1. Indirect speech.

There are two ways of relating what a person has said: direct and
indirect. In both cases we deal with peculiar types of composite
sentences: She said, I have lost my book.
In indirect speech we report in our own words what another person
has said; therefore indirect speech is commonly called reported
speech: She said that she had lost her book.
Indirect speech is normally used in conversations.
When we turn direct speech into indirect some changes are usually
necessary, such as the backshifting of tenses, the change of persons,
adverbs and, sometimes, word order.
Indirect statement
When the introductory verb is in the past tense, the verbs in the
subordinate clauses change according to the rules of the sequence of
tenses. (am was; is working was working; was had been; has
eaten had eaten; will be would be)
Exceptions:
1) Past tenses used in time clauses do not normally change: He said,
When we were living in Paris we often saw Paul He said that
when they were living in Paris they often saw Paul.
2) A past tense used to describe a state of affairs which still exists
when the speech is reported remains unchanged: She said, I decided
not to buy the house because it was on main road. She said she
had decided not to buy the house because it was on a main road.

3) The Past Continuous usually remains unchanged except when it

refers to a complete action: She said: We were thinking of selling the
house, but we have decided not to. She said that they had been
thinking of selling the house but had decided not to.
4) No sequences of tenses is used when verbs in reported statements
are in the Subjunctive: She said: I would help him if I could She
said that she would help him if she could.
5) Must in direct speech normally becomes had to, BUT when
expresses general obligation (He said, Every man must obey laws
He said that every man must obey laws.) and deduction (He said, It
must be cold outside He said that it must be cold outside.) must
remains unchanged.
Indirect questions
SAY changes into ask, inquire, wonder, want to know.
Indirect Commands
SAY changes into tell, order, command, ask.

2. The Noun.
A noun is a word that names a person, place, or thing.
There are four kinds of noun in English:
Common nouns name any one of a class of person, place, or thing:
dog, man, table.
Proper nouns name a specific person, place, or thing: France,
Madrid, Tom, Stieshkina
Abstract nouns denote some quality, state, action, or idea: beauty,
charity, courage, fear, joy.
Collective nouns name groups of people or things: crowd, group,
team.
A noun can function as the subject of a verb, the complement of a
verb, the object of a verb. A noun can also be in possessive case.
Noun has three genders: a masculine, feminine, neuter.
The plural form of a noun is usually made by adding -s to the
singular. But there some exceptions. A few words dont change their
plural form at all (aircraft, craft, counsel). Some words are always
plural and take a plural verb (clothes, police, pants, pyjamas, trousers,
binoculars, pilers, scissors, spectacles, glasses, scales, scales, shears,
etc.)
Some words are plural in form but singular in meaning (news, mums,
billiards, darts, draughts, dominoes.)

Uncountable nouns are always singular. These nouns are often

preceeded by some, any, no, a little.
There are also compound nouns: they are made of up of two or more
smaller words (kitchen table, hall door, river bank)
3. Modal verbs.
Modal verbs make up small group of structural words having certain
mantic and grammatical peculiarities.
The most important modal verbs are: can, may, must, need, ought,
should, shall, will. Besides, there is a group of the so-called
equivalents of modal verbs: to be (to), to have (to), to be able (to).
Modal verbs do not denote an action, but are used to express abstract
modal meanings of possibility, necessity, volition. Sometimes they are
also used to express different emotions such as doubt, surprise,
reproach, etc.
They are never used as independent parts of the sentence. They are
always used in combination with infinitive: e.g. You must not allow
children to do it.
Modal verbs express the grammatical categories of primary tense
and mood.
Indicative Mood
Present

Subjunctive Mood
Past

Can

Could

Could

May

Might

Might

Will

Would

Would

Some modal verbs, for instance must, should, ought, have only one
unchangeable form.
Modal verbs are called defective because they lack some grammatical
forms:
1) They do not take the s-inflexion in the 3rd person singular.
2) All of them lack verbals and analytical forms.
3) All of them, except ought and sometimes need, are followed by
the infinitive without participle to.
Probability:
First, they can be used when we want to say how sure we are that
something happened / is happening / will happen. We often call these
'modals of deduction' or 'speculation' or 'certainty' or 'probability'.
For example:
It's snowing, so it must be very cold outside.
I don't know where John is. He could have missed the train.
This bill can't be right. 200 for two cups of coffee!
Ability
We use 'can' and 'could' to talk about a skill or ability.
For example:
She can speak six languages.

My grandfather could play golf very well.

I can't drive.
Obligation and Advice
We can use verbs such as 'must' or 'should' to say when something is
necessary or unnecessary, or to give advice.
For example:
Children must do their homework.
We have to wear a uniform at work.
You should stop smoking.
Permission
We can use verbs such as 'can', 'could' and 'may' to ask for and give
permission. We also use modal verbs to say something is not allowed.
For example:
Could I leave early today, please?
You may not use the car tonight.
Can we swim in the lake?

4. The Participle.
PARTICIPLE I
I. The morphological characteristics. Participle I has the
grammatical categories of:
Voice
Active
Passive
Asking
Being asked
Writing
Being written
e.g. Reading the book, he tried to
make some notes.
Tense correlation
Non-perfect
Asking
Being asked
Writing
Being written
The
non-perfect
form
of
participle I of such verbs as to
enter, to arrive, to look, to
turn, etc. is used as an adverbial
modifier expresses priority:
e.g. Turning to his sister, he
grasped her hand.

e.g. The letter being written, went

to post it.
Perfect
Having asked
Having been asked
Having written
Having been written
Expresses priority:
e.g. Having written the letter he
went to post it.

