive signals from the ECU and inject the fuel
into the intake manifold.

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MPFI-Air Induction System

The MPFI-air induction system is shown in the block diagram in Fig.lO.lO. The air
cleaner, the air-flow meter, the throttle body and the air valve supply a proper amount of
air to the air intake chamber and intake manifold. The quantity of air supplied is just what
is necessary for complete combustion.
ELECTRONIC CONTROL SYSTEM
The electronic control system consists of mainly the Electronic Control Unit (ECU),
which determines the duration of operation of the injectors. In addition to this, there is a

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starter timing switch, which controls the operation of the cold start injector during engine
starting.There is a circuit opening relay to control fuel pump operation.There is also a
resistor, which stabilizes the injector operation.

Electronic Control Unit (ECU)

The ECU in the electronic control system, receives signals from the sensors and
determines the opening time for the injectors land which also controls the injection
volume.
Cold Start Injector
When. the engine is cold, the starting of the engine is usually not easy. When a cold
engine is started, it requires a richer mixture.The cold start injector serves the purpose of
supplying more fuel at the time of starting. In Fig.lO.n, the cold start injector, the main
injector and the air valve are shown. The cold start injector is a type of solenoid valve to
which power is supplied from 8: battery for the opening and closing of the valve inside,
thus for injecting the fuel.The fuel injected should not be excessive. Therefore the
duration of injection time is controlled by a timing switch. The timing switch is
composed of a bimetal element and an electric heater coil.

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When the engine is cold, the starter motor cranks the engine. At this time, the cold start
injector injects fuel to enrich the mixture.The main injector also injects fuel during the
same time. The injection by both the injectors is shown in Fig.lO.l1. When the engine
is hot, the cold start injector will stop injection and only the main injector will inject the
fuel to the cylinder.
Air Valve
The position of the air valve is shown in the Fig.l0.11 for the cold engine. As the
temperature is low, the air valve speeds up the engine idle speed to fast idling. When the
engine is cold, the throttle plate will be in the closed position. As can be seen in Fig.10.n
the engine 'sucks air through the air valve.When the temperature is low, the air valve
opens completely.
Thus a large volume of air passes through the air valve to the intake manifold. As the
temperature rises; the air valve closes gradually.When the engine reaches the normal
operating temperature,the valve closes completely and the air flow is cut-off from the air
valve.A thermo wax valve operates depending on the temperature of the engine coolant.
This valve controls the opening and closing of the air valve.

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INJECTION TIMING
Consider a cylinder of a four cylinder engine. The fuel is injected into the inlet manifold
of each cylinder at different timings. The timing at which the injection of the fuel takes
place inside the inlet manifold is called injection timing.The injection timing for one
cylinder of this four cylinder engine is described below.
In one cylinder, the piston moves up from BDC (Bottom Dead Centre) to TDC (Top
Dead Centre) during the exhaust stroke. Just before the piston reaches TDC during this
exhaust stroke, injection of the fuel takes place into the inlet manifold of this cylinder at
about 60 crankangle before TDC. This injected fuel mixes with the air in the air intake
chamber. Thus the air-fuel mixture is obtained.
At the beginning of the suction stroke, intake valve opens and the air-fuel mixture is
sucked into the cylinder during the suction stroke.According to the firing order, the
injection of the fuel takes place inside the inlet manifolds of the other three cylinders at
various timings. In this four cylinder engine, the ECU calculates the appropriate
injection timing for each cylinder and the air fuel-mixture is made available at each
suction stroke.
In order to meet the operating conditions, the Injection valve is kept open for a longer
time by ECU. For example, if the vehicle is accelerating, the injection valve will be
opened for longer time, in order to supply additional fuel to the engine.
ELECTRONIC DIESEL INJECTION SYSTEM
It may be noted that meeting future emission and other norms puts a large stress on the
fuel injection system of a. diesel engine. A conventional fuel injection pump with
variable delivery capability is already seen in Fig.9.7. J All parameters related to the
injection process like, timing, rate of injection, end of injection, quantity of injected fuel
etc. have to be precisely controlled if the engine has to operate with a high efficiency and
low emission levels. Such a control is difficult with conventional mechanical systems.
Mechanical systems only sense a few parameters and meter the fuel quantity or adjust the
injection timing. They seldom change the injection rate or the injection pressure.
Use of pilot injection systems can lead to significant advantages.Here, a small quantity of
fuel is first injected and allowed to undergo the ignition delay and burn. Subsequently the
main injection takes place into gases, which are already hot. Thus the amount of fuel

