Commentary: Speed Does Matter in Reading

Author(s): Timothy V. Rasinski

Source: The Reading Teacher, Vol. 54, No. 2, Children's Choices for 2000 Phonemic Awareness
Multiple Sign Systems (Oct., 2000), pp. 146-151
Published by: International Reading Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/20204889
Accessed: 17/03/2010 10:53

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use, available at
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp. JSTOR's Terms and Conditions of Use provides, in part, that unless
you have obtained prior permission, you may not download an entire issue of a journal or multiple copies of articles, and you
may use content in the JSTOR archive only for your personal, non-commercial use.

Please contact the publisher regarding any further use of this work. Publisher contact information may be obtained at
http://www.jstor.org/action/showPublisher?publisherCode=ira.

Each copy of any part of a JSTOR transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or printed
page of such transmission.

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

International Reading Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to The
Reading Teacher.

http://www.jstor.org
Timothy V. Rasinski.
Commentary

does matter
Speed
Reading ratecan be a toolfor in
reading
assessing students'performance.
Authenticinstructional
activities
can thenbe woven intothe
readingprogram.

s a directorof a university diagnostic ing standard informal reading inventory proce

reading clinic, I see children of all dures. What we found surprised us.
ages who, for one reason or another, The informal reading inventory criteria
are making poor progress in learning to read. showed that students' comprehension and word
Our job in the reading clinic is to determine the recognition were, on average, at their frustration
nature and source of the child's reading prob level?but they were near the threshold for
lem and suggest (and implement) instructional instructional-level reading. In other words, com
interventions for helping the child improve. prehension and word recognition were poor, but
Often the children we see in our clinic demon it wouldn't take muchimprovement to move
strate remarkable have excel their performance to an instructional level.
strengths. Many
lent vocabularies; know the of Reading rate, however, was a different story.
they meanings
many words. Others manage to read with few er When reading passages at their grade level, these
rors in word recognition. Still others often students, who their teachers identified as strug
demonstrate high levels of comprehension, even gling readers, read at a rate that was approxi
when their oral reading of a passage is marked mately 60% of their instructional level reading

by a large number of uncorrected word recogni rate; for a passage below their grade level the rate
tion errors. One of the most common manifes was 50% (Rasinski, 1999). Clearly reading rate,
tations of reading problems in the children we or speed, was a significant factor in classroom
teachers' perceptions of their students' proficien
see, however, is slow, disfluent, or what we have
come to call inefficient cy or lack of proficiency in reading.
reading. Even when
these children have adequate comprehension of
a passage, their reading is often characterized by Excessively slow, disfluent reading
slow, labored, inexpressive, and unenthusiastic leads to less overall reading
rendering of a passage. It is interesting and, tome, somewhat ironic
Wondering if this manifestation of slow that slow and labored reading rate may be a rea
reading among struggling readers is present in son teachers see fit to recommend certain of
readers other than those seen in our reading clin their students for supplementary ser
reading
ic, my colleague Nancy Padak and I examined vices such as Title I. Often when I speak with
all the children in Grades 2 through 5 referred teachers about Imention that
reading fluency
for Title I reading services by their teachers in reading rate may be an indicator of fluent or dis
the Akron, Ohio public schools?over 600 stu fluent reading. This frequently results in concern
dents (Rasinski& Padak, 1998).We asked these expressed by some in the audience that reading
children to read a passage at their assigned grade rate or reading speed should not be considered
level and one below their grade placement us a significant factor in reading. This concern is

