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Antony Foster
Department of Mathematics (oce: NAC 6-273)
The City College of The City University of New York
Convent Avenue At 138th Street
New York, NY 10031
afoster00@ccny.cuny.edu
afoster1955@gmail.com
In this discussion we will introduce the notions of limit and continuity for functions of two aor more variables.
We will not go into great detail our objective is to develop the basic concepts accurately and to obtain
results needed in later discussions. A more extensive study of these topice is usually given in a course in
advanced calculus.
Limits along curves
For a function of a single variable there are two one-sided limits at a point x0 , namely,
lim f (x) and
xx+
0
lim f (x)
xx
0
reecting the fact that there are only two directions from which x can approach x0 , the right or the left.
For functions of two or three variables the situation is more complicated because there are innitely many
dierent curves along which one pont can approach another. Our rst objective in this discussion is to dene
the limit of f (x, y) as (x, y) approaches a point (x0 , y0 ) along a curve C (and similarly for functions of three
variables).
If C is a smooth parametric curve in 2-space or 3-space that is represented by the equations
x = x(t), y = y(t), or x = x(t), y = y(t), z = z(t)
and if x0 = x(t0 ), y0 = y(t0 ), and z0 = z(t0 ), then the limits
lim
f (x, y) and
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
f (x, y, z)
are dened by
lim
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
lim
(1)
(2)
In these formulas the limit of the function of t must be treated as a one-sided limit if (x0 , y0 ) or (x0 , y0 , z0 )
is an endpoint of C.
A geometric interpretation of the limit along a curve for a function of two variables. As the point (x(t), y(t))
moves along the curve C in the xy-plane towards (x0 , y0 ) , the point (x(t), y(t), f (x(t), y(t))) moves directly
above it along the graph z = f (x, y) with f (x(t), y(t)) approaching the limiting value L.
i
Example -1.1 Consider the function f (x, y) of two variables x and y dened as
f (x, y) =
xy
.
x2 + y 2
Find the limit along the following curves as (x, y) (0, 0).
(a) the x-axis
the line y = x
Solution (a) The x-axis has parametric equations x = t, y = 0, with (0, 0) corresponding to t = 0,
so
(
)
0
lim
f (x, y) = lim f (t, 0) = lim 2 = lim 0 = 0.
t0
t0
t0
t
(x,y)(0,0)
Solution (b) The y-axis has parametric equations x = 0, y = t, with (0, 0) corresponding to t = 0,
so
)
(
0
lim
f (x, y) = lim f (0, t) = lim 2 = lim 0 = 0.
t0
t0
t0
t
(x,y)(0,0)
Solution (c) The line y = x has parametric equations x = t, y = t, with (0, 0) corresponding to
t = 0, so
(
)
(
)
t2
1
1
lim
f (x, y) = lim f (t, t) = lim 2 = lim
= .
t0
t0
t0
2t
2
2
(x,y)(0,0)
Solution (d) The line y = x-axis has parametric equations x = t, y = t, with (0, 0) corresponding
to t = 0, so
( 2 )
t
1
1
lim
f (x, y) = lim f (t, t) = lim
= lim = .
2
t0
t0
t0
2t
2
2
(x,y)(0,0)
Solution (e) The parabola y = x2 has parametric equations x = t, y = t2 , with (0, 0) corresponding
to t = 0, so
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
(
f (x, y) = lim f (t, t ) = lim
2
t0
t0
ii
t3
t2 + t4
(
= lim
t0
t
1 + t2
)
= 0.
iii
f (x, y) = L ?
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
By the statement, we mean to convey the idea that the values of f (x, y) can be made as close as we like
to the number L by restricting points (x, y) in the domain of f to be suciently close to (but dierent
from) the point (x0 , y0 ). This idea has a formal expression in the following denition.
Formal definition of limit (n variables)
Denition: Let f : D Rn R be dened for all x = (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) in some open region D Rn
which may or may not contain a xed n-tuple x0 = (x10 , x20 , . . . , xn0 ).
