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PREFACE
PREFACE
Coenraad Esveld
Emeritus Professor of Railway Engineering
Delft University of Technology
Director of Esveld Consulting Services
ISBN 978-1-326-05172-3
SISO 696.3 UDC 625.1
Copyright 2001/2014 C. Esveld
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ii
PREFACE
iii
PREFACE
1 INTRODUCTION
carrying cable
(movable)
H- profile
8.50+ BS
8.60+ BS
7.02+ BS
5.50+ BS
5.50+ BS
contact wire (movable)
2.85
4.00
2.85
BS
BS
The contact line should be kept at a constant tension for a good and continuous contact with
the pantograph which is pushed against the wire by means of springs. The tension is obtained
by weights or by means of gas cylinders at the end of the wire. Given the material of the wire
(copper), the length of the wire (about 1500 m), and temperature fluctuations, length variations
appear of about 50 cm. It is therefore of importance that the suspension points of the wires are
able to move with the expanding and contracting wire.
Regarding this two catenary systems can be distinguished:
a. fixed suspension: for instance portal structures (Figure 1.2, left picture),
b. flexible suspension: for instance poles (Figure 1.2, right picture)
With a. the portals and carrying cables are fixed to each other. Because of this the carrying
cables sag a little with warm weather and hence the contact wire as well. With b. the poles and
carrying cables are fastened to each other flexibly. The cantilevers of the poles are movable and
will change along with the carrying cables when temperature changes. The contact wire can
now stay completely flat. The single pole structure is used with speeds of 140 km/h and higher.
At lower speeds portal structures can be used.
Concerning metro systems the so-called third rail takes care of the supply of the current. This
rail is installed next to the two rails carrying and guiding the train. Because of this no catenary
system is necessary. This leads to a smaller clearance and therefore a smaller and cheaper
tunnel construction is possible. When crossing over metro lines, the required height under the
bridge can be lower. However, people should always be kept away from this third rail; the track
should be inaccessible and without level crossings.
8
1 INTRODUCTION
Axle:
P = 200 kN
Wheel: Q = 100 kN
area
AH = 1 cm
level
Mean stress
(under rail 50 %)
Wheel/rail
H = 100000 N/cm
15
2 WHEEL-RAIL INTERFACE
2 WHEEL-RAIL INTERFACE
2.1 Wheel-rail guidance
A rail vehicle basically consists of a body supported by secondary suspension on bogies in which
the wheelsets are mounted and damped by means of primary suspension. Track guidance of
the wheel is achieved in principle by making the following two provisions:
The tires are conical instead of cylindrical which means that in straight track a centering
force is exerted on the wheelset if there is slight lateral displacement. The centering
effect promotes a better radial adjustment of the wheelset in curves. This leads to more
rolling, less slipping and hence less wear.
The tires have flanges on the inside of the track to prevent derailment. In case of more
considerable lateral displacement both in curves and on switches, the lateral clearance
between wheelset and track is often no longer sufficient to restrict lateral displacements
adequately by means of the restoring mechanism previously discussed. Should the
wheel flange touch the rail head face, this can result in high lateral forces and wear.
14
10
Track width
1:20 (1:40)
Inclination
70 mm
Track width 1500 (nominal)
+3/3
Flange gauge
Track gauge
+0/16
+10/3
17
2 WHEEL-RAIL INTERFACE
( +
)(
r = r1 - r2
Worn profile
Conic profile
y
2e
(2. 9)
y
Flangeway clearance
(2. 10)
= tan
2 =
r
r
w r
r = radius of rail
w = radius of wheel
(2. 11)
22
2 WHEEL-RAIL INTERFACE
give a stable equilibrium, but will instead induce a highly frequent jumping to and fro between
two points on the curve.
2.7.6 Spin
Apart from slip in the
longitudinal
and
lateral
direction a third quantity also
exists: the so-called spin which
also
participates
in
transmitting the friction force.