46 The Reading Teacher VOI.54,NO.2 October 2000 ?2OOO International Association

Reading (pp.146-151)
often expressed in a comment like this: "As long 1992NAEP study found that 15% of all fourth
as students understand what they read, as long as graders (one out of seven) read "no faster than
they are making meaning out of the text, read 74 words per minute...a pace at which it would
ing rate should not matter." While I certainly and be difficult to keep track of ideas as they are de
absolutely agree that understanding what is read veloping within the sentence and across the
is the end game for reading, reading rate, or page" (Pinnell et al., 1995, p. 42). Indeed, the
speed, cannot be ignored either as an indicator of same 1992 NAEP study found that holistic rat
reading fluency or, more precisely, as evidence ings of reading fluency as well as fourth graders'
of excessively slow processing of text. The sim reading rates were associated with overall read
ple fact that slow reading requires readers to in ing proficiency (Pinnell et al., 1995; White,
vest considerably greater amounts of time in the 1995). Slow, disfluent reading, then, is linked
reading task than classmates who are reading at with poor comprehension. This leads to students
a rate appropriate for their grade level should be which in turn results in their mak
reading less,
a major cause for concern for all teachers. slower in
ing progress reading than students who
Most of us would agree that reading progress read at a more normal rate for their age or grade
is determined to a large extent by the amount of
placement.
reading one does (Anderson, Wilson, & Fielding,
1988; Postlethwaite & Ross,
ers, however, by definition,
1992). Slow read
read fewer words per
Excessively slow reading leads to
given amount of time than readers who read at reading frustration
Evenat the classroom instruction level, slow
more normal rates. Thus, just to keep up with
reading has negative consequences. Imagine
their classmates in the amount of reading done,
these slower readers have to invest considerably yourself as a fifth-grade student who is assigned
to read a 12-page chapter in a social studies book
more time and energy in their reading.
in school. Imagine also that you are a disfluent or
Indeed, data from the 1992 National Assess
inefficient reader. You read at 58 words per
ment of Educational Progress (NAEP) (Pinnell
minute (the average
reading rate when
reading
et al., 1995) demonstrate a relationship between
grade level material
of fifth graders referred for
reading rate and fluency and self-selected read
in and out of school. The most fluent read
Title I support, Rasinski & Padak, 1998), or
ing
ers tended to be self-motivated, about half the rate of your classmates. You be
while less fluent
gin reading as best you can. Like most students,
readers were less likely to read in class or out of
school. While the causal nature of this relation you are well aware of what is happening around
you. You are about halfway through the passage,
ship has not been empirically established, it
seems reasonable to assume that fluency and you notice that many of your classmates
in read
have finished reading?they are done and you
ing leads to greater reading and greater reading
still have six pages to read. What do you do? Do
leads to gains in fluency?fluency and reading
volume are cause and consequence of one an you pretend to have completed the assignment
even though you haven't read or comprehended
other. (See Stanovich, 1985, for amore complete
the entire passage? Or, do you continue reading
description of this phenomenon he termed the
Matthew knowing that by doing so you will be broadcast
effect.)
ing your lack of reading proficiency and mak
ing your classmates wait on you? Neither
Excessively slow, disfluent reading solution is very palatable, yet the problem is all
is associatedwith poor too common.

comprehension Evenif an assignment were made for home

Moreover, for most children, slow reading is reading, the 60-minute reading assignment for
associated with poor comprehension and poor most students would become 2 hours of reading
overall reading performance. Research dating for you. Checking out of the reading club may be
back over 60 years suggests that faster readers just around the corner. You may become a 9
tend to have better comprehension over what is year-old (one out of eight as reported by the
read and tend to be, overall, more proficient NAEP) who claims never or hardly ever to read
readers (Carver, 1990, Pinnell et al., 1995). The for fun. And if you don't read, chances are your

Speed does matter in reading

 progress in reading will continue to decelerate. lections that are meant to be read aloud and with
Clearly, excessively slow and disfluent reading expression, such as rhyming poetry, are ideal for
is an indicator of concern. reading fluency instruction.
Poetry and reading fluency are an excellent