The number L R is said to be the limit of f (x) as x D approaches x0 if and only if given any real number
> 0, we can nd a corresponding real number > 0 (usually depends on ) such that f (x) satises
| f (x) L | <
whenever the distance between x and x0 satises 0 < x x0 < and we will write
lim f (x) = L or
xx0
lim | f (x) L | = 0.
xx0
iv
whenever the distance between (x, y) and (x0 , y0 ) satises 0 < (x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 < and we will
write
lim
f (x, y) = L or
lim
| f (x, y) L | = 0.
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
f (x, y, z) = L or
lim
(x,y,z)(x0 ,y0 ,z0 )
| f (x, y, z) L | = 0.
Important: In using the denitions above, you must have some idea of what the number L is before hand.
Once you have some idea of L then the denitions above can be used to verify that L is the limit.
4x2 y
x2 + y 2
Solution
Preliminary discussion: According to the denition of limits given above for
number > 0 whatsoever, we must nd a corresponding real number >
also on the point (0, 0)) such that f (x, y) satises the inequality | f (x,
y)
and the distance between (x, y) and (0, 0) satises the inequality 0 < x2 +
So here is what we do to nd the corresponding real number (in terms of ): Suppose you are given > 0
arbitrarily. You must to nd a corresponding real number > 0 (but you dont know how to you are
2
going to choose it yet!) such that f (x, y) = x42 x+ yy2 satises the inequality
4x2 y
<
0
x2 + y 2
whenever the distance between (x, y) D and (0, 0) satises the inequality 0 < x2 + y 2 < or equivalently,
y2
4|x| 2
<
whenever
0
<
x2 + y 2 < .
x + y2
Let us pretend for a brief moment that we have found the corresponding real number , then since we know
2
that y 2 x2 + y 2 for all (x, y) = (0, 0) implies that x2 y+ y2 1 for all (x, y) = (0, 0) we can write the
following statement (very important): This is where you get to discover how the corresponding real number
> 0 should be chosen (recall that you only pretended to have chosen it, so now you get to choose it for
real).
4 x2 y
y2
2 4
= 4|x|
| f (x, y) 0 | = 2
4
|
x
|
1
=
4
x
x2 + y 2 < 4 .
x + y2
x2 + y 2
So if (x, y) is in D and 0 < x2 + y 2 < , we see that you should choose the corresponding positive real
number to be /4 (or smaller) and we get that
( )
4 x y2
4 x2 + y 2 < 4 = 4 =
0
x2 + y 2
4
vi
or equivalently, that
4 x2 y
< 4 = .
| f (x, y) 0 | = 2
0
2
x +y
> 0, you can now give your answer to the question as follows:
2
y
The answer: The number 0 is the limit of the function f (x, y) = x4x
2 + y 2 as (x, y) in D approaches
(0, 0) because for any given number > 0, we have shown that we can produce a corresponding number
2
= /4 > 0 so that f (x, y) = x42 x+ yy2 satises the inequality
4 x2 y
x2 + y 2 0 <
whenever the distance between (x, y) and (0, 0) satises 0 <
lim
4 x2 y
= 0.
+ y2
(x,y)(0,0) x2
Notice: The answer to limit questions such as above are usually very short compared to the amount of work
required to discover your answer.
vii
2xy
+ y2
x2
If lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) = L, then lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) = L along any smooth curve or path.
(b) If the limit of f (x, y) fails to exist as (x, y) (x0 , y0 ) along some smooth curve or path, or if f (x, y) has
dierent limits as (x, y) (x0 , y0 ) along two dierent smooth curves or path, then the limit of f (x, y)
does not exist as (x, y) (x0 , y0 ).
Example -1.4 Determine whether the function f : D R2 R of two variables x and y dened for
f (x, y) =
x y2
+ y4
x2
y4
1
= L =
= 0.
4
2y
2
Therefore, the two-path test tells us that f (x, y) cannot have a limit at (0, 0) as (x, y) (0, 0).
viii
f (x, y) = L.
(x,y)(x0 ,y0 )
Corollary
Suppose that | f (x, y) L | g(x, y) for all (x, y) in the interior of some disk centered at (x0 , y0 ), exept
possibly at (x0 , y0 ). If lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) g(x, y) = 0, then lim(x,y)(x0 ,y0 ) f (x, y) = L.