II. The syntactical characteristics. Participle I has the following

functions in the sentence:
An
An
adverbial A
A part of the
attribute
modifier
parenthesis complex subject,
complex
object,
the
nominative
absolute
participial
construction

e.g. Here is
the
telegram
announcing
his arrival.
He came
up to the
crying
child.

a) of time: e.g. e.g. Frankly

When listening to speaking, you
her I understood are
wrong.
that she was upset. Taking
b) of cause: e.g. everything
Not knowing his into
new
telephone consideration,
number I could not she had a
get in touch with right to do it.
him.
c) of manner and
attending
circumstances: e.g.
For a moment they
stood
silently
looking at one
another. He ran
up to her, smiling
happily.
d) of comparison:
e.g. He peered at
me as if not
recognizing.
e) of concession:
e.g. He could not
catch up with her
though
working
very hard.
f) of condition:
Driving at this
speed, well be
there in no time.
PARTICIPLE II

a) the complex
object
(noun
in
the
common case or
pronoun in the
objective case +
participle I):
e.g. I hate you
talking like that.
b) the complex
subject
(noun
in
the
common case or a
pronoun in the
nominative case +
participle I):
e.g. Two people
were
heard
quarrelling.
c) the nominative
absolute participle
construction
(a noun in the
common case or a
pronoun in the
nominative case +
participle I):
e.g. He ran into the
room, his eyes
shining.

The morphological characteristics. Participle II has one form:

asked, written, sent, which may denote the action simultaneous with

the action of the verb-predicate or prior to it: e.g. This is the letter
written by you yesterday.
Participle II of objective verbs is always passive in meaning.
II. The syntactical characteristics. Participle II has the following
functions in the sentence:
An attribute The
An
adverbial A part of the
predicative
modifier
complex object
Look at that He
felt a) of time: When The
complex
broken cup. disappointed. asked he always object
with
Look at the She
was helped me.
participle II is
cup broken expensively
b)
of
clause: used after:
by you.
dressed.
Occupied by his 1) verbs with a
thoughts he didnt causative
hear my question. meaning
c) of condition: If denoting
that
asked he always something
is
helped me.
done or made for
d) of concession: the benefit of the
Though occupied person expressed
by his thoughts, he by the subject: I
willingly answered had my hair cut.
my question.
2) the verb of
e) of comparison: sense
He looked at me, perception:
as if bewildered by When I returned,
my question.
I found her gone.
3) the verbs
denoting wish: I
want the letter
posted at once.

5. Passive Voice.
Passive voice is used when the focus is on the action. It is not
important or not known, however, who or what is performing the
action.
Example: My bike was stolen.
In the example above, the focus is on the fact that my bike was stolen.
I do not know, who did it.
Sometimes a statement in passive is more polite than active voice, as
the following example shows:
Example: A mistake was made.
In this case, I focus on the fact that a mistake was made, but I do not
blame anyone (e.g. You have made a mistake.).
Form of Passive
Subject + finite form of to be + Past Participle (3rd column
of irregular verbs)
Example: A letter was written.
When rewriting active sentences in passive voice, note the following:
the object of the active sentence becomes the subject of the passive
sentence
the finite form of the verb is changed (to be + past participle)
the subject of the active sentence becomes the object of the passive
sentence (or is dropped)

Tense

Subject Verb

Object

Simple

Active: Rita

Present

Passive: A letter is written

by Rita.

Simple

Active: Rita

a letter.

Past

Passive: A letter was written

by Rita.

Present

Active: Rita

a letter.

Perfect

Passive: A letter has been written by Rita.

Future I

Active: Rita

Tense
Present

writes

a letter.

wrote

has written

will write

a letter.

Passive: A letter will be written

by Rita.

Subject Verb

Object

Active: Rita

is writing

a letter.

Continuous Passive: A letter is being written

by Rita.

Past

a letter.

Active: Rita

was writing

Continuous Passive: A letter was

being by Rita.

written
Past

Active: Rita

had written

a letter.

Perfect

Passive: A letter had been written by Rita.

Future II

Active: Rita

will have written a letter.

Passive: A letter will have been by Rita.

written
Conditional Active: Rita

would write

a letter.

Passive: A letter would be written by Rita.

Conditional Active: Rita

would

II

written

have a letter.

Passive: A letter would have been by Rita.

written

Verbs without an object (intransitive verb) normally cannot form

a personal passive sentence (as there is no object that can become
the subject of the passive sentence). If you want to use an
intransitive verb in passive voice, you need an impersonal
Example: he says it is said
Example: They say that women live longer than men. It is said
that women live longer than men.
or They say that women live longer than men. Women are
said to live longer than men.

6. The Gerund.
I. The morphological characteristics. The gerund has the
grammatical categories of:
Voice
Active
Passive
Asking
Being asked
Reading
Being read
e.g. She is fond of reading.
e.g. She is fond of being read
to.
Tense correlation
Non-Perfect
Perfect
Asking
Having asked
Being asked
Having been asked
Expresses priority:
Expresses priority:
after the prepositions on, He told me of her having gone
after
to the South for her holidays.
e.g. After reading the book he
returned it to the library.
after verbs of recollection,
gratitude, blame, reproach,
punishment and reward:
e.g. I regret telling him about it.
II. The syntactical characteristics. The gerund has the following
functions in the sentence:
A part of
The
the
An
An adverbial
An object
subject compound
attribute modifier
predicate
e.g.
a)
the a)
a
direct e.g. All a) of time:
Reading predicative: object after the liked the e.g. On entering
is useful e.g. Seeing verbs (to deny, idea of the room he
is believing to mind, to going to came up to me.
b) the part avoid, to delay, the
b) of manner
of
the etc.)
country and attending

compound
verbal
predicate:
e.g.
She
stopped
smoking

e.g.
Please,
avoid making
such mistakes.
b)aprepositional
object after the
verbs (to think
of, to insist on,
to thank for, to
prevent from,
etc.):
He
insisted
on
doing the work
himself.

circumstances:
e.g. He left the
room without
saying a word.
c)
of
concession:
e.g. In spite of
being tired they
decided to go
on with their
work.
d) of clause:
e.g. He didnt
say a word for
fear
of
interfering into
their
conversation.

7. THE VERB
Voice is a grammatical category of the verb which indicates the
relation between an action and its agent: It shows whether the subject is
the doer of the action or whether it is acted upon.
The verb in Modern English has two voice forms: the Active Voice
and the Passive Voice
The Active Voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the subject
is the doer of the action expressed by the predicate, i. e. the action is
performed by its subject: I write a letter.
The Passive Voice shows that the person or thing denoted by the
subject is acted upon, i. e. the subject is the recipient of the action: A
letter is written by me.
ACTIVE VOICE
The Present Simple Tense
A In the affirmative the present simple has the same form as the
infinitive but adds an s for the third person singular.
Irregular verbs form this tense in exactly the same way.