Helping slow readers match in nearly

any classroom and for all stu
How do we help slow readers? Does slow in dents. Integrating poetry into the reading cur
efficient students into riculum is a great way to promote fluent reading
reading require putting
some sort of special regimen or treatment for in through repeated reading of readable and in
not. For most texts. However, the wonderful
creasing reading rate? Absolutely triguing despite
a slow one that lacks flow or potential of poetry to explore language, it is one
readers, reading rate,
that the student is an inefficient of the most often neglected components of the
fluency, suggests
reader. Although the student may have some suc language arts curriculum (Denman, 1988;
cess in decoding words, it is far from a smooth, Perfect, 1999). Turning poetry into a perfor
kind that re mance, which it is meant to be (Graves, 1992;
automatic, and efficient process?the
or Perfect, and from too much
quires little investment of attention cognitive 1999), turning away
critical can give poetry its rightful
energy. The slow reader has to devote so much analysis,
time and attention to decoding that overall reading place in the reading-language arts curriculum.
Moreover, when is fostered
pace is significantly reduced; moreover, cognitive poetry performance
resources that could have been used for compre in the classroom, reading fluency is also nurtured
hension mustbe reallocated to word recognition as students attempt to make their oral interpre
& Samuels, As a result, compre tations just right?and this means repeated read
(LaBerge 1974).
hension suffers. Slow, disfluent reading may also ings, but in a very natural and purposeful way.
be associated with a lack of sensitivity to mean In some classrooms I have visited, teachers
and words are or simply a day for a poetry party. Several
select
ingful phrasing syntax (how
dered and organized in sentences within a days prior to the event, students select a poem
that also helps the reader construct the to learn from one of the poetry books and an
passage)
of text (Schreiber, 1980). thologies in the teacher's personal collection or
meaning
students' word recognition effi from a library, or they compose their own poem.
Improving
Over the next several days students practice
ciency and helping readers develop greater sen
to the syntactic nature of the text will reading their poems, usually from a variety of
sitivity
result in more efficient in preparation for the poetry party.
reading and improved perspectives,
or When the poetry party day finally arrives,
reading rate fluency. But again, this does not
have to be achieved the overhead lights in the classroom are dimmed,
through isolated skills prac
tice or boring drills. Reading rate, efficiency, or a lamp on the teacher's desk is turned on, hot ap
can be instructional ple cider and popcorn are served, and students
fluency developed through
activities such as repeated readings, especially take turns performing their poems for their class
authentic ways, such as practicing poetry or mates and other visitors. Students' expressive
scripts for later performance, and supported and interpretive readings of their poems are re
reading when it is done in activities where the sponded to with warm applause (or, harkening
reader reads an authentic text but is supported by back to a previous generation, with the snapping
a more fluent partner. of fingers). I'll never forget the cold, snowy day
One key to nurturing fluent reading is find in January when a fourth grader gave a heartfelt

ing the appropriate text for the reader to read. rendition of The Cremation of Sam McGee
Texts that are too difficult, overly dense with (Service, 1907/1986). I can still feel the shivers
unfamiliar vocabulary and concepts, can make it sent down my spine.
any otherwise fluent reader disfluent (if you Readers Theatre is another very natural and
don't believe this, try reading aloud an unfamil authentic way to promote repeated readings.
iar legal document or a selection from a text Readers Theatre does not rely on costumes,
book on nuclear physics). Thus, it is important movement, props, or scenery to express mean
that we find texts that are well within the read ing?just the performers and their voices as they
er's independent-instructional range in order to face their audience with script in hand. For stu
promote fluency. Short, highly predictable se dents to perform a Readers Theatre script in a