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taking part in the premixed or the uncontrolled combustion phase is minimized and this
leads toa reduction in noise and NOx levels.
Such a system will need an injection rate variation, with time which is rather difficult to
achieve precisely in mechanical systems. Hence,different types of injection systems with
electronic controls have been developed.
By means of EFI systems one can achieve the precise control of:
(i) Injection timing,
(ii) Fuel injection quantity,
(iii) Injection rate during various stages of injection,
(iv) Injection pressure during injection,
(v) Nozzle opening speed and
(vi) Pilot injection timing and its quantity
The following are easy to obtain with such systems:
(i) Very high injection pressure,
(ii) Sharp. start and stop of injection,
(iii) Cylinder cut off,
(iv) Diagnostic capability
(v) Turbocharger control and
(vi) Two stage injection
ELECTRONIC DIESEL INJECTION CONTROL
There are various versions of electronically controlled diesel injection systems. Some of
the important ones are discussed below:
(i) Electronically controlled injection pumps (inline and distributor type)
(ii) Electronically controlled unit injectors
(iii) Common rail fuel injection system
Electronically controlled diesel fuel injection systems may use the following as inputs:
(i) ,Engine speed
(ii) Crank shaft position
(iii) Accelerator pedal position
(iv) Intake air temperature
(v) Lubricating oil temperature

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(vi) Ambient air temperature and
(vii) Turbocharger boost pressure
(viii) Intake air mass flowrate
These are parameters, which can significantly affect the performance of the engine. The
frequency of injection depends on the engine speed and number of cylinders. The timing
of injection has to be advanced as the speed increases. The accelerator pedal position
indicates the load .on the engine. Intake air temperature and pressure indicate
atmospheric conditions based on which the injection quantity and timing may have to be
altered. The lubricating oil and coolant temperatures indicate the engine condition. This
input can be used to detect cold start and warm up conditions, which will need the
injection timing to be retarded and the fuel quantity to be momentarily increased. The
turbocharger boost pressure can be used to detect the mass flow rate of air, which can be
used to decide the fuel injection quantity. Alternatively a hot wire sensor can measure the
mass flow rate of air. Various electronically controlled injection systems are discussed
below in some detail.
Electronically Controlled Unit Injectors
The schematic layout of the entire system is indicated in Fig.l0.15.Unit injectors can be
combination of high-pressure pumps and injectors in one unit. They do not have highpressure lines and hence the injection lag is low. The main high-pressure pump is situated
above the injector. Fuel is fed into the high-pressure pump by a supply gear pump at low
pressure. The plunger of the high-pressure pump is pushed down at the appropriate time
by a cam, and rocker mechanism.
A simplified cross section of the unit injector and phases of injection are shown in
Fig.l0.16. The fuel pushed down by the injector just bypasses the injection nozzle till the
solenoid controlled spill valve closes the spill port. The closure of the spill port initiates
the injection process. The injection stops when the solenoid valve opens the spill port.
The timing and duration of the square pulse given to the solenoid can thus control the fuel
timing and injection quantity.
The solenoid can also be opened and closed more than once to have a pilot injection
spray followed by the main spray. The pressure of injection is however controlled by the

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rate of displacement of the fuel and the size of the hole in the nozzle. The ECU generates
the pulses to operate the solenoid controlled spill valve.
Electronically Controlled Injection Pumps (lnline and Distributor Type)
Diesel engines use inline and distributor pumps. The start of injection in the conventional
inline element is determined by the instant when the top of the plunger covers the bypass
or the spill ports. The end of delivery occurs when the helical slot or groove on the
plunger uncovers these ports. The start of delivery is fixed but the end of delivery
depends on the amount of fuel to be delivered.
In the case of the electronically controlled system there will be a control sleeve which can
be moved up and down by an actuator which is controlled by the ECU (Electronic
Control Unit). The ECU determines the amount of fuel to be injected depending on the
throttle position, engine speed, and other parameters. Once this is obtained the control
sleeve is positioned so that the required quantity of fuel can be injected. The timing of
injection is still done mechanically.

