Dynamic strain ageing and serrated plastic flow behaviour

by C. Phaniraj, MTD, MMG, IGCAR

(Along with Pre-requisite necessary material: applicable for metals and alloys)
(*written in spoken English, not thorough grammar followed)
(C. Phaniraj: phani@igcar.gov.in)
Diffusion:
Diffusion is the process of transport of vacancies/ions from a higher concentration to
a lower concentration; i.e. down the concentration gradient or chemical potential it is called.
So, with increase in temperature, point defects are created, say vacancies. So the
concentration of vacancies (Cv at temperature T) is Cv = C0 exp (E/kT); with E = energy = E f
+ Em; Ef is the energy to form vacancy and E m is the energy for migration of vacancies; E is
the total energy; k is the Boltzman constant, T is the temperature in Kelvin. This total energy
E is called as the energy for self-diffusion process. Self diffusion means; say diffusion of Fe
in -iron. Any rate process such as creep or hot deformation, it is also called as (true)
activation energy. The experimental value is apparent activation energy which is nice and life
becomes simple if it coincides with this true value required for self diffusion process. Then
we need to define the path of diffusion. If the transport of matter (i.e., atoms) or vacancies in
the opposite direction, i.e., it happens in the lattice say from one grain boundary to the other
as in the case of Nabarro-Herring creep; it is called as lattice diffusion (or self diffusion or
bulk diffusion or volume diffusion). So Q will be designated as QL or QSD. If the path is along
the grain boundary, then it will be grain boundary diffusion process as rate controlling
mechanism with Q = QGB; and if rate determining step is the transport of vacancies is along
the core of dislocations, then it is called as dislocation core diffusion or dislocation pipe
diffusion with Q = QP (or QC). Since already grain boundaries are full of defects such as point
defects and dislocations, the energy required for the transport is much less as it is the short
circuit paths; so generally QP (or QGB) = (0.6 0.7) x QL. So diffusivity D is given as D = D 0
exp (-Q/RT), since R is the gas constant as it is per mole. RT is the energy term. Useful
information that is valid is that the ratio of true activation energies for two pure metals scales
as ratios of their melting temperatures in Kelvin: i.e., lattice diffusion; QL (Cu) /QL(Ni) = TM
(Cu)/TM (Ni). This is a thumb rule and has been proved by many in fundamental works in
Physics based journals. Thus remember that the Q L comprises of energy to form vacancies
(Qf) and energy required for migration (Q m) of vacancies. Also, another rule of thumb is that
Qf (or Ef) is (2/3 of total energy Q) and 1/3 is the migration energy; so if Q = 300 kJ/mol say
for austenitic stainless steels, then Qf and Qm will be respectively 200 and 100 kJ/mol. This is
important since in DSA, only migration energy is required, because vacancies are created
by plastic deformation, onset of serrations in terms of critical plastic strain; i.e., strain
induced vacancies.
Ficks law: J = Flux: no of atoms/area of cross section/sec; D = diffusion coefficient
(m /s); C = concentration (No. / (unit) volume; diffusion happens down the concentration
gradient. Hence, J - (dC/dx) or J = - D (dC/dx); the ve sign is because diffusion is down
the concentration gradient. D unit will be in m 2/s. So, if D is higher, diffusion is faster; say in
more open crystal structure BCC metals, it is faster unlike in close packed FCC structure.
Hence for creep resistance, FCC is better than BCC. If it is lattice diffusion, then DL = DOL exp
(-QL/RT). Similarly if it is GB diffusion; then it is DGB = DOGB exp (-QGB/RT) and for pipe
diffusion, it is DP = DOP exp (-QP/RT).. Sometimes, both lattice and pipe diffusion contributes;
then effective diffusion coefficient is defined, as Deff = LDL + PDp and please refer for
2