B Contractions: the verb do is normally contracted in the negative

and negative interrogative: I dont work, he doesnt work, dont I work?
doesnt he work?
C Spelling notes Verbs ending in ss, sh, ch, x and o add
es, instead of s alone, to form the third person singular: I kiss, he
kisses; I rush, he rushes; I do, he does; I watch, he watches; I go, he
goes.
When y follows a consonant we change the y into i and add
es: / carry, he carries; I copy, he copies; I try, he tries; but verbs
ending in y following a vowel obey the usual rule: I obey, he obeys; I
say, he says
The present simple used to express habitual action
A The main use of the present simple tense is to express habitual
actions: He smokes. Dogs bark. Cats drink milk.
B The present simple tense is often used
with adverbs or adverb phrases such as: always, never, occasionally,
often, sometimes, usually, every week, on Mondays, twice a year
etc.: How often do you wash your hair? 1 go to church on Sundays. It
rains in winter.
with time clauses expressing routine or habitual actions. Whenever
and when (= whenever) are particularly useful: Whenever it rains the
roof leaks. When you open the door a light goes on.
C chiefly with the verb say, when we are asking about or quoting
from books, notices or very recently received letters: What does that
notice say? It says, No parking.
D It can be used in newspaper headlines: MASS MURDERER
ESCAPES PEACE TALKS FAIL
E It can be used for dramatic narrative (describing the action of a play,
opera etc., and is often used by radio commentators at sports events,
public functions etc.) : When the curtain rises, Juliet is writing at her
desk. Suddenly the window opens and a masked man enters.
F It can be used for a planned future action or series of actions,
particularly when they refer to a journey. We leave London at 10.00

next Tuesday and arrive in Paris at 13.00. We spend two hours in

Paris and leave again at 15.00.
8. THE INFINITIVE
As a verb the infinitive has the grammatical categories of voice,
aspect and tense correlation.
The category of voice: ()
active: to teach
passive: to be taught
The category of aspect:
active: to teach
passive: to be teaching ()
The category of tense correlation: (perfect expresses priority;
; , )
non-perfect: to teach

perfect: to have taught

ought
should
fulfilled action
could
the verbs expressing hope or intention

+ perfect form = not

You could have helped them (but you didnt)

must
may (might)

+ perfect form = regard to a prior action

She must have forgotten to ring them up.

The infinitive has the following functions in the sentence:

1) the subject: It was a real pleasure to speak to her.

2) the predicative: The important thing is to repeat all the rules.
3) an object: He promised to come in time.
4) an attributive: He is the article to be translated at once.
5) an adverbial modifier: I am too excited to be quiet.
6) a parenthesis ( in combinations to tell the truth, to be more exact,
to start with): To tell the truth, I was disappointed by that letter.
7) a part of the complex object, the complex subject and forcomplexes with the infinitive.
A) THE COMPLEX OBJECT noun/pronoun + an infinitive
1) the verbs of physical perception (to hear, to see, to feel, to
watch) without to
I saw him cross the street.
2) the verbs of mental perception (to think, to consider, to
remember, to know, to find) I know him to have said him.
3) the verbs expressing permission, request, order
He ordered the children to stop talking.
4) the verbs of liking and disliking (to love, to like, to hate)
I hate you to talk like that.
5) the verbs of intentions (to want, to wish, to mean)
I want you to help me.
B) THE COMPLEX SUBJECT noun/pronoun + infinitive
1) the verbs of speech (to say, to inform) He said to be a famous
actor.
2) the verbs of physical perception (to see, to hear, to observe)
He was seen to cross the street.

3) the verbs of mental perception (to know, to consider, to think)

He is know to be a famous singer.
4) the verbs of order, request, permission.
the rule.

He was made to repeat

5) some other verbs (to appear, to seem, to happen, to prove, to

turn out) and the combination to be+ adjective The child seems to
be asleep.
C) FOR-COMPLEXES
noun/pronoun + infinitive

WITH

THE

INFINITIVE

for

have the following functions in the sentence:

1) the subject: For him to help his first friend is quite natural.
2) the predicative: The question is for you to decide.
3) an object: I am anxious for you to come.
4) an attribute: This is the book for you to read.
5) an adverbial modifier: He made a remark in a voice too low for
me to catch.

9. NUMERALS
The numeral is apart of speech which indicates number or the order
of persons and things in a series.
Accordingly numerals are divided into cardinals (cardinal numerals)
and ordinals (ordinal numerals).
Cardinal numerals
Cardinal numerals indicate exact number, they are used in counting.
As to their structure, the cardinal numerals from 1 to 12 and 100,

1000, 1,000,000 are simple words (one, two, three, etc., hundred,
thousand, million)', those from 13 to 19 are derivatives with the suffix
-teen (thirteen, fourteen, etc.)', the cardinal numerals indicating
tens are formed by means of the suffix -ty (twenty, thirty, etc.). The
numerals from 21 to 29, from 31 to 39, etc. are composite: twentytwo, thirty-five, etc.
Such cardinal numerals as hundred, thousand, million may be
used with articles (a hundred, a thousand, a million)', they maybe
substantivized and used in the plural (hundreds, thousands, millions).
When used after other numerals they do not take - s (two
hundred times, thirty thousand years etc.).
The word million may be used with or without -s (two million,
two millions).
Points to notice about cardinal numbers
a is more usual than one before hundred, thousand,
million etc., when these numbers stand alone or begin an expression:
100 a hundred, 1,000 a thousand, 100,000a hundred
thousand.
The words hundred, thousand, million and dozen,
when used of a definite number, are never made plural: six hundred
men, ten thousand pounds, two dozen eggs.
If however, these words are used loosely, merely to convey the
idea of a large number, they must be made plural: hundreds of
people, thousands of birds, dozens of times. Note also that in this case
the preposition of is placed after hundreds, thousands etc.
Note the collective numbers. 6 a half dozen/half a dozen; 12
a/one dozen; 20 a/one score; 24 is two dozen not two dozens;
144 a/one gross; three score years and ten (Biblical) 70 years,
the traditional average life-span of man.
Decimals (decimal fractions) are indicated by , which is read
point: 10 92 ten point nine two. A zero after a decimal point is
usually read nought: 8*04 eight point nought four.
When writing in words or reading fractions (vulgar fractions)
other than l/2 (a half) and 1/4 (a quarter), we use a combination of
cardinal and ordinal numbers: l/5 a/one fifth, 1/I0a lone one tenth
(a is more usual than "one).
Ordinal numerals
Ordinal numerals show the order of persons and things in a series.