Distributor pumps use control sleeves for metering the injected quantity. Thus they can
be easily be made to work with an electronically controlled solenoid actuator. The
principle of operation is similar to the one explained above.
Inline pump governors in mechanical systems are quite complex. These basically alter the
injected fuel quantity of the pump so that the engine speed can be maintained. A
mechanical governor is used,

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which senses the engine speed through the use of flyweights. In addition to the speed the
governor also puts a limit on the maximum fuel delivery depending on engine operating
and ambient conditions.
It also has to supply excess fuel just for starting. The fuel delivery has to be controlled
based on the turbocharger outlet conditions. The governor has to also limit the maximum
speed and ensure stable idling operation.

The schematic of an electronically controlled inline fuel injection system is given in the
Fig.l0.17 as a block diagram. The various inputs are as shown in the figure. The ECD
determines the correct quantity of the fuel to be injected based on the inputs and the data
in the look up table. The fuel input depends on the rack position and thus the ECD
controls the rack position using a solenoid. The position of the rack is measured and used
for feed back. The accelerator pedal position is the input from the driver and a

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potentiometer is' used to sense it. The system can maintain the vehicle speed at any set
value. The ECU can also regulate the fuel quantity depending on their conditions like
braking. The ECU also protects the engine against overheating by regulating the
maximum quantity of fuel delivered.
Common-Rail Fuel Injection System
The commonrail fuel injection' system is finding increasing' use in diesel engines as It
has the potential to drastically cut emissions and fuel consumption. This system provides
control of many important parameters linked to the injection system." It has a wide range
of application, from small to heavy duty engines. Some important features are:
(i) Very high injection pressures of the order of 1500 bar.
(ii) Complete control over start, and end of injection
(iii) Injection pressure is independent of engine speed
(iv) Ability to have pilot, main and post injection
(v) Variable injection pressure.
The common rail injection system has a high pressure pump which operates continuously
and charges a high pressure rail or reservoir or accumulator. Fuel is led from this rail to
the injector mounted on the cylinder head through lines. The injector is solenoid'operated.
It received pulses from the ECU to open the same.
The engine directly drives the pump of the common rail system.It is generally of the
multi-cylinder radial piston type. The generated pressure is independent of the injection
process unlike conventional injection systems. The rail pressure pump is generally much
smaller that conventional pumps and also is subjected to lesser pressure pulsations.
The injection occurs when the solenoid is energized. The quantity of fuel injected is
directly dependent on the duration of the pulse when the injection pressure is constant.
Sensors on the crankshaft indicate its position and speed and so the timing of injection
and its frequency can be controlled. A typical layout of the common rail fuel injection
system is indicated in Fig.10.18. Fuel from the tank is lifted by a low pressure pump and
passed through a filter. The pump is generally run by an electric motor independent
of the engine speed. The main pumping element can be a conventional gear pump or of
the roller cell type. The roller cell pump has rotor with radial slots. These slots house
rollers which are always in contact with the inner surface of the housing due to fuel

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pressure and centrifugal forces. The space between the rotor and the housing varies as the
rotor turns and this is responsible for the suction and delivery.
Lucas diesel systems is of a high pressure pump which is seen in Fig.10.19: This pump
has a cam which is stationary and a rotating hydraulic head which houses two plungers.
These plungers touch the cam and a repushed in four times a rotation. Thus fuel is
pumped four times per rotation. A non return valve is used to send the fuel to the rail.
The inlet of the pump is controlled to maintain the needed delivery. It may be noted that
any excess delivery is ultimately returned back from the rail pressure regulator after it is
throttled down to tank pressure. This amounts to fuel heating and also loss of work takes
place to pump the fuel. Hence, controlling the delivery at the pump is a good idea. A high
pressure regulator is also used.
Both these valves are solenoid operated and are controlled by the ECU.
In the rail-pressure regulator the spring force and the electromagnetic force generated by
the coil regulate the pressure. The pressure is controlled by the ECU. The electromagnet
receives a pulse at a frequency of 1 kHz whose width is modulated to change the
effective current through the electromagnet.
The common rail system also has a pressure sensor and a pressure limiter attached to the
rail. There is also a flow limiter to prevent continuous injection if one of the injectors mal
functions.
Thus, it is seen that engine management is gradually turning into electronic control
thereby better combustion and economy as well as low emissions can be achieved.