details to the paper by (D. Samantaray et al., Materials Science Engineering A, Vol. 528,
2011, pp. 10711077).
Dislocations:
Defects are viz. point defects (vacancies/interstitials); line defects (dislocations; edge
dislocation, screw dislocation and mixed dislocations); surface defect (grain boundaries);
volume defects [voids under irradiation, cavities or dimples within the grains as in ductile
transgranular (within matrix or grain) fracture and cavities as in intergranular (along the GB)
creep fracture]. Dislocations are the carriers of plastic deformation; this is analogous to the
movement of electrons/holes for electric current. So, the easy movement of dislocations or
the obstacles that hinder their motion has attracted the attention that explains the work
hardening or recovery during plastic deformation of metals. The edge and screw type comes
from the way the dislocation orientation on a given slip plane exists with respect to the
Burgers vector. Burgers circuit is around the dislocation; then the closure of failure of the
circuit is defined as the Burgers vector (b) with the direction and the magnitude (but, in a
perfect lattice, if one starts and makes a circuit, you come back to the original atomic
position). For an edge dislocation, the dislocation is perpendicular to the b, and dislocation
moves along the b direction. Whereas in case of screw configuration, the dislocation is
parallel to the b and it moves perpendicular to the direction of b. Therefore, an edge
dislocation has to move only along its plane (it is called slip or glide plane which is a close
packed plane) and the direction is the slip direction. On the other hand, a screw dislocation
can slip from one plane to the other plane; this would satisfy the conditions that dislocation is
parallel to b and the direction of its motion is perpendicular to b direction. Thus edge
dislocation movement is conservative. Whereas a screw dislocation can slip (or glide) as well
as it undergoes cross slip (or cross glide). However at high temperatures T 0.4 0.5 TM,
edge dislocation gets another degree of freedom, it can climb also, as in high temperature
dislocation creep; i.e., non conservative motion by climb. Also, one can define something
called a cut off radius/diameter, which is called as core of a dislocation. In side this core, no
one knows the stress fields. Outside this core, the stress fields are amenable for the analysis
using the theory of elasticity that is well understood. Therefore, pipe diffusion is also a short
circuit path (QP = 0.6 0.7 QL) and requires less activation energy, i.e., the barrier could be
overcome with less difficulty.
Dislocation solute interactions stress/strain field around dislocations:
The strain or stress filed around an +ve edge dislocation is: above the extra half plane
is compression, below is the tension and sides are shear in nature. So, at the extra half and
slip planes; the stress filed or the distortion is hydrostatic in nature for an edge dislocation.
For a screw dislocation, it is something similar to the plane deformation problem; i.e., shear
stresses. Now, about solutes in a given lattice can be substitutional (i.e., like Cr, Ni, Ti say in
Fe base material with FCC structure) and interstitial such as C, N in Fe. These solutes also
cause some strain fields and this distortion is the one which hinders dislocation motion and
we get solid solution strengthening in metals. It is the Russian scientist Gorsky who first
suggested that the solutes that are there in the lattice that cause distortion (i.e., stress/strain
fields) can migrate from their place and settle near to dislocation. The driving force is
because of the energy reduction and the change in energy is negative. Then the quantitative
models; by Cottrell came first, then Sleeswyk, McCormick, Vandel Beukel.

Now let us understand the dislocation solute interaction. Interaction between solute
and a positive edge dislocation (i.e. extra half plane is above below which no atoms) is
defined as hydrostatic stress field; spherically symmetric which means that if one imagines a
circle with radius around dislocation (origin or centre), the sphere can either expand or
contract only means volume change and no change in shape. Another condition is that this
interaction between the edge dislocation and solute atoms is dilute, which means solute atoms
cloud is present around the dislocation; the solutes would not interact strongly. If solutes
interact among themselves, then they form GP zones (do not bother GP zone definition; it is
called as Guinier-Preston Zones noticed by these 2 persons while studying precipitate
hardening in Al alloys); if it is still stronger, it becomes a precipitate. So Cottrells model is
for positive edge dislocation solute interaction; and the interaction is dilute, hydrostatic and
spherically symmetric. You can find this (figure) in Book by A.H. Cottrell on: Dislocations
(chapter on yield point phenomenon). So this solute atmosphere near the
dislocation is called as Cottrell Atmosphere. When such a solute atmosphere is
there around dislocation (say positive edge dislocation as considered by Cottrell), the
distribution is Gaussian type. The problem posed by Cottrell was what would happen to these
solutes when dislocation moves slowly? The distribution becomes skewed; i.e., more solutes
left behind the dislocation which means that lagging solute atmosphere. And the dislocation
has to move with or drag with the solutes. Since solute concentration is not uniform (skewed
distribution), it generates a force opposite to dislocation that is moving forward due to
chemical potential of solutes (concentration difference). This force is called as Solute Drag.
Also, please note the following. The solute sitting in a lattice causes volume distortion
(change in volume), spherical distortion and an edge dislocation also has the same hydrostatic
stress (strain) field and therefore Cottrell modelled such an interaction. Further the interaction
is elastic in nature, as core of a dislocation is not considered (reason is the theory of elasticity
is well understood). Whereas for a screw dislocation, the stress filed is shear in nature. So,
one needs to have a pair; such as vacancy solute pair (say, vacancy C pair (or N atom pair
as in my Acta Met 1992 paper) such that the distortion caused is in shear in nature. This
makes the interaction possible between a screw dislocation and solute when such pairs are
formed; this is called as Schoeck Seeger locking.
Yield Point Phenomenon:
Note that in the following, the interaction between solute atoms and dislocations is
that for edge dislocation. For mild steel (MS) which is only carbon (0.15 0.2 wt%) in Fe,
the engineering stress engineering strain curve (please refer G.E. Dieter book on
Mechanical Metallurgy) would display a clear upper yield stress, a lower yield stress, a yield
point elongation at the lower yield stress; then normal work hardening curve reaching UTS
(ultimate tensile strength) and the stress drops till fracture. Whereas for Cu, it is no yield
point or no yield drop is seen and therefore we need to define a 0.2% proof strain to get this
yield stress. This Yield Drop observed in MS is called Yield Point Phenomenon. What is
the explanation for this? Consider a positive edge dislocation such that it is at the origin, with
extra half plane of atoms as + ve Y- axis, with no atoms below (- ve Y-axis). Then there are 4
quadrants in the Cartesian co-ordinate system. The small interstitial atoms like C (or N)
atoms would migrate below the dislocation line; whereas the substitutional atoms will
migrate above the (+ ve edge) dislocation line. In mild steel, C will migrate below, and thus
this Cottrell atmoshre will hinder the motion of dislocation. This is called Locking of
dislocation. That means force required to move dislocation with out any solutes is F = bL (