With the exception of the first three (first, second, third) the ordinal
numerals are formed from cardinal numerals by means of the suffix
-th.
In ordinal groups only the last member of the group takes the ordinal
form: (the) sixty-fifth, (the) twenty-third.
Ordinal numerals are generally used with the definite article (the
first, the fifth, the tenth, etc.). Ordinal numerals may be used with the
indefinite article when they do not show a definite order of persons
and things in a series:
Points to notice about ordinal numbers
irregular spelling of fifth, eighth, ninth and twelfth.
When ordinal numbers are expressed in figures the last two letters
of the written word must be added (except in dates): first = 1st,
twenty-first = 21st, second = 2nd, forty-second = 42nd, third = 3rd,
sixty-third = 63rd, fourth = 4th, eightieth = 80th.
In compound ordinal numbers the rule about and is the same as
for compound cardinal numbers: 101 = the hundred and first.
The article the normally precedes ordinal numbers: the sixtieth
day, the fortieth visitor.
Dates are expressed by ordinal numbers, so when speaking we
say: March the tenth, July the fourteenth etc. or the tenth of March
etc. The year
10. THE SENTENCE
The sentence is the smallest unit of speech conveying a thought and
built in accordance with the laws of grammar.
It serves as a unit of communication. By using sentences in
conversation and in writing one tells something to others, asks them
about something or makes them do something: I am ready. Are you
ready? Get ready.
Unlike a word or word-group, a sentence is always characterized by
a certain intonation.

The centre of sentence is the predication formed by the subjectpredicate structure.

I According to the purpose of the utterance we distinguish this
sentences as:
1) Declarative (statements)
2) Interrogative (questions). There are 4 types:
general questions
special questions
alternative
disjunctive
3) Imperative (requests or commands);
4) Exlamatory.

II According to its structure the sentence is

simple
composite
Sentences with only one predication are called SIMPLE.
Sentences with more than one predication are COMPOSITE.
SIMPLE sentences may be complete or incomplete in form.
1) elliptical are called sentences with some part omitted for the sake
of conciseness of style. They are chiefly used in colloquial speech and
especially in dialogue.
2) one-word represent a special type existing in the language
alongside of the prevailing subject-predicate structure. They are
widely used in emotional speech.
SIMPLE s of both types may be extended or unextended.

 extended contains only subject or predicate without no other

parts.
unextended contains some other words besides the predication.
A sentence with two or more subjects to one predicate or two or
more predicate to one subject is called a contracted sentence.
1) Declarative
sentences
(statements)
2) Interrogative
sentences
(questions):

state the facts in He always comes

the affirmative or late.
negative form
He doesnt come
so early.
ask
questions.
There are 4 types
of it:

a) general questions

Require the answer Are you going

yes or no; they are there?
uttered with a Do you know it?
rising intonation.

b) special questions

Begin with the

interrogative word
showing what kind
of information is
required. They are
pronounced with a
failing intonation.

Imply
choice.
Structurally they
are formed with
two interrogative
clauses. The first
clause is spoken
with
a
rising
intonation,
the

c) alternative
questions

What are you

doing?
When will he
come?

Are you going or

are you staying?

second with the

falling one.
d) disjunctive
(also tail- or tagquestions
questions) require
the answer yes or
no.
Structurally
they are complex
sentences,
the
principal
clause
being a statement
and the subordinate
clause a short
general question.
3) Imperative
serve to induce a
sentences (requests person
to
do
or commands)
something.
4) Exclamatory
Express
various
sentences
emotions, such as
joy,
anger,
surprise, sorrow,
etc.

It is very cold
today, isn`t it?
A few people
knew the answer,
didn`t they? BUT:
Few people knew
the answer, did
they.

Open the door,

please.
Stop talking!
What a lovely
day!
How wonderful!

11. THE PRONOUN

I. Personal pronouns
II. Possessive adjectives and pronouns
III. Reflexive pronouns
IV. Emphasizing pronouns
V. Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns (this/these,
that/those)
VI. Distributive pronouns (all, each, every, everyone, everybody,
everything)
VII. BOTH
VIII. neither, either
IX. Indefinite/negative adjectives and pronouns (some, any, no
and none)
X. someone, somebody, something, anyone, anybody, anything,
no one, nobody, nothing
XI. another, other, others with one and some A another, other,
others
XII. Interrogatives: wh-? words and how?
I Personal pronouns
first person
second person
third person

Singular
I me
you - you
he/she/it
him/her/it

Plural
we us
you you
they them

Use of subject and object forms

I, he, she, we, they can be subjects of a verb: He knows you.

They live here. or complements of the verb to be: It is I. Normally,

however, we use the object forms here:
Who is it? Its me. Wheres Tom? Thats him over there.

me, him, her, us, them can be direct objects of a verb: I saw
her. Tom likes them, or indirect objects: Bill found me a job. Ann
gave him a book, or objects of a preposition: with him, for her,
without them, to us.
II Possessive adjectives and pronouns
Possessive
adjectives
my
your
his/her/its
our
your
their

Possessive
pronouns
mine
yours
his/hers
ours
yours
theirs

Possessive adjectives in English refer to the possessor and not

to the thing possessed. Everything that a man or boy possesses
is his thing; everything that a woman or girl possesses is her
thing: Toms father is his father. But Marys father is her
father.
Everything that an animal or thing possesses is its thing: A tree
drops its leaves in autumn. A happy dog wags its tail.
But if the sex of the animal is known, his/her would often be
used. If there is more than one possessor, their is used: The
girls are with their brother. Trees drop their leaves in autumn.
Possessive adjectives are used with clothes and parts of the
body: She changed her shoes. He injured his back.