Spin or rotational slip arises if
the
small
contact
area
between wheel and rail is not
parallel to the rotation axis of
Rotation Vector
Force on Rail
Rolling
Spin
Running direction
Wheel
Force on Wheel
sin
sin
(2. 16)
y
Slip
Adhesion
Leading
edge
dy
dx
30
9 SLAB TRACK
After adjustment, the rail is made stress free by means of heating before the compound is
poured into the groove (Figure 9.52).
9.8.3 Experiences with embedded rail
Many pilot tracks of embedded rail have been applied over the last 30 years, 246 m paved-in as
well as main-line track. Nearby Deurne (The Netherlands) in 1976, a pilot was constructed in
heavily used track with speeds up to 160 km/h. The track existed of a series of 6 meters of
prefabricated slabs containing the gullies supported underneath with old NP46 rails [201]. The
experiences were qualified as positive. In 1994, the rails were renewed, but the wear of those
rails was considerably less compared to the adjacent track.
Another large pilot concerned 3 km track nearby Best (The Netherlands) which came into
operation in October 1999 and is currently being monitored.
The superstructure consists of a 42 cm thick slab with longitudinal reinforcement providing the
slab with a high flexural strength. The slab lies on top of a concrete road bed and stabilized
subsoil. The cross section of this track structure is shown in Figure 9.48, while the construction
process of this test track is illustrated in Figure 9.49 up to and including Figure 9.54.
Embedded Rail
0.6 m
Concrete slab
Sand bed
2.5 m
Figure 9.48: Cross section of the embedded rail superstructure near Best
285
10 THE RAIL
309
Rear of turnout
Clamping (heel)
Through rail
Front of turnout
Wing rail
Stock rail
Crossing
Switch point
Check rail
Switch blade
Closure rail
R=... m
1:n
Figure 11.1: Standard right-hand turnout
be
discussed
370
422
GAUGE
CURVATURE
Y v 2 gB
= B
R L
YS = YL + YR + 1435 mm
= 1 + 2
gB
v 2
YL
YR
All signals low pass filtered with 3rd order Bessel filter
Figure 16.84: Recording principle for BMS-1 quasi-static signals
Two other transducers are, in addition to the two linear displacement transducers between car
body and bogie frame in the measuring bogie, installed in the second bogie to record curvature
according to the principle sketched in Figure 16.84. The quasi-static gauge is directly derived
from the line-scan camera signals.
All three quasi-static signals are low-pass filtered with a 3rd-order Bessel filter. The phase
relationship is linear and causes a distance delay of 27.5 m. As the curvature recorded in fact
corresponds to the car center, the delay of the signal in relation to the measuring bogie
amounts to 35 m or 20 m for forwards and backwards running respectively. With the
introduction of VRA this delay can be corrected.
16.10.5 Signal combination for determining track parameters
The track parameters produced by the former BMS system of NS are derived from a
combination of signals provided by 16 transducers, i.e. 1 rate gyro, 2 accelerometers, 10
LVDTs, 2 line-scan cameras, and 1 tachometer. The location of the various transducers is
indicated in Figure 16.85. The track parameters are derived from the following expressions:
Level:
+
2
(16.6)
582
Figure 16.106b: TEC Trolley with laser add-on to measure rail profile
608
Figure 16.107: Example of track geometry measurement results
(16.43)
The inclination is determined from the versines measured with the RAILPROF on a base of 1 m,
sampled at an interval of 5 mm. During data processing the samples are averaged (low-pass
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( ) =
( + 1) ()
(16.43)
where:
D(i): first derivative of the measurement;
y(i): level-coordinate of the record (after filtering);
dx:
The calculated QI values are based on this signal, as depicted at the PDA screen presented in
Figure 16.135.