= shear stress; b = magnitude of Burgers vector = 2.48 .10 -10 m; L = length of dislocation).
Now there is solute drag force; so stress or force required to make the dislocation move is
higher because it is locked. In a tensile test, stress increases (upper yield stress) till the
Cottrell atmosphere is broken which called Unlocking from solutes. Then, engineering
stress (or load) required is less, so it drops to lower yield stress and continues for sometime at
the same stress as yield point elongation; this is till the dislocations interact to cause workhardening. Then stress increases with strain, reaches UTS and falls till fracture. One sees that
a band (a single band for one yield point) nucleates at one end (during a tensile test) and this
band propagates from one end of the specimen to the other end (yield point elongation) and
this is called as Luders Band. So, the phenomenon is also inhomogeneous deformation as
the plastic strain rate locally is higher when band forms and this propagates. Ageing here
means formation of solute atmosphere near to dislocation.
Static Strain ageing:
In mild steel, we have seen the yield point phenomenon happening due to locking and
unlocking of dislocation. In a tensile test, take the specimen to the work hardening portion
(before UTS) and then unload the specimen. After unloading, keep it at say 150 200 0C for
a few hours and during this time-temperature treatment, C solute (Cottrell) atmosphere would
again form near dislocation (time, temperature; so diffusion). Then reload the specimen and
one gets the Yield Point again; and this yield stress is higher than that observed before with a
loss of tensile ductility (% elongation to failure). This reappearance of yield point is called as
Static Strain Ageing. Static strain ageing is ageing (static mode) and while straining,
getting yield point or discontinuous yielding.
Interaction energy (stationary dislocation): Cottrell Model:
Cottrell model is for the interaction between (positive) edge dislocation and solute.
For the interaction to occur, the change in interaction energy dU = - ve. This dU = work
done = P. V (P is the pressure, V is the volume change when solute comes near a
dislocation; position in polar co-ordinates as distance r and ). So the final solution is dU =
(A sin)/r. The term A contains modulus G, Burgers vector b and most importantly the
Misfit Strain when a solute comes and sits near a dislocation, and this is given as = (r
r/)/r; where r is the radius of the solvent (dislocation is imagined as solvent) and r / is that of
solute. Here imagine a + ve edge dislocation at the origin, draw a sphere (or a circle say on
a paper) with cut off radius as r. This imagine as a solvent. The solute with radius r / sits, then
the volume can either decrease or increase and cause spherical distortion depending on the
size difference between the solvent (dislocation) and the solute. If (r < r /), then mist fit strain
= (r r/)/r will be ve and the vice versa is true. The terms and r define the position of
the solute with regard to a dislocation in polar co-ordinates. .Now there are 4 quadrants; in
the 1st two quadrants, sin() is + ve; therefore the change in interaction energy will be ve,
only when = (r r/)/r is ve; therefore a bigger or substitutional solute (say Ni or Cr or
Mo in pure Fe base alloy; Ti as in D9) would come and sit above the dislocation line. On the
other hand, in the 3rd and 4th quadrants, sin() is ve and therefore a smaller solute like
interstitials occupy below the positive edge dislocation. The essence is dU should be ve
for the dislocation solute interaction to be possible.

Dislocation Motion: Slow moving:

