Atomic History

Dalton: atoms are indivisible and immutable. (cant change one

type into another)
Compounds form from fixed ratios.
J.J Thomson:
Thomson experimented with cathode ray tubes glass
containers under a vacuum with electrodes on either end. A beam
is observed to travel between the electrodes, when one of the
electrodes is heated. (Cathode rays) The beam had mass(turned
a paddle wheel) and was negatively charged(bent in an
electric/magnetic field).
Thomson calculated the charge-to-mass ratio( e/m) of the particles
in the beam. He also showed that different electrodes made a
beam composed of identical particles that is, these particles are
common to all matter.
This was consistent with the proposal by Faraday that atoms were
electrical in nature, because they undergo electrolysis.
Millikan:
Millikan measured the charge on the ionized oil droplets and
found that only certain charges are possible: those that
corresponded to the droplets losing a whole number of electrons.
The difference between consecutive values of charge was the
charge on a single electron. e = -1.602x10^-19C.
Thomsons Plum Pudding model of the atom.

Electron negatively charged

Rutherford
Probed the atom using alpha particles.
3 types of radiation:
Alpha particles: A helium nucleus(2 protons+2 neutrons)
highest mass(hence momentum)
<-Big charge
Beta particles: Fast-moving particles
Gamma rays: High energy EM radiation.
Rutherford fired alpha particles (2+charge,4 a.m.u mass, lots of
momentum) at gold atoms. Most of the alpha particles were
unaffected and passed straight through the target; some were
deflected very slightly, by repulsion between the positive alphaparticles and the positive part of the atom. All of this is explained
by the plum pudding model. Some were deflected back towards
the alpha source, which requires a much larger density of positive
charge than is predicted by the Plum Pudding model.
Rutherfords planetary model

Hund's rule: every orbital in a subshell is singly occupied with one electron
before any one orbital is doubly occupied, and all electrons in singly
occupied orbitals have the same spin.
The Mass Spectrometer
A device with a similar design to Thomsons experiment, used for
measuring relative atomic mass(RAM).

The result is a mass spectrum:

Eg. Chlorine

2 peaks, one for each isotope. Overall RAM is the weighted sum of the two
% of 35Cl and 37Cl.
Chadwick : discovered neutrons through artificial radioactivity.
He(from alpha particle) does a nuclear reaction(not a chemical reaction)
with Be.
Problems with Rutherfords planetary model:
1.Electron orbits would have to be incredibly complex(think of uranium with
92electrons!)
2.Rutherfords model predicts that atoms should be able to absorb or emit
any energy(colour) of light to move to a higher or lower energy orbit this
is NOT observed in reality.
3.Maxwells equations predict that the electrons in atoms should lose
energy and spiral into the nucleus very quickly also not observed.
Bohr:
Proposed a mathematical model of the atom in which the electron could
only occupy certain allowed orbits without radiating energy. The electron
could absorb/emit a photon(a particle of light) of a particular energy to
move between orbits.

The Schrdinger model

Quantum mechanics describes electrons as waves, not particles. When
confined to an atom, electrons exist in standing waves around the
nucleus, such that only some values of energy ( and wavelength) are
allowed.
Quantum mechanics:
Describes electron configurations in terms of quantum numbers.
N the principal quantum number. Higher n, higher energy of shell.
N = 1, 2, 3
L The angular momentum quantum number.
Describes the shape of the orbit. (1=s,2=p,3=d,4=f)
mL the magnetic quantum number.
Gives the number of orbitals with a given value.
Electron configurations
Give the n and l values for electrons.
Eg. H
1s1
Trends in the periodic table
Always comes up to same two things:
1. The charge on then nucleus. Bigger atomic number, bigger positive
charge
2. How many electron shells an atom has. As we go down the periodic
table, the number of shells increases. As we go across the periodic
table, the number of shells stays the same.
Atomic Size