148 The Reading Teacher Vol.54,No.2 October

2000
meaningful and engaging manner, they need to to gains in fluency. Let's look at a third grader
practice the script beforehand. Students love to who is having trouble reading. We know that re
perform for an audience when they are given peated readings lead to fluency gains (Samuels,
sufficient opportunities to rehearse the script. In 1979).We also know that supported reading in
a 10-week implementation of Readers Theatre in the form of paired readingwill also lead to gains
which small groups of second-grade students in fluency, word recognition, and comprehension
were introduced to, practiced, and performed a (Topping, 1987).This child's third-gradeteacher,
new script each week, students made significant cognizant of his struggle with fluency, decides,
gains in reading rate and overall reading with the child's permission, to pair this third
achievement as measured by an informal reading grader with a second grader who is also having
inventory (Martinez, Roser, & Strecker, 1999). difficulty in reading. The third graderwill meet
Through the repeated readings inherent in prepa with the second grader twice a week and read
ration for Readers Theatre, students made an av with her a passage from one of the second grad
erage rate gain of 17 words per minute, about the er's textbooks for about 20 minutes. In anticipa
gain that could be expected in an entire year tion of each meeting, the third grader needs to
(Rasinski, 1999), while students engaged in
more traditional
reading activities made
less than
half the gain the Readers Theatre students expe
rienced. In addition to its application in class
room settings, Rinehart (1999) found that Teachers need tobe aware of
Readers Theatre was a particularly effective and children 'sneeds and plan
for students
motivating approach experiencing
accordingly with instruction that
reading difficulties.
Paired reading 1987), echo read
meets those needs.
(Topping,
ing, choral reading, and reading with talking
books are ways to provide support for less flu
ent readers. Topping (1987), for example, found
that paired reading could significantly accelerate practice the assigned passage (which will be
students' reading fluency and overall proficien somewhat easier for the third grader to read be
cy. In our university reading clinic we ask par cause it is at a difficulty level appropriate for the
ents of struggling readers to engage in a form of second grader) so that he can read it with accu
paired reading with their children for 10 to 15 racy and expression with his partner. This may
minutes each evening. In our version of paired require two or three or more readings of the pas
reading, parents read a brief poem or passage to sage. Yet the third grader does so enthusiastically,
their children. This is followed by the parent and for he has a real reason to practice.
child reading the text together several times. When the partners read, first the third grader
Finally, the child reads the text to the parent; the reads the passage to his partner, then they read it
parent responds to the child's reading with en together once or twice, and then, if time allows,
thusiastic and authentic praise for a job well the second grader reads it while the partner fol
done. We have found that children who engage lows along and provides support and encourage
in this form of paired reading make significant ment. The practice is natural and the outcome is
gains (in as little as 5 weeks) over children who clear. Through repeated readings of somewhat
receive clinical tutoring without the parental easier texts the third grader makes significant
paired reading support (Rasinski, 1995). Similar strides in his reading fluency and overall reading.
types of paired and supported reading done in The second grader, with the additional modeled
the classroom with less fluent readers have been and paired reading support, makes significant
found to result in improvements in reading rate gains in her reading as well.
and overall reading achievement (Rasinski, The opportunities to create authentic and en
Padak, Linek, & Sturtevant, 1994). gaging reading instruction that meets the needs
Buddy reading is another excellent example of all readers, but especially inefficient and dis
of how teachers can create complex instruction fluent readers, are enormous. Creative and in
al scenarios that are engaging, authentic, and lead formed teachers have been designing reading