We have seen that the solutes come near dislocation and form Cottrell atmosphere.
The distribution is Gaussian in nature. Because of shear stress applied and when consequent
force required for making the dislocation move is reached, the dislocation moves. Then what
happens? The dislocation moves, but it is dragged by the lagging solute atmosphere. Why
lagging, because, the solute distribution changes to skewed (in nature) with more
concentration of solutes behind the dislocation than in front of dislocation. This already we
have called as solute drag force. The behaviour could be understood as follows. You are
sitting and travelling in a bus. Bus suddenly moves, this makes you to jerk you forward.
Later, the moving bus suddenly stops and this makes you to go back. The same way, the
dislocation locked with solutes, when moves;- the solutes will go back. Later when
dislocation after travelling a certain slip distance is stopped, the solutes would get a little
forward. Thus the solute distribution gets skewed function and not uniform.
PortevinLe Chatelier effect (or Serrated Yielding) and Dynamic strain ageing
When does ageing (means dislocation interaction with solutes) would occur
continuously? or dynamically during (say) tensile testing in a strain rate temperature
regime/window?
(a) When the imposed strain rates in a tensile test are higher, the dislocation moves fast but
the solute diffusion to the dislocation is dictated by the temperature and the time. The solutes
may be slow such that no ageing occurs; (b) When the strain rates are very low, then solute
mobility may be faster than the speed of dislocation that the interaction or ageing does not
occur; (c) When the test temperature is very high, the same problem that solute diffusion may
be so fast that ageing is not possible, and (d) When the temperature is lesser, the diffusion of
solutes would be too slow for ageing to occur. Thus the continuous ageing in a dynamic
situation (i.e. during tensile testing) occurs within a certain range of strain rates; and within
certain range of temperatures. This window depends on the alloy, metallurgical history, etc.
This ageing would give raise to locking and then unlocking of solutes so that dislocation is
free to move without solutes. This gives 1 yield point. After some strain with work hardening,
again ageing happens with locking and unlocking and gives raise to load drop. Such
repeated yielding dynamically during tensile testing in a strain rate temperature
regime (or domain or window) is called as dynamic strain ageing that gives raise to load
drops or serrations or jerky flow behaviour. The Phenomenon causing this which is due
dynamic ageing of dislocations with mobile solute atoms is called as Dynamic Strain
Ageing. We will call it in short as DSA. This serrated flow (or serrations in a stress
strain curve during testing) was first reported by Portevin Le Chatelier and hence it is
called as Portevin Le Chatelier effect (or simply PLC effect).

DSA manifestations (dynamic strain ageing) and serrated plastic flow:

The cause for Jerky flow or serrated yielding (or load drops) could be because of
many reasons. It could be due to phase transformation (say martensite formation), due
adiabatic heating, order disorder transformation, etc. Hence serrated flow is one of
the manifestations of DSA. The other manifestations of DSA are: (a) the yield stress or
UTS (or any flow stress between YS and UTS) plot with temperature will show a plateau or
peak in the DSA regime of temperatures; (b) plot of work hardening rate with temperature
5

would show a peak in the DSA regime; (c) Plot of ductility (i.e. uniform elongation and total
elongating to failure) with temperature would show a minimum in the DSA temperature
range; (d) Hall Petch slope K shows a peak with temperature. [K is the slope in a plot of
flow stress vs. (grain size) 1/2] and most importantly (e) the strain rate sensitivity m
becomes negative in DSA regime of temperature [m = /ln(SR) which is measured by
strain rate jump tests in a tensile test].
# Hall Petch relation says that smaller grain size material is stronger than a larger one till
equi-cohesive temperature; ECT is the temperature at which the strengths of grain and grain
boundaries cross over. Hall Petch essentially means grain boundary strengthening (since
grain boundary strength is higher than the strength of a grain till ECT). = 0 + K d 1/2; with
K = strength co-efficient, d = grain size, is the flow stress and 0 is that for which d = 0
which means single crystal strength. So, finer the grain size, more grain boundaries that act as
obstacles for dislocation motion and strength increases. For creep temperatures, coarse grain
size is better as grain bounadaries are weaker than the grain. #
#Strain rate sensitivity or SRS (m) going ve is a very important and essential condition of
proving that DSA is happening. SR = constant () m; m is the SRS.
To conclude, serrations can be because of many reasons as said above and DSA is
often employed to explain the serrated flow behaviour. Hence, serrations or serrated flow is
only one of the manifestations of DSA. If one has to prove that the mechanism of DSA is
occurring then he has to see that all the symptoms given above are observed; with SRS going
ve is the most widely accepted condition or symptom for the occurrence of DSA.
Why Load drops? and Types of Serrations
Please refer to BMS, 1984, Rodriguez paper, page 654: Actually one should write the
complete equation for the stiffness of the specimen and the machine: (strain rate sensitivity =
- ve as condition for DSA is first proposed by P. Penning, Acta Metall, 1972, 20, 1169).
You know that total strain = elastic strain + plastic strain: = e + p and from Hooks law,
e and so Then = e + p and this gives raise to

= p + [(d/dt)/Es],
where Es is the elastic modulus of specimen as well as machine, since a tensile machine is a
hard machine unlike servo hydraulic machines. (also in a tensile machine, tests are
conducted at constant nominal strain rates, not true strain rates). Thus stress rate is change in
stress () with change in time (t); this would be negative means stress or load drop occurs
as = (2 1) = - ve, means 2 > 1 or the load drop. This is possible, when p > .
Thus load drop or a serration appears when the plastic strain rate is higher than the
imposed strain rate. Also, we know the Taylor equation: = m b v; where m is the mobile
dislocation density, b = Burgers vector magnitude, v = average velocity of dislocations. Thus
whenever there is a change in either m or v (or both), the plastic strain rate would be higher
than the imposed strain rate giving raise to a serration on a stress strain curve. This shows
that plastic flow becomes inhomogeneous and leads to the formation of a band; but now this
band which nucleates and propagates is called as PLC band.