 To add emphasis, own can be placed after my, your, his

etc. and after ones: my own room, her own idea.
The expression of mine, etc. means one of my, etc. : a
friend of mine = one of my friends, a sister of hers = one of
her sisters.
Reflexive pronouns
These are: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves,
yourselves, themselves.
Note the difference between the second person singular
yourself, and the second person plural yourselves.
The indefinite reflexive/emphasizing pronoun is oneself.
III

IV

Emphasizing pronouns

myself etc. can also be used to emphasize a noun or pronoun: The

King himself gave her the medal, -self is then stressed in speech.
When used in this way the pronoun is never essential and can be
omitted without changing the sense. It usually emphasizes the subject
of the sentence and is placed after it: Ann herself opened the door.
V Demonstrative adjectives and pronouns (this/these, that/those)
Used as adjectives, they agree with their nouns in number. They are
the djcctivcs to do this: This beach was quite empty last year. These
people come hat hotel over there. What does that notice say ? Do you
see those birds at the 'he tree?
this/these/that/those + noun + of + yours/hers etc. ox Anns etc. is
some- for emphasis, used instead of your/her etc. + noun: This diet
of mine/My 17 having much effect. That car of Anns/Anns car is
always breaking down. Xmarks made with these phrases are usually,
though not necessarily always, unable.
this/these, that/those used as pronouns: This is my umbrella. Thats
yours, are the old classrooms Those are the new ones.

VI Distributive pronouns (all, each, every, everyone, everybody,

everything)
A all" compared to every means a number of people or things
considered as a group while every means a number of people or
things considered individually.
B each (adjective and pronoun) and every (adjective)
! each means a number of persons or things considered
individually.
! every can have this meaning but with every there is less
emphasis on the individual.
Every man had a weapon means All the men had weapons
Each man had a weapon implies that the speaker went to each man
in turn and checked that he had a weapon.
! each is a pronoun and adjective: Each (man) knows what to do.
! every is an adjective only: Every man knows ....
! each can be used of two or more persons or things, and is
normally used of small numbers, every is not normally used of very
small numbers.
Both take a singular verb. The possessive adjective is his/her/its.
! everyone/everybody + singular verb is normally preferred to
all (the) people + plural verb, i.e. we say Everyone is ready instead
of All the people are ready. There is no difference between
everyone and everybody.
! everything is similarly preferred to all (the) things, i.e. we
say Everything has been wasted instead of All the things have been
wasted.
! The expressions all (the) people, all (the) things are possible
when followed by a phrase or clause: All the people in the room
clapped. I got all the things you asked for. Otherwise they are rarely
used.

VII BOTH
! both means one and the other. It takes a plural verb, both
can be used alone or followed by a noun: Both (doors) were open or
by (of) + the/these/those or possessives: both (of) the wheels, both
(of) your wheels or by of + us/you/ them: Both of us knew him.
VIII neither, either
! neither means not one and not the other. It takes an
affirmative singular verb. I tried both keys but neither (of them)
worked. Neither of them knew the way/Neither boy knew
! Pronouns and possessive adjectives with neither/either used of
people should technically be he/him, she/her and his/her, but in
colloquial English the plural forms are generally used: Neither of
them knows the way, do they? Neither of them had brought their
passports.
! neither nor + affirmative verb is an emphatic way of
combining two negatives
IX Indefinite/negative adjectives and pronouns (some, any, no and
none)
1. some and any mean a certain number or amount. They are
used with or instead of plural or uncountable nouns. Some is a
possible plural form of a/an and one: Have a biscuit/some
biscuits.
2. . some is used:
! With affirmative verbs
! In questions where the answer yes is expected
! In offers and requests:

3. any is used:
! With negative verbs: + hardly, barely, scarcely, without,
if/whether, no, none. I havent any matches.
no and none can be used with affirmative verbs to express a
negative: / have no apples. I had some last year but I have none this
year.
some or any used with singular, countable nouns
any can mean practically every, no particular (one): Any
dictionary will give you the meaning of these words.
X someone, somebody, something, anyone, anybody, anything, no
one, nobody, nothing
Compounds with some, any and no follow the above rules:
Someone/Somebody gave you a ticket for the pop concert. No
one/Nobody has ever given me a free ticket for anything. Do you want
anything from the chemist?
someone, somebody, anyone, anybody, no one, nobody can be
possessive: Someones passport has been stolen. Is this
somebodys/anybodys seat? I dont want to waste anyones time.
XI another, other, others with one and some A another, other,
others
Adjective
Pronoun
Singular
Plural

another
other

another
others

XII Interrogatives: wh-? words and how?

For persons:
subject
who (pronoun)

object
possessive

For things:
subject/object

whom, who
(pronoun)
whose (pronoun and
adjective)

what (pronoun and

adjective)

For persons or things when the choice is restricted:

subject/object
which (pronoun and adjective)
The same form is used for singular and plural, what can also be
used for persons.

12. The principal parts of the sentence

Simple sentences may be extended and unextended.
An unextended sentence contains no other parts but the subject and
predicate (or only principal part)
An extended sentence contains some other words besides predication.
A sentence with 2 or more subjects to one predicate or two or more
predicates to one subject is called a contracted sentence (with
homogenous parts parts of sentence used in the same function
and connected by coordination) (Ana and Uli like reading books).
_______________
Parts of sentence
Principal subject and predicate
Secondary (dependent on principal) attributes, objects,
adverbial modifiers.
Transitive verbs always take objects.
Parenthetical parts of the sentence are not dependent on any other
part of sentence (Oh, possibly, Mr.Butt direct address,
Subject.
The subject is the independent part of predication, on which the
second part of the predicate depends grammatically.
It denotes a living being, a lifeless thing, or an idea spoken about in
the sentence.
Subject expressed by a noun, noun-pronoun, a numeral, an infinitive,
a gerund, a clause.
The pronoun IT can be used as a structural subject in apposition to the
real subject which occurs later in the sentence. (It is wrong to think
so)
Anticipatory IT can be used to emphasizing some other part of the
sentence.
Sometimes, particularly before BE, the word THERE occurs in the
position of subject.
The predicate