Speed does matter in reading 149

 instruction that meets the needs of their students Standing helps students realize that a truly flu
for years. We need to empower all teachers to ent reader is one who is able to adjust his or her
do the same. Teachers need to be aware of chil reading rate according to the challenge posed by
dren's needs and plan accordingly with instruc the text and the information the reader needs to
tion that meets those needs. Slow, disfluent get from the text.
reading is one indication of a problem for a sig
nificant number of young readers. Do not ignore reading rate
The goal in fluency instruction is not fast I do not wish to take anything away from
reading, although that often happens to be a as
comprehension the desired and ultimate result
byproduct of the
instruction, but fluent and of reading and reading instruction. Rather, the
meaning-filled reading. To this end I have found I am to we to
point hoping make is that need take
that reading to students is a wonderful way to the notion of slow, inefficient, disfluent reading
model the connection between fluent reading
seriously. Even with adequate comprehension,
and meaningful reading. Often Iwill read to stu slow and labored reading will turn any school
dents in as meaningful and expressive a voice
or recreational reading assignment into a
as possible. Then, after I have read the selection
marathon of frustration for nearly any student.
and discussed its meaning with students, I will
A slow reading rate may be symptomatic of
draw their attention to my reading of the pas
inefficient word recognition or lack of sensitivi
sage. I will ask them to remember how I read
ty to the phrase?the natural unit of meaning in
the passage and how my expressiveness affect
reading. But these problems can be addressed
ed their understanding. "What did that long
through authentic and engaging instructional ac
pause inmy reading make you think? What hap tivities and routines that can be woven seamless
pened when I read this part in a soft voice? How
ly into the regular reading curriculum and that
did my reading this section fast and loud affect are appropriate for all students, not just those
how you understood this part of the story? And
identified as disfluent. As reading teachers, diag
when I read these words very slow and deliber
nosticians, and specialists, we need to be aware
ately, what did that do for for you?" Sometimes I
of the importance of reading rate as a diagnostic
will read a poem or text from various points of
indicator and to use reading rate as one of many
view: as if I am angry, as if I am calm, or as if I
tools for assessing students' overall reading per
am nervous. Then I will discuss with students
formance. To ignore reading rate when assessing
how the expression I embedded in the words
children's reading and designing appropriate in
helped to communicate to the listener my own
struction may do a major disservice to many
point of view. This sort of reading and discussion
readers who struggle with reading.
helps students develop a metacognitive under
standing that the meaning of a passage is not car
ried only in the words, but also in the way the
are to
Rasinskiteaches inOhio(404White
atKentStateUniversity
words presented the reader. It also pro
vides a model for students' own meaningful, ex Hall,Kent,OH44242,USA).
pressive, and contextualized reading, whether
orally to an audience or silently with that inner
voice that is heard only by the reader. References
to students and discussing the na Anderson, R.C., Wilson, P.T., & Fielding, L.G. (1988). Growth
Reading in reading and how of
children spend their time outside
ture of the reading allows us to focus on the flex school. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 285-303.
ible attitude readers need to bring to the reading Carver, R.P. (1990). Reading rate: A review of research and the
ory. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.
act. Fluent and understandable reading, not fast
Denman, G.A. (1988). When you've made it your own...: Teach
reading, is the goal of our instruction. Fluent
ing poetry to young people. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
reading is often quick paced, but not always. Graves, D.H. (1992). The reading/writing teacher's companion:
Sometimes, especially with difficult, technical, Explore poetry. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.
or unfamiliar content texts, readers D., & Samuels, S.J. (1974). Toward a theory of auto
expository, LaBerge,
matic information processing in reading. Cognitive
need to slow down and process texts more
Psychology, 6, 293-323.
deliberately. Reading these more challenging Martinez, M., Roser, N., & Strecker, S. (1999). "I never thought
passages to students and discussing their under I could be a star": A Readers Theatre ticket to fluency. The