Types of serrations: PLC and inverse PLC effect:

Please refer to BMS, 1984, Rodriguez, page no. 655. The serrations that appear on the
stress strain curve has been given designations as 5 types; viz. Type A, B, C, D and E type
serrations. Type A is the load drop and then stress increases and then again load drop (or a
serration); there is a clear work hardening. That means if you see one serration, it is above
and below the mean or average stress strain curve; so the drop is . If these serrations or
oscillations are fine scale and about the general level of the flow curve, it is type B. Type C is
that the serrations are below the general (or mean) stress strain curve . Type D is like steps
and type A changes over to type E with very less (or no) work hardening. The serrations
viz. type A and B are known as normal PLC effect, whereas type C serrations on the
other hand are classified as the inverse PLC effect. When type A serrations are seen, it is
accompanied by the nucleation and propagation of PLC bands in the same direction (now the
Luders band is called as PLC band,; with each serration related to one PLC band nucleating
at one end and propagating to the other end along the gauge length. During type B, it is
called as hopping band, the band forms and hops (discontinuous band propagation). The band
formation is because the deformation is inhomogeneous and it is the problem of perturbation
or the phenomenon can also be analysed as temporal oscillations (G. Anantha krsihna, MRC,
IISc well known, BMS, 1984). For type C serrations, it is suggested ( W. Charnock, 1969,
Philos. Mag, 20, 427) that the dislocations are aged from the beginning and the repeated load
drops (or repeated yielding) occur by unlocking of those dislocations that manifest as
serrations below the average stress strain curve and hence this type C (inverse PLC effect)
is also called as Unlocking Serrations.
What is PLC effect? And what are the characteristics? Critical plastic strain c:
In a monotonic uniaxial tensile test, nominal strain rate and temperature are imposed
and we measure load elongation or stress strain curve. The serrated plastic flow, i.e., the
1st serration (or load drop) occurs at a given critical plastic strain c. This c varies with
strain rate and temperature. (a) If c increases with increase in strain rate and decrease in
temperature, then it is called as Normal PLC or simply PLC effect. (b) On the other hand, if c
decreases with increase strain rate and decrease in temperature, it is called as inverse PLC
effect; and till date, no clear model or understanding exit. So; first serration occurs at this
critical plastic strain c, when the (ageing of dislocations) or dislocation solute interaction
occurs. Hence, the terms comprising of diffusion of solutes and (dislocation movement
represented by their) mobile dislocation density are necessary to be incorporated in any
model of DSA.
c = ( , T and structure, vacancy concentration) = constant ( ) exponent exp (Q/RT).
The models (Cottrell, McCormick, Vandel Beukel, etc.) developed are for (normal) PLC
effect: c increases when increases and T decreases. All these are Vacancy Models
that say that substitution solutes move by vacancy migration; and a critical plastic
strain for the onset of serration is required. Model by R.A. Mulford and U.F. Kocks is
different (Acta Metall., 1979, 27, 1125). Q is the energy for migration of vacancies (Qm).

Cottrell Model of DSA: for critical plastic strain and its dependence on and T:
(A.H. Cottrell, Philos. Mag, 1953, 44, p. 829)
The critical velocity at which the (first) load drop or serration occurs when strain = c
is the essence of Cottrell model. Since diffusion is a random process; velocity = (force x
mobility) is the Einstein equation for (random) Brownian motion. Mobility = (D/kT); D =
diffusivity and k is the Botzman constant and T in Kelvin. Force is the derivative of energy
(or work done) which is now interaction energy (U = A Sin/r) due interaction between
mobile solutes and the dislocations; Cottrell (or Cottrel-Jawson/Cottrell-Bilby) was
comfortable to model with + ve edge dislocation.
Force = dU/dr; where U = (A Sin)/r; and velocity = force (D/kT).
Final solution is critical velocity = Vc = 4D/L; where L = 10b = the size of the solute
atmosphere. When the velocity reaches this critical value, the serration appears at the value of
c. Now strain rate term and velocity link is required. So, we know the Taylor equation:

= m b v (where is the geometric factor); v = 4D/L.

How does a solute move; it depends whether it is a substitutional or interstitial solute. The
substitutional solutes (say Cr, Ti in Fe) move only by vacancy diffusion; as it moves to the
vacancy and so on. Whereas, the interstitials (C or say N) move by interstitialcy mechanism
and this does not require vacancy motion. With increase in strain, m increases and m =
constant () = K (). Therefore, = [ K () b 4D] / L; and D = D0 exp (Q/RT).