The predicate is a principal part of the sentence. It expresses an

action, or a state characterizing the subject. The predicate contains
mood and tense components. It depends on subject in number and
forms of person.
According to the meaning predicates can be verbal or nominal or
double (verbal-nominal)
Verbal predicate expresses the action of the subject.
A nominal predicate gives the qualitative characteristic of the
subject.
According to the structure the predicate may be simple and
compound.
A simple predicate expressed by one verb. And it can be a finite verb
or a phraseological equivalent of a finite verb. (Have a look)
Compound Predicate can be:
Nominal (consists of a linking verb+ a predicative expressed by
nominal element) I am a student.
Verbal
! The compound verbal modal predicate consists of a finite verb
with modal meaning + infinitive (Smth must happen, likely to
accept)
!

The compound verbal aspect predicate (would+inf) (used+inf

repeated action) (duration/beginning of action+ inf/gerund)

!

The group-verb predicate (verb/intention try, seem, happen,

stand, come +infinitive or participle)

Mixed types of compound Predicate include elements of different
types (It cannot be true modal nominal predicate)
Double Predicate or Verbal-Nominal Predicate
The sun rose bright.
The 1st component is a finite verb
The 2nd part is a nominal word

13 The Adverb
The Adverb is part of speech which usually describe verbs, adjective,
other adverb
Classification of adverbs:
1)Adverb of the time: today, yesterday, now, etc.
2)Adverb of place: here, there, anywhere, up, down, etc.
3)Adverb of direction: forward, backward, away, etc.
4)Adverb of manner: quickly, quietly, kindly, etc.
5)Adverb of frequency: once, twice, often, always, etc.
6)Adverb of degree: very, rather, quite, etc.
Exceptions:
a) Adj ending in -ly have no adverb form.
b) The following adverb have the same form as their adjectives: high,
low, near, far, hard, fast, early, late, much, little.
c) The adverbs in -ly formed from the same root have different
meaning.
There are some adverbs formed from the roots of pronouns, the socalled pronominal adverbs. They include adverbs of all kinds and
indicate time, place, manner, etc. in a relative way, similar to the
found in pronouns.
Within this group of pronominal adverbs there is found a group of
conjunctive adverbs: when, where, how, etc.
Degrees of comparison:
a) In most cases they are formed by adding more and the most:
quickly-more quickly- the most quickly
b) One-syllable adverbs, however, add -er, -est: hard-harder-the
hardest
c)The adverb early forms degrees pf comparison in the same way as
one-syllable adj.: early-earlier-the earliest
d)Irregular forms: well-better-the best

14. Secondary parts of the sentence

The secondary parts of the sentence are also called complements.
They are represented by attributes, objects, adverbial modifiers.
The attribute is a secondary part of the sentence qualifying a noun
or noun equivalent.
They may be qualitative (the blue sky), quantitative (6 days) and
circumstantial (his study in Berlin).
Ways of expressing attributes
! An adjective dark clouds
! A noun with preposition story of my life
! A numeral only 5 minutes left
! An adverb All outside was quiet
! A verbal or verbal complex this was difficult task for me to do
! A group of attributes he was a man of action, forced into a
state of thought
! A clause do you remember the day we were together?
! Extended attributive groups - she had dont touch me or I will
kill you look
Kinds of attribute
! Attribute can be restrictive or non-restrictive
An attribute place before it's head-word is called a prepositive
attribute. Prepositive expressed by word having the meaning of
quality and quantity.
An attribute placed after its head word is called a post positive
attribute.
When we have homogeneous attributes we should use them in
such order of adjectives
! Own opinion
! Size

! Age
! Shape
! Color
! Origin
! Material
Description of appearance: Height/ Build/ Age/ Facial features/
Hair/ Clothes
A postpositive attribute is usually expressed by a group of words:
! A prepositional phrase (a girl of about 7 dreams to see a unicorn)
! A verbal construction (there is nowhere else for you to go)
! An attributibe clause ( That is what I need)
! An adjective word group
! Adjectives in able ible (possible, imaginable)
! Adj with the prefix a- (I will stay alive)
! Some adj of French origin
! Some adverbs ( I heard his voice upstairs)
! An infinitive ( The President had no comment to make)
! Participle II (the methods used)
Apposition attribute denotes the class or group to which the
modifier belongs / It may be a title, profession, geographical name (
Uncle Tom, Professor Higgins )
Detached apposition is separated from headword with commas, and
has its own stress (John, my eldest son,)
Can be expressed by
! A group of homogeneous adjectives

The Adverbial Modifier

Ways of expressing
Kinds of it (according Position
to meaning)
! A prepositional phrase (The sky of clear bright blue, began to
darken)
! An absolute construction (He saw his father black coated.)
They can modify proper names and pronouns.
Object
Object is a secondary part of the sentence completing or
restricting the meaning of the verb.
*Predicate should be transitive verb or its phraseological
equivalent.
Ways of expressing:
! A noun ( Im solving a puzzle)
! Noun-pronoun (I promise nothing)
! Infinitive or gerund (Shes good at cooking)
! Infinitive or participial complex (she saw a car riding along the
road)
! A clause ( I know what you mean)
Kinds of object
! Prepositional (used after verbs) preposotionless.
! Direct and indirect

" by an adverb;
" expressions of the
type at hand, by
chance, side by side,
tooth and nail, etc.;
" by a prepositional
phrase
" by a noun-word
group (without
preposition);
" a noun with an
attribute in postposition;
" by a verbal or its
complex;
" by a conjunctive
phrase;
" by a clause.

of time and
frequency;
of place and
direction;
of manner or
attending
circumstances;
of clause or reason;
of purpose;
of result;
of condition;
of concession.