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Introduction to Data Acquisition

Overview
This tutorial is part of the National Instruments Measurement Fundamentals series. Each
tutorial in this series teaches you a specific topic of common measurement applications
by explaining the theory and giving practical examples. This tutorial gives an
introduction to the basic elements of a computer-based data acquisition system.
Introduction
Data acquisition involves gathering signals from measurement sources and digitizing the
signals for storage,analysis, and presentation on a PC. Data acquisition systems come in
many different PC technology forms to offer flexibility when choosing your system. You
can choose from PCI, PXI, PCI Express, PXI Express,PCMCIA, USB, wireless, and
Ethernet data acquisition for test, measurement, and automation applications.
Consider the following five components when building a basic data acquisition system
(Figure 1):
Transducers and sensors
Signals
Signal conditioning
DAQ hardware
Driver and application software

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Transducers
Data acquisition begins with the physical phenomenon to be measured. This physical
phenomenon could be the temperature of a room, the intensity of a light source, the
pressure inside a chamber, the force applied to an object, or many other things. An
effective data acquisition system can measure all of these different phenomena.
A transducer is a device that converts a physical phenomenon into a measurable electrical
signal, such as voltage or current. The ability of a data acquisition system to measure
different phenomena depends on the transducers to convert the physical phenomena into
signals measurable by the data acquisition hardware.
Transducers are synonymous with sensors in data acquisition systems. There are specific
transducers for many different applications, such as measuring temperature, pressure, or
fluid flow. Table 1 shows a short list of some common phenomena and the transducers
used to measure them.

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Different transducers have different requirements for converting phenomena into a

measurable signal. Some transducers may require excitation in the form of voltage or
current. Other transducers may require additional components and even resistive
networks to produce a signal. Refer to ni.com/sensors for more information on
transducers.
Signals
The appropriate transducers convert physical phenomena into measurable signals.
However, different signals need to be measured in different ways. For this reason, it is
important to understand the different types of signals and their corresponding attributes.
Signals can be categorized into two groups:
(1) Analog

(2). Digital

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Analog Signals
An analog signal can exist at any value with respect to time. A few examples of analog
signals include voltage, temperature, pressure, sound, and load. The three primary
characteristics of an analog signal are level, shape, and frequency (Figure 2).

Level
Because analog signals can take on any value, the level gives vital information about the
measured analog signal. The intensity of a light source, the temperature in a room, and
the pressure inside a chamber are all examples that demonstrate the importance of the
level of a signal. When you measure the level of a signal, the signal generally does not
change quickly with respect to time. The accuracy of the measurement,however, is very
important. You should choose a data acquisition system that yields maximum accuracy to
help with analog level measurements.
Shape
Some signals are named after their specific shapes - sine, square, sawtooth, and triangle.
The shape of an analog signal can be as important as the level because by measuring the
shape of an analog signal, you can further analyze the signal, including peak values, DC

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values, and slope. Signals where shape is of interest generally change rapidly with respect
to time, but system accuracy is still important. The analysis of heartbeats, video signals,
sounds, vibrations, and circuit responses are some applications involving shape
measurements.
Frequency
All analog signals can be categorized by their frequencies. Unlike the level or shape of
the signal, you cannot directly measure frequency. You must analyze the signal using
software to determine the frequency information. This analysis is usually done using an
algorithm known as the Fourier transform .When frequency is the most important piece
of information, you need to consider including both accuracy and acquisition speed.
Although the acquisition speed for acquiring the frequency of a signal is less than the
speed required for obtaining the shape of a signal, you still must acquire the signal fast
enough that you do not lose the pertinent information while acquiring the analog signal.
The condition that stipulates this speed is known as the Nyquist Sampling Theorem .
Speech analysis, telecommunication, and earthquake analysis are
some examples of common applications where the frequency of the signal must be
known.

Digital Signals
A digital signal cannot take on any value with respect to time. Instead, a digital signal has
two possible levels: high and low. Digital signals generally conform to certain
specifications that define the characteristics of the signal. They are commonly referred to
as transistor-to-transistor logic (TTL). TTL specifications indicate a digital signal to be
low when the level falls within 0 to 0.8 V, and the signal is high between 2 and 5V. The
useful information that you can measure from a digital signal includes the state and the
rate (Figure 3).