= [4 K b D0/L] () exp (Q/RT). But this was not enough; and why? This is
because that the serrations were seen even at low temperatures as low as liquid nitrogen. So
another term called strain induced vacancies Cv (vacancy concentration of strain induced
vacancies that occur at a critical plastic strain) due to plastic flow was incorporated in to the
model to explain the substitutional solute diffusion to dislocations by vacancy migration (i.e.,
the equation was multiplied by the Cv term).
That is Cv = constant () m = N () m; and therefore the equation between c, and T is given
as

= [4 K N b D0/L] (c) exp (Q/RT) (c) m; since = c, the equation becomes

= [4 K N b D0/L] (c)m+ exp (Q/RT) or
Eq. (1): ( c)m+ = constant ( ) exp (Q/RT) substitutional diffusion by vacancy
migration and valid for PLC effect. Q = Qm = energy for migration of vacancy;
substitutional element moves in to a vacancy and so on and to dislocation and cause
ageing (so which substitutional element to be identified say Cr in 316 or 304 SS, or Ti as
D9)
(m + ) = 2 3 for substitutional diffusion. But, for interstitial diffusion (C, N), m = 0 and
only term. So the equation will be:

Eq. (2): ( c) = constant ( ) exp (Q/RT); Q = Q for interstitial element diffusion say C or
N. Since m = 0, and hence lies between 0.5 1 for interstitial diffusion governing DSA.
This is the best model of DSA that explains the serrated flow and the critical strain

with and T. However, the experimentally measured and the calculated (model) c values
differ. Hence, came up the McCormick model for DSA to explain the onset of serrated flow at
c. It was A.W. Sleeswyk (Acta Metall., 1958, 6, p. 598) who observed that according to
Cottrell theory, DSA should happen when dislocations move with dragging solutes; i.e., quasi
static dislocations or slow moving ones. In his experiments, he observed yield drops at
much lower strain rates and he was puzzled! Then he put forward that the ageing or the
interaction of mobile solutes with the dislocations would occur in a different way. When the
dislocations travel and get arrested at forests (which means dislocationsdislocations
interaction would give raise to forests that are immobile barriers). Then these dislocations are
waiting to get released due to thermal activation. During such a waiting time, solutes have
enough time (even at low strain rate tests as he performed) to go to dislocations and lock
them or ageing happens. When dislocations get released, they travel (flight time) until they
are caught by some obstacle. So we have for dislocations, a flight time (tf) and waiting time
(tw).
McCormick Model of DSA for serrated flow: (P.G. McCormick, Acta Metall., 1972, 20, p.
351)
Following the idea proposed by Sleeswyk (Acta Metall., 1958); McCormick
developed a vacancy based DSA model. It says that ageing happens or solutes move to the
dislocations when the dislocations are temporarily arrested at discrete obstacles (like forest
dislocations that are immobile) and dislocations wait for thermal activation to get released
and travel until they are caught by another obstacle. So total time = t = (waiting time + flight
time) = tw + tf; tf << tw. Therefore t = tw. Here, Ageing Time ta is defined as the time for
solutes to move to dislocations and cause locking. In a tensile test, stress increases with strain
and two things happen: (a) initially the waiting time is small, but with straining, the
dislocations interact and tw increases; (b) whereas on the other hand with straining, the strain
induced vacancies are generated more in number, the diffusion (substitutional elements) is
driven by this process of vacancy migration so that ageing time ta from a high initial value
decreases. Hence a time comes when both are equal and this happens at the critical plastic
strain where the first serration appears.
So, tw = ta and velocity = v = L/(tw) = L/ta; where L = obstacle spacing; since
dislocation now travels L until it gets caught again by another discrete obstacle. (here it is
now like Newtonian classical mechanics that v = displacement/time). We know from Taylor
hardening equation that = m b v; so substituting for v = L/ta. Same term of m = K ().
But we need to connect to activation energy too. Again McCormick borrows from static
strain ageing model - equation from Cottrell and Jawson (Proc. of Royal Society A, 1949) and
substitutes for ta and gets the final equation connecting c, and T. That is given below
(please refer to S. Venkadeasn, C. Phaniraj, Acta Metall., 1992).
(c)m+ = (C1/C0)3/2 ( kbT/LNUmD0) exp(Q/RT);
where Co is the initial concentration of solute in the alloy, C 1 is the local concentration of the
solute that the dislocation "sees", L is the obstacle spacing, Um is the maximum solute