The Reading Teacher Vol. 54, No. 2 October2000

 Reading Teacher, 52, 326-334. Rasinski, T.V., Padak, N., Linek, W.L., & Sturtevant, E. (1994).
Perfect, K.A. (1999). Rhyme and reason: Poetry for the heart Effects of fluency development on urban
second-grade read
and head. The Reading Teacher, 52, 728-737. ers. Journal of Educational Research, 87, 158-165.
Pinnell, G.S., Pikulski, J.J., Wixson, K.K., Campbell, J.R., Rinehart, S. (1999). "Don't think for a minute that I'm getting
Gough, P.B., & Beatty, A.S. (1995). Listening to children
up there": Opportunities for readers' theater in a tutorial for
read aloud. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,
children with reading problems. Reading Psychology: An
National Center for Education Statistics.
International Quarterly, 20, 71-89.
Postlethwaite, T.N., & Ross, K.N. (1992). Effective schools in
Samuels, SJ. (1979).The method of repeated readings. The
reading. The Hague: International Association for the
Evaluation of Educational Achievement. Reading Teacher, 32,403-408.
T.V. (1995). Fast Start: A parent involvement Schreiber, P.A. (1980). On the acquisition of reading fluency.
Rasinski, reading
for primary In W. Linek & E. Journal
program grade students. of Reading Behavior, 12,177-186.
Sturtevant (Eds.), Generations of literacy: The 17th yearbook Service, R. (1986). The cremation of Sam McGee. New York:
of the College Reading Association (pp. 301-312). Harrison Greenwillow. (Originalwork published 1907)
burg, VA: College Reading Association. Stanovich, K.E.
(1985). Matthew effects in reading: Some con
Rasinski, T.V. (1999). Exploring a method for estimating inde
sequences of individual differences in the acquisition of liter
pendent, instructional, and frustration reading rates. Reading
acy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-407.
Psychology: An International Quarterly, 20, 61-69
Rasinski, T.V., & Padak, N. (1998). How students re Topping, K. (1987). PairedReading: A powerful technique for
elementary
ferred for compensatory instruction on parent use. The Reading Teacher, 40, 608-614.
reading perform
school-based measures of word recognition, and White, S. (1995). Listening to children read aloud: Oral fluen
fluency,
comprehension. Reading Psychology: An International cy. Washington, DC: U.S. Office of Education, Office of
Quarterly, 19,185-216. Educational Research and Improvement.

Help your K-12 students become better writers. 2OOO-2O01

assessment and instruction skills when you attend Write Traits W?rksUfS*
Strengthen your writing
aWrite Traits staff development workshop. These dynamic workshops help October 10-13
you improve writing skills by assessing your students' strengths using Raleigh, NC
6-traits+?the key characteristics of good writing: October! 0-13
Bloomington, MN

Idea Development October

DadbackedIntoa treeonthe
wayoutof the 17-19^
?nvewaypushing the bikerack
thoughthe
UU&I San Diego, CA
Word Choice WaSCranky the restof
^ ?p.
tTJihadto takethe othercar,which
Issmaller
October 24-27
^HowmyS15ter andmewerecrowded to ?t\iv&t%?< CA
so muchehe to,et er Concord,
keptcomplainingaboutme
Organization on herand
breathing
we holdthetaking
Ithmk upall herair November 7-10
world'srecordforthe oh
timespent In Yellowstone Park any ivritm^ NE
priest dUG^ m0ther'S Omaha,
Sentence Fluency new?**?** ?t5S<SSI?*4fet.
tolT \? ***** ,n3 Cabi"
of ?"t^
ele T lWe
* hada bt ofm butmost November 14-17
nflh t 7ark- ) DiUils!
Voice thewalla0ne poor Miami, Fi.
and< furryguyhada deathwish
showed!
h.marff.Myfathergot the broom
^ '"* """"'
arounl^ n*** April 2-4, 2001^
Conventions Madison, Wl**
* afi to confirm dates and locations?

**New! yy? ar(3 lynching newMS

Developed by master teacher and author Vicki Spandel, theWrite Traits
Write Traitsworkshops in 1, 2, and
workshops are designed as a training of trainers. Participants are asked to 3-day formats. San Diego and Madison
an* the first 3-day K-8workshops.
have some assessment
writing experience.
+Basedonworkoriginatedby PaulB.Diederich(Measuring OregonSchoolDistrict,and refinedthrough
GrowthinWriting,1974)and the Beaverton
theeffortsof countlessteachersthroughouttheU.S.

or inquire about \ WrJt< Traits

To register for the open enrollment workshops Instruction and Assessment

an on-site call: 800-825-1739. Great Source EducationGroup

workshop, please

Speed does matter in reading 151