! A.M. of frequency
(always, never,
often, seldom) are
placed before the
predicate.
! of degree, measure
and manner are
placed either after
the verb or after the
direct object.
! of time and place
are put either at the
end or at the
beginning.
! such modifiers as
never, no sooner,
only, only now, up,
in, off, away, so,
thus, etc. when
placed at the
beginning, may
invert word order.
now, up, in, off,
away, so, thus, etc.
when placed at the
beginning, may
invert word order.

15 The adjective
Adjectives describe nouns. They have same forms in the singular
and plural. They go before nouns, but after the verbs be, look, smell,
sound, fell, etc.
There are opinion adjectives(show what a person thinks of somebody
or something) and fact adjectives(give us factual information about
size, age, color, origin, material, etc).
Degrees of comparison
There are three degrees of comparison:
1) Positive: big
2) Comparative: bigger
3) Superlative: the biggest
Forming degrees of comparison:
a) One-syllable adj form their comparative and superlative be adding
-er and -es to the positive form (synthetical way)
b) Adj of three or more syllables from their comparative and
superlative by putting more and most before the positive
(analytical way)
c) Adj of two syllables follow one or other of above rules
Those ending in -ful or -re usually take more and most:
careful-more careful the most careful
Those ending in -er, -y and -ly add -er, -est: clevercleverer-the cleverest
d) Irregular degrees of comparison: good-better-the best
e) A few adj have two forms of comparison: the second form has a
special meaning and is actually a different word.
Far-further-the furthest(of distance and time)
Far-farther-the farthest(of distance only)
f) In compound adj the first element forms degrees of comparison
with -er, -est(If the two elements retain their separate meaning):
well-known - better-known the best-known

16.Word order
Word order in English is of much greater importance than in
Ukrainian. Due to the wealth of inflexions word order in Ukrainian is
rather free as the inflexions show the function of each word in a
sentence. As English words have hardly any inflexions and their
relation to each other is shown by their place in the sentence and not
by their form word order in English is fixed.
We cannot change the position of different parts of the sentence,
especially the subject and the object.
In Ukrainian such changes of word order are in most cases
possible.
Example of direct word order in an English declarative
sentence:
1. the subject;
2. the predicate;
3. objects;
4. adverbial modifier.
Any deviation from the rigid word order is termed inversion,
e.g. Often has he recollected the glorious days of the Civil War.
The direct object is usually placed after the verb unless the
indirect object precedes it, e.g. He offered me his help. Sometimes the
object is pushed to the front of the sentence, it occurs when:
1. The direct object is an interrogative word, which is naturally
placed at the head of the sentence to form a special question, e.g.
What did you do?
2. The object is separated from its verb by some other parts of the
sentence adverbial complements, prepositional objects when it is
intentionally placed at the end of the sentence for the sake of
emphasis, logical stress, e.g. And unexpectedly he saw against the
background of the forest two approaching figures.
The indirect object cannot be used in the sentence without the
direct object. The indirect object is regularly put before the direct
object. The prepositional objects can be put at the head of the sentence
for the sake of emphasis.

Occasionally the prepositional object is placed before the direct

object (in to-phrases).
Adverbial modifiers-the position of AM in the sentence is
known to be comparatively more free that that of other parts.
Those which are most closely linked with the part of the
sentence they modify are the ones that denote the frequency or the
property of an action. They come between the subject and the
predicate, or even inside the predicate if it consists of two words-an
auxiliary and a notional verb, or two elements of a compound
predicate.
The more usual position of the adverbial modifiers of time and
place is before or after object. If it contains the main new things to be
conveyed, this adverbial modifier will have to come at the end of the
sentence. The adverbial modifier of time can go at the beginning of
the sentence.
An adverbial modifier can also come in between two
components of the predicate.
Attributes- consisting of a prepositional phrase can only come
after its head word. As to adjectival attributes, their usual position is
before their headword, but in some case they follow it. An attribute
expressed by an adverb may come before its headword.
Certain types of sentences require the inverted order of word:
1)Interrogative sentences. In most of them the inversion is partial as
only part of the predicate is placed before the subject (Where did they
find her?). The whole predicate is placed before the subject when it is
expresseb by the verb TO BE and TP HAVE (Is she at school?)
2) Sentences introduced by THERE
3) Compound sentences, their second part beginning with SO or
neither
4) Simple exclamatory sentences expressing wish (Be it so!)

17. The Article (c. 529 usage with proper names)

The article is a structural word specifying the noun. An article is a
word that is used before a noun to show whether the noun refers to
something specific or not.
Article the, usually referred to as the definite article, and a/an, the
indefinite article.
Definite Articlethe
Can be used before singular and plural, countable and uncountable
nouns.
Definite Article (the)
Used to indicate a noun that is definite or has been previously
specified in the context (Before a noun that is mentioned 2nd
time.):
Please close the door.
I like the clothes you gave me.
Used to indicate a noun that is unique:
Praise the Lord!
The Columbia River is near here.
Used to designate a natural phenomenon:
The nights get shorter in the summer.
The wind is blowing so hard.
Used to refer to a time period:
I was very nave in the past.
This song was very popular in the 1980s.
Used to indicate all the members of a family:
I invited the Bakers for dinner.
This medicine was invented by the Smiths.
Before superlatives
Indefinite Articlesa, an

anused before singular count nouns beginning with a vowel (a, e,

i, o, u) or vowel sound: an apple, an elephant, an issue, an orange
aused before singular count nouns beginning with consonants: a
stamp, a desk, a TV, a cup, a book
Used before singular nouns that are unspecified: a pencil an
orange
Used before a singular noun followed by a restrictive modifier:
a girl who was wearing a yellow hat
Used with nouns to form adverbial phrases of quantity,
amount, or degree: I felt a bit depressed.
Before singular countable nouns that specify an example of of a
class of things (A child needs love All children need love).
With a noun complement that includes names of profession (He
is an actor).
In some expressions of quantity (a lot of, a couple, a dozen)
Before half when half follows the whole number (half a kilo)
In exclamation before singular countable nouns (Such a good
day today!)
Zero Article
The rules for using articles are fairly straightforward. However,
sometimes we dont use any article at all. In other words, we use
a zero article. These rules are explained below.
We dont use an article if were talking about things in general
(i.e. were not talking about a specific example) or with noncountable nouns: Do you like cheese? He adores dancing.