Added data points
Boundary
original signal
y(i +1)
y(i)
dx = 25 mm
Figure 16.134: Calculation of the 1st derivative of the filtered signal
624
QI =
Inclinationmax
1
Inclinationnorm
OK
625
Speed [km/h]
Inclination [mrad]
Speed [km/h]
Versine p [mm]
1.0
80 < V 300
-0.5 p 0.5
1.1
40 < V 80
-0.7 p 0.7
1.3
V 40
-1.0 p 1.0
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
90 < V 100
2.2
80 < V 90
2.3
70 < V 80
2.4
60 < V 70
2.6
50 < V 60
2.8
40 < V 50
3.0
V 40
3.2
The admissible QI in relation to the line speed is presented in Table 16.10, which values are
presently the official standards used by ProRail in The Netherlands and these standard have
also been adopted by the tram and metro companies in Holland. These are all based on the TU
Delft studies referred to previously.
From a practical point of view the new standards have a number of advantages, amongst
others:
Cost savings
With the introduction of the new approach on force-based assessment of weld geometry and
the adoption of new QI-based standards, various estimates were made about the reduction in
maintenance cost which could be achieved if complying with the new standards. These
estimates are presented in Figure 16.137, which shows that 10 20 % reduction of the annual
maintenance budget could be achieved. According to ProRail figures, collected around 2010, the
claimed track maintenance cost reductions were too conservative and would be more in the
order of 20 - 40 % according to more recent maintenance experiences!
626
17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS
The TGV
After intensive tests with the
gas-turbine "TGV 001" and the
electric "Zbulon", in 1977, the
SNCF placed an order for 87
TGV Sud-Est train sets. They
used the "TGV 001" concept,
with a permanently coupled set
of eight cars, sharing "Jakobs
bogies", and hauled by two
electric power-cars, one at each
end.
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17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS
State planning for China's high-speed railway began in the early 1990s, and the country started
construction of its first high-speed rail line, the QinhuangdaoShenyang Passenger Railway, in
1999, which subsequently opened in 2003 with a design speed of 200 km/h.
The original goal of the Chinese Ministry of Railways (MOR) was to research and develop
domestic technology to reach a world standard. The new high-speed rail line was used to test
several Chinese developed prototypes. Although they were successful at creating a train set
that operated at 300 km/h, the trains performed poorly in regular service. Realizing that
domestic high-speed technology was not sufficiently developed, the MOR purchased high-speed
trains from French, German, and Japanese manufacturers with technology transfer contracts to
improve its ability to build high-speed trains. In 2007 the first high-speed service using foreign
high-speed trains, called China Railways High-Speed (CRH) was introduced.
634
17 HIGH-SPEED TRACKS
Dp
Calculated
Measured
3.5
Pressure [kPa]
Dp1
Dp2
3
t0 = 0
t1 = 27.24 s
t2 = 56.00 s
2.5
2
1.5
1
Dp3
to
t1
0.5
0
0
t2
10
20
30
40
50 Time [s]
After this C1 and C2 can be computed. With C1 and C2 and the function of pe(t) provided for
instance by the program THERMATUN/5, pi(t) can be calculated.
2500
50%
30%
10%
Japan 1996
2000
Japan 1993
2,5%
1500
Germany 1996
C
1000
Germany 1989
B
500
A
Proposal
0
0
10
12
Time period [s]
14
16
18
20
Figure 17.24: Proposed Dutch criterion for p in train by solo trains in tunnels
The time for reducing of the inside air-pressure from 3.0 kPa to 0.1 kPa is 51 s. The factor k is
estimated 0.07 based on a French TGV-R. With these values the constant factors C1 and C2 are
then 0.03408 and 0.02661 respectively. (Figure 17.16)
654
CV Coenraad Esveld
Plasser & Theurer, Austria: Various consulting works on track maintenance applications;
Metro Amsterdam: studies on wheel rail interface optimization and track maintenance
strategies; advices on design problems with new lines;
State Rail Authority of New South Wales, Australia: Studies carried out on track quality
assessment and track recording;
Europoint, The Netherlands: Organizing various conferences and seminars, such as RailTech Europe;
Great Belt Bridge: Advisor to ARCADIS for the dynamic analysis of the bridge transitions;
Track Dynamics
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