dislocation interaction energy, Do is the frequency factor, b is the Burger's vector and N and
are constants. This (vacancy model) equation of (so called) quasistatic ageing model
predicts (very well) quantitatively the experimentally measured c values.
Van den Beukel Model (also a vacancy model)
(A. Van den Beukel, Physica Status Solidi (a), 1975, 30, p. 197 and A. Van den Beukel, Acta
Metall., 1980, 28, 965)
This is also a vacancy model that retains the variation of m and Cv with strain, i.e.,
same concepts. But, after the paper by Penning got published in 1972 in Acta Metall. That
said that ve strain rate sensitivity is the crucial condition for plastic flow to become
unstable, i.e., PLC effect also is the unstable plastic flow which is inhomogeneous
deformation. Hence he considered solute diffusion (and vacancy concentration by strain
induced vacancies) depends on both D (diffusion coefficient) and waiting time t w. Then the
model arrives at the condition for the critical strain as that strain at which strain rate
sensitivity becomes zero (which later goes to ve). Hence it can be summarised as follows.
In the model of Van den Beukel, it is held that any solute mobility makes a negative
contribution to the total strain rate sensitivity and that this negative contribution increases
with strain; when the total strain rate sensitivity becomes negative, plastic flow becomes
unstable. In arriving at the strain dependence of the strain rate sensitivity, Van den Beukel
retains the notions of a strain-dependent solute diffusion coefficient and strain dependent
mobile dislocation density from the older models (say Cottrell, Sleeswyk, McCormick).
Mulford and Kocks Model (NON VACANCY MODEL)
(R. A. Mulford and U. F. Kooks, Acta Metall., 1979, 27, p. 1125)
In this model, flow stress is split in to two terms; (a) due to dislocations (i.e.,
dislocation dislocation work hardening component), (b) due to dislocation solute
interactions (i.e., friction stress arising from solute drag effects). So, = d + f; and also
total strain rate sensitivity m = md + mf. With increasing strain, the component md decreases
and makes the m ve for the onset of unstable plastic flow and inhomogeneous deformation
in terms of serration. This does not invoke the usual concept of critical plastic strain required
for onset of serrated flow as said by the other vacancy maodels of DSA for serrated flow.
Then how does the solutes move and settle near the dislocations to cause locking? They
assume that this happens by the process of core diffusion (i.e., transport along the core of
dislocations when dislocations wait at discrete obstacles as suggested by Sleeswyk and
applied by McCormick). Hence in this model no equation relating critical strain, strain rate
and temperature is derived. Instead, it gives the condition for negative strain rate sensitivity at
which serration appears. Hence ve strain rate sensitivity is the most well accepted and
crucial factor for DSA to happen. Later, there were arguments between Kocks and Van den
Beukel; and finally they have reconciled and wrote a paper that solutes affect both d + f (A.
Van den Beukel and U. F. Kocks, Acta Metall. 30, 1982, p. 1027). This is what is summarised
below.
Mulford and Kocks describe the strain rate sensitivity in terms of the flow stress
which is the sum of two components the friction stress f and the dislocation flow stress d;
solute mobility affects d, the strain hardening component of the flow stress. They contend
that the rate sensitivity of d is negative from the beginning; after some critical strain it
dominates and renders the total rate sensitivity negative; which in turn causes serrated flow.
This interpretation of critical strain does not rely on the production of vacancies for
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explaining the onset of serrated flow; instead it assumes the diffusion of solute atoms along
dislocations at forest intersections. In a joint paper, Van den Beukel and Kocks (Acta Metall.,
1982, p. 1027) have arrived at a unified approach which enables the negative strain rate
sensitivity to arise as a consequence of the influence of solute mobility on both f (by
decreasing the obstacle spacing along the dislocation) and d (by increasing the strength of
dislocation junctions).
Anomalies and manifestations of DSA: BMS, 1984 paper by Rodriguez, Fig. 7:
For a given T, stress strain flow curves shift upwards when increases say (1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, .etc) and this means for a given strain, increases with or in other
words (macroscopic) strain rate sensitivity of flow stress is + ve (SRS the response of change
in stress because of change in strain rate; though the true strain rate sensitivity needs to be
determined by strain rate jump tensile tests). Suppose after 3, if decreases till 7, then
this range is the region in which strain rate sensitivity of flow stress becomes ve and then
again after 7 it becomes + ve. Same thing happens for the temperature range also. This is
the strain rate temperature range in which DSA happens, plastic flow is inhomogeneous and
unstable, and leads to periodic (repeated) serrated yielding. So, in this DSA range, normal
behaviour is deviated and anomalies are observed and they are the manifestations of DSA.
Thus in the DSA regime; it can be a plateau in YS, or a peak in UTS, or a peak in work