Proper nouns or names dont usually take an article: I saw

Rhianna in the high street!
When we use a noun with a preposition we often do not use an
article (that is, we just use the noun on its own): I went to school
but left my books at home.
When we talk about an institution, we use the zero article.
When we talk about it as a physical building, however, we use the:
He was taken to court to be tried; in the court he met an old friend.
(Do not use article before) Nouns in this group include: bed,
church, class, college, court, home, hospital, market, prison, school,
sea, town, university, work.
In general we use the zero article (i.e. no article) with planets.
Mars has 2 known moons while Saturn has 62 known moons.
Also We also dont use an article with:
years 1961, 1995, 2000
seasons & months Winter, February
festivals Easter
continents Africa, Asia, America, Europe
days Monday, Tuesday
parts of day/night midnight, midday, noon, night
magazines Cosmopolitan, Vogue, GQ
countries America, Britain, Arabia
cities & towns London, New York, Tokyo, Sydney, Cairo
streets
Acacia Avenue, Pall Mall, Sunset Boulevard
named buildings
Buckingham Palace, Number 10
airports Heathrow, Gatwick, Los Angeles International
mountains Everest, K2, Mont Blanc
games
football, tennis, bar billiards, cards
Exceptions include: the Hague; the Matterhorn; the Mall; the
White House, the United States of America.

18. Sequence of tenses

By sequence of tenses we mean the back shifting of tenses in
reported speech if the introductory verb used in the main clause is in
the past.
When we change direct speech into indirect tenses change as
follows.

The back shifting of tenses is quite natural when the fact reported
belongs definitely to the past. (He told me that she was ill, but now (he
tells me that) she is all right again).
Very frequently the shifting is not required logically. The speaker
simply goes on speaking in the tense adapted to the main idea.
Thus there may be 2 kinds of sequence of tenses: formal and
logical.
The former is normally used in the object clauses, no matter how
illogical it may look.
However formal sequence of tenses is not observed where logical
time relations are of more significance than formal rules. (Columbus
proved that the earth is round).
BUT (I thought you were a gentleman. (now I see youre not).

19. Subjunctive mood

The subjunctive mood is the verb form used to express a wish, a
suggestion, a command, or a condition that is contrary to fact.
The form of a verb in the subjunctive mood may differ from the
form with the same subject which is not in the subjunctive mood. For
example:
I was in your position two years ago.
(not in the subjunctive mood)
If I were in your position, I would do the same.
(subjunctive mood)
In English, the subjunctive mood is used to explore conditional or
imaginary situations.
Subjunctive I is seldom used in Modern English. It is more used in
American English, in language of official documents. (Im truly sorry
to have been such a failure, Ann). Subjunctive I represent the action as
desirable or undesirable, suggested, advised. Used to express
necessity, suggestion, advice.
Subjunctive II represents the action as contrary to reality (Oh, I
wish Id never seen him). = BE+ PAST PARTICIPLE. Subjunctive
II represents the action as unreal.
Subjunctive II has two forms perfect and non-perfect.
Perfect express priority or actions that are not fulfilled.
Non-perfect express simultaneous action (She wished the house
were built).
An independent use of subjunctive II express: advice, preference,
wish and condition.
Wish
Wish about future = wish+ could/would + base form (I wish that
baby would stop crying).
Wish about present = wish+ past simple (I wish I caught an
earlier flight)

Wish about past = Wish + Past perfect (I wish I hadnt eaten that
airplane food).
Conditionals
Zero conditional - This conditional is used when the result will
always happen. So, if water reaches 100 degrees, it always boils. It's a
fact. (We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present
simple verbs).
First conditional - The first conditional has the present simple
after 'if', then the future simple in the other clause. It's used to talk
about things which might happen in the future.
If it rains, I won't go to the park.
The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would'
and the infinitive
First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are
probably not going to be true. Maybe I'm imagining some dream for
example.
If I won the lottery, I would buy a big house.(I probably won't
win the lottery)
Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which
is impossible, because it's not true. Is that clear? Have a look at the
examples:
If I had his number, I would call him. (I don't have his number
now, so it's impossible for me to call him).
We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if'
and then 'would have' and the past participle in the second part of the
sentence:
It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't
happen, and to imagine the result of this situation.
If I hadn't eaten so much, I wouldn't have felt sick (but I did eat a
lot, and so I did feel sick).
Mixed Conditional
(Past Condition, Present Result) - (Present Condition, Past Result)

Used to express hypothetical or alternative past situations and their

probable effects on the present or past.
Carl wouldnt be in trouble if he had listened to his friends advice.
(Carl is in trouble and he didnt listen to his friends advice.)

20. Composite Sentences

Composite sentences
There are sentences with 2 or more predications. They are divided
into 2 types: compound and complex.
2 clauses connected semantically and grammatically. Each clause
has subject and predicate of its own.
Clauses can be connected syndetically ( by means of conjunctions)
or asyndetically (without any connectors) .
Difference between compound and complex sentences in relation
of coordination and subordination.
The clause of compound sentence is independent (sequence of
simple sentences).
In complex sentence clauses are connected by means of
subordination to head clause.
Compound
Consists of 2 or more clauses coordinated with each other. Usually
its clauses have logical sequence of actions.
Types of coordination:
1) Copulative meaning of agreement (and, neither)
2) Adversative - meaning of opposition (but, still)
3) Disjunctive meaning of choice (or, else, otherwise)
4) Causative meaning of cause and effect ( for, so)
5) Clause of result (because)
Correlative clause with correlative conjunction. (Hardly I came
to station when train started)

1st caluse has its partial invertion (not only, butno sooner , than)
2nd part is more significant semanticaly.
Consecutive clauses
The second clause of this sentences is introduced by the conjunctive
pronoun WHICH.
This clause is not subordinated by to the first but its a kind of
afterthought, developing idea.
(I had to have my car filled, which held me up)
*** resemble complex sentence with attributive clause. Difference
that attributive clause is subordinated to some part of the principal
clause. (I had to take my new car, which I bought a week ago)