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State
Digital signals cannot take on any value with respect to time. The state of a digital signal
is essentially the level of the signal - on or off, high or low. Monitoring the state of a
switch - open or closed - is a common application showing the importance of knowing
the state of a digital signal.
Rate
The rate of a digital signal defines how the digital signal changes state with respect to
time. An example of measuring the rate of a digital signal includes determining how fast
a motor shaft spins. Unlike frequency, the rate of a digital signal measures how often a
portion of a signal occurs. A software algorithm is not required to determine the rate of a
signal.
Signal Conditioning
Sometimes transducers generate signals too difficult or too dangerous to measure directly
with a data acquisition device. For instance, when dealing with high voltages, noisy
environments, extreme high and low signals, or simultaneous signal measurement, signal
conditioning is essential for an effective data acquisition system. It maximizes the
accuracy of a system, allows sensors to operate properly, and guarantees safety.

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It is important to select the right hardware for signal conditioning. You can choose from
both modular and integrated hardware options (Figure 4) and use signal conditioning
accessories in a variety of applications including the following:
Amplification
Attenuation
Isolation
Bridge completion
Simultaneous sampling
Sensor excitation
Multiplexing

Data Acquisition Hardware

Data acquisition hardware acts as the interface between the computer and the outside
world. It primarily functions as a device that digitizes incoming analog signals so that the
computer can interpret them. Other data acquisition functionality includes the following:
Analog input/output
Digital input/output
Counter/timers
Multifunction - a combination of analog, digital, and counter operations on a single
device
National Instruments offers several hardware platforms for data acquisition. The most
readily available platform is the desktop computer. NI provides PCI DAQ boards that
plug into any desktop computer. In addition, NI makes DAQ modules for
PXI/CompactPCI, a more rugged modular computer platform specifically for
measurement and automation applications. For distributed measurements, the NI
Compact FieldPoint platform delivers modular I/O, embedded operation, and Ethemet
communication. For portable or handheld measurements, National Instruments DAQ
devices for USB and PCMCIA work with laptops or Windows Mobile PDAs (Figure 5).
In addition, National Instruments has launched DAQ devices for PCI Express, the nextgeneration PC I/O bus, and for PXI Express, the high-performance PXI bus.
Driver and Application Software
Driver Software

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Software transforms the PC and the data acquisition hardware into a complete data
acquisition, analysis,and presentation tool. Without software to control or drive the
hardware, the data acquisition device does not work properly. Driver software is the layer
of software for easily communicating with the hardware. It forms the middle layer
between the application software and the hardware. Driver software also prevents a
programmer from having to do register-level programming or complicated commands to
access the hardware functions.
NI offers two different software options:
NI-DAQmx driver and additional measurement services software
NI-DAQmx Base driver software
With the introduction of NI-DAQmx, National Instruments revolutionized data
acquisition application development by greatly increasing the speed at which you can
move from building a program to deploying a high-performance measurement
application. The DAQ Assistant, included with NI-DAQmx, is a graphical,interactive
guide for configuring, testing, and acquiring measurement data. With a single click, you
can even generate code based on your configuration, making it easier and faster to
develop complex operations.
Because the DAQ Assistant is completely menu-driven, you make fewer programming
errors and drastically decrease the time from setting up your data acquisition system to
taking your first measurement.
NI-DAQmx Base offers a subset of NI-DAQmx functionality on Windows and Linux,
Mac as x, Windows Mobile, and Windows CEo

Application Software
The application layer can be either a development environment in which you build a
custom application that meets specific criteria, or it can be a configuration-based program
with preset functionality. Application software adds analysis and presentation capabilities
to driver software. To choose the right application software, evaluate the complexity of
the application, the availability of configuration-based software that fits the application,
and the amount of time available to develop the application. If the application is complex
or there is no existing program, use a development environment.

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NI offers three development environment software products for creating complete
instrumentation,acquisition, and control applications:
LabVIEW with graphical programming methodology
LabWindows/CVI for traditional C programmers
Measurement Studio for Visual Basic, C++, and .NET
With LabVIEW SignalExpress, NI has introduced a configuration-based software
environment where programming is no longer a requirement. Using LabVIEW Signal
Express, you can make interactive measurements with NI Express technology.