hardening rate, or a minimum in ductility and most importantly strain rate sensitivity
becoming zero and goes to negative.
BMS, 1984 paper by Rodriguez: page 660, Fig. 6:
Normal observation is that the average velocity of the dislocations increases with the
shear stress (without any solute drag). But when DSA happens, the solute drag on the
dislocations needs to be considered. This is superimposed in this figure. The region from C to
D in this figure, you can see that strain rate sensitivity becomes negative; locked dislocations
are once released when a critical stress is reached, i.e., stress required to move dislocations
suddenly drops.
DSA serrated flow grain size effects: (please refer to BMS, 1984, Rodriguez paper)
(W. Charnock, 1968, Philos. Mag, 18, p.89)
c = constant (d)p ( )q exp [(Q/kT(m+)],
where d is the grain size, Q = energy for migration = E m; p = n///(m+); q = 1/(m+). The
parameter n// is from the relationship between grain size and mobile dislocation density (m)
as m = (N)/d n// and this equation is from Conrad and Christ (1963) and this says that if the
grain size is smaller, then mobile dislocations will be more in number (density increases).
Please see all the effects that are caused by grain size in BMS paper by Rodriguez. The main
thing is that the grain boundaries are the preferred sites for DSA. So when grain size is
decreased, the critical strain decreases and the DSA temperature region get shifted to lower
temperatures.
Important Papers: with the chronological happenings: (Please see reference details in
Rodriguez paper or (my) DSA paper in Acta Metall. Mater.1992, p. 569)
1. P. Rodriguez, Bull. Mater. Sci. 6, 653 (1984): (a review)
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2. Gorsky: suggested that solutes that caused distortion in the lattice could come to
dislocations as a similar stress or strain field exits; since interaction would reduce the
energy or the interaction energy change Um is ve.
3. A.H. Cottrell, M.A. Jawson, Proc. Royal Society A 199, 1949, p. 104: dealt with the + ve
edge dislocation solute interaction. Firstly, dealt the problem of stationary dislocation
and then what happens when dislocation moves with the solute atmosphere. The
distribution function changes from the Gaussian type to a skewed one suggesting that the
dislocation has to move with a lagging or dragging solutes behind.
4. A.H. Cottell, B.A. Bilby, Proc. Royal Society A 62, 1949, p. 30: on static strain ageing
equation when solutes diffuse to a dislocation: i.e., the equation for static strain ageing
that is also used by McCormick in his DSA model. Concentration of solutes with ageing
time: (t) 2/3 kinetics.
5. A.H. Cottrell, Philos Mag, 1953 suggested the vacancy DSA model: equation relating c
with and T: Cv with strain; and critical velocity vc = 4D/L.
6. A. W. Sleeswyk, Acta metall. 6, 598 (1958): suggested that ageing of dislocations with
solutes happen when they are waiting at discrete obstacles; i.e., temporarily arrested.
7. R. K. Ham and D. Jaffrey, Phil. Mag. 15, 247 (1967): incorporated the strain dependence
of mobile dislocation density (m) which is term. This he suggested when he analysed
the results of B. Russell, Phil. Mag. 8, 615 (1963).
8. P. G. McCormick, Acta metall. 20, 351 (1972): regarding the vacancy model based on
Sleeswyk idea: for critical strain, strain rate and temperature.
9. P. Penning, Acta Metall., 1972, 20, p. 1169: First proposed the ve strain rate sensitivity
of the flow stress as an important manifestation of inhomogeneous plastic flow or for
DSA.
10. A. Van den Beukel, Physica status solidi (a), 1975, 30, p. 197: Following the Pennings
work, he derived the theoretical equation for critical strain as the stain at which strain rate
sensitivity becomes zero; i.e., goes to ve in DSA. This is also a vacancy based model.
In this paper, 1 figure is very good that shows the stress-strain curve with ve rate
sensitivity at critical plastic strain.
11. R. A. Mulford and U. F. Kooks, Acta metall., 197, 27, p. 1125: Considers no vacancy
production for critical strain; instead splits flow stress as summation of (a) flow stress due
to dislocations (i.e., work hardening) and (b) that due to solutes (i.e., friction stress). He
maintains that from the beginning the rate sensitivity of dislocation flow stress is ve and
makes the total strain rate sensitivity as negative. This is not a vacancy model.
12. A. van den Beukel, Acta Metall., 1980, 28, p. 965: maintains and argues that vacancies
are needed for explaining the onset of serrations in terms of critical strain; and how to
distinguish the experimentally observed different behaviour observed for substitutaional
and interstitial solutes; i.e., m (= 0.5 1) only is there in the later case.
13. A. Van den Beukel and U. F. Kocks, Acta metall. 30, 1982, p.1027: come to a
compromise that both the d and f are affected by the solute dislocation interaction.
14. S. Venkadeasn, C. Phaniraj, P.V. Sivaprasad, S.L. Mannan and P. Rodriguez, Acta
metall, mater., 1992, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 569-580: this is on alloy D9: different regimes
and serrated flow behaviour and activation energies.
15. K.G. Samuel, S.L. Mannan and P. Rodriguez, Acta Metall., 1988, 36, pp. 2323 2327:
serrated yielding in a 316 stainless steel: 1 figure is very good in this paper that shows
the region of serrations with time temperature ageing treatment.

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