As we go across the periodic table, the nuclear charge increases, the

number of electron shells stays the same.
The outer electrons are pulled inwards more as the nuclear charge
gets bigger. Number of shells dont change, so has no effect. Atomic
size decreases going across the periodic table.
Going down a group, the nuclear charge increases, the number of
shells increases. These are competing effects.
The more shells in an atom, the more the outer electrons are
shielded from the nucleus, leading to a smaller effective nuclear
charge
Going down a group, atomic size increases.
Electron Affinity
Energy change associated with adding 1 mol of electrons to 1 mol of
gaseous atoms.
Usually exothermic.
There are many exceptions, but the general trend is increasing
across, decrease going down.
In general, the smaller the atom, the more energy released when it
gains an extra electron gets to sit closer atom, the extra electron gets
to sit closer to the positively charged nucleus than it would in a larger
atom in other words, effective nuclear charge is greater for an extra
electron in a smaller atom.
Electronegativity
Ability for an atom to pull shared electrons in a bond.
The electrons in a covalent bond are pulled more towards the more
electronegative atom. This results in the bond being polar: a slight
negative charge arises on the side of the bond that the electrons
spend more time on.

The wavelengths of the photons in the line spectrum of

hydrogen correspond to the difference between energy levels of
hydrogen.

Lattice Dissociation enthalpy

Enthalpy change when one mole of an ionic lattice dissociates into isolated
gaseous ions
Highly endothermic
Lattice Formation Enthalpy
The enthalpy change when one mole of an ionic crystal lattice is formed
from its isolated gaseous ions.
Highly exothermic

Metallic Bonding
The electron sea model : metal atoms lose their valence electrons and
exist as a lattice of cations surrounded by de-localised valence electrons.
This give rise to: high electrical conductivity as electrons are free to move
through the lattice. Malleability, as bending the metal still allows attraction
between the metal ions and the sea of valence electrons. Wouldnt work
with covalent lattices.
This is because Al contributes more valence electrons than Na and Mg,
and Al cations have more of a positive charge than Na or Mg, thus have a
stronger interaction with the sea of delocalized electrons.
Covalent bonding
Atoms on either side of a bond sharing electrons to fill valence shells.

Which is the most important resonance contributor?

Lower formal charges is better

Like charges on adjacent atoms is less stable

More electronegative atoms should have the negative charge.
Intermolecular forces : Between molecules NOT bonds
Intramolecular forces : Within a molecule ie. Bonds
The stronger the attractive forces between molecules the higher the melting
and boiling points of substance.
When a molecule with a net dipole attracts another molecule with a net
dipole, this is a dipole-dipole interaction. Whenever a molecule contains a
hydrogen bonded to N, O, F (ie. Atoms with a particularly large
electronegativity) the resulting dipole is particularly large the H becomes
almost a naked proton , which has a large delta T. This will attract the delta
negative part of the next molecule particularly strongly. This is called
hydrogen bonding even though it is an intermolecular interaction, not a
bond.
Solubility like dissolves like Molecules with a net dipole (ie.polar) dissolve
in solvents that are also polar.
Eg. Ammonia(NH3) dissolves in water (H2O) There are favorable
interactions between polar molecules.
Non polar molecules
Can still weakly attracts each other. Eg. CH4
At any one time, there can be more electron density on one side of the
molecule than the other. Temporary dipole A dipole is induced on the
next delta negative molecule along and so on, and so on
This is a London Dispersion Force(or Van der Waals force). Very weak
compared to dipole-dipole. These forces are stronger for larger molecular
weights, since larger electron clouds are more polarizable.
Hybridisation for double bonds/ triple bonds
Both C atoms in ethane are sp3 hybridised (tetrahedral)

Ethene contains a C=C double bond:

Trends in bonding across a period
Metallic Low IE1 easy to lose valence electron to metallic lattice.
Giant covalent IE not low enough to do metallic bonding. Multiple valence
orbitals allow giant molecules.
Molecular covalent Can form smaller molecules with single, double bonds
etc. Not enough valence orbitals available to form networks. Eg. N, O, F
Atomic valence shells filled. No incentive to bond.