A third path through (1, 0) is the line y = x 1 (note that in this case, we must have y 0 as x 1).
We have
(x 1)2 ln(x)
(x 1)2 ln(x)
ln(x)
lim
= lim
= lim
= 0.
2
2
x1
x1
2(x 1)2
2
(x,x 1)(1,0) (x 1) + (x 1)
It seems like 0 could be the limit, but we are not sure about it, or we could try to nd a path through (1, 0)
where the limit does not exists or the limit exists and is dierent from 0. To show this, we consider
(x 1)2 ln(x)
.
| f (x, y) L | =
(x 1)2 + y 2
Notice that if the y 2 term were not resent in the denominator, then we could cancel the (x 1)2 terms. We
have
(X 1)2 ln(x)
(x 1)2 ln(x)
= | ln(x) |.
| f (x, y) L | =
(x 1)2 + y 2
(x 1)2
Since lim(x,y)(0,0) | ln(x) | = 0, it follows by the squeeze theorem that
(x 1)2 ln(x)
= 0.
(x,y)(1,0) (x 1)2 + y 2
lim
ix
f (x, y)
(x,y)(0,0)
in rectangular coordinates, you could try changing domain of f to polar coordinates instead. Substitute
x = r cos , y = r sin and investigate the limit of the resulting expression as r 0. In other words, try
to decide whether there exists a number L satisfying the following criterion:
Given any positive real number whatsoever, we can nd a corresponding positive real number (usually
depending on ) such that for all r and , F (r, ) = f (r cos , r sin ) satises
| F (r, ) L | <
whenever the distance between r and 0 satises 0 < | r | < .
If such an L exists, then
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
x3
x2 + y 2
r 3 cos3
r2
= r cos3 .
x3
r3 cos3
=
lim
= lim r cos3 = 0.
r0
r0
r2
(x,y)(0,0) x2 + y 2
lim
Continuity
Stated informally, a function of a single variable is continuous if its graph is an unbroken curve without
jumps or holes. To extend this idea to functions of two variables, imagine that the graph of z = f (x, y) is
molded from a thin sheet of clay that has been hollowed or pinched into peaks and valleys. We will regard
f as being cntinuous if the clay surface has no tears or holes.
The precise denition of continuity at a point for functions of two variables is similar to that for functions
of one variablewe require the limit of thefunction an the value of the function to be the same at the point.
Formal definition of Continuity (two variables)
Let f : D R2 R be dened for all (x, y) in some open region D R2 which contains a xed ordered
pair (x0 , y0 ).
We will say that the function f (x, y) is continuous at the point (x0 , y0 ) if and only if given any real number
> 0, there is a real number > 0 (usually depends on ) such that
| f (x, y) f (x0 , y0 ) | < whenever (x, y) D and
(x x0 )2 + (y y0 )2 < .
f (x, y) = f (x0 , y0 )
to express the fact that f (x0 , y0 ) is the limit of f (x, y) as (x, y) approaches (x0 , y0 ) and the f (x, y) is
continuous at (x0 , y0 ). In addition, if a function is continuous at each point in its domain D, then we say
that the function is continuous on D, and if f is continuous at every point in the xy-plane, then we say that
f is continuous everywhere.
xi
xx0
to express the fact that f (x0 ) is the limit of f (x) as x approaches x0 and the f (x) is continuous at the point
x0 . In addition, if a function f (x) is continuous at each point x0 in its domain D, then we say that the
function is continuous or is continuous on D.
xii
Example -1.7 In the previous example, you showed that the function
f (x, y) =
4 x2 y
+ y2
x2
has limit 0 at the origin (0, 0). You also noticed that f (0, 0) is undened (that is, (0, 0) is not in the domain
of the function). We now ask this question: Is f (x, y) continuous at (0, 0)? If not, how can we make it into
a continuous function at (0, 0)?
Solution: The denition of continuity says that the limit 0 of f (x, y) as (x, y) approaches the origin (0, 0)
and the value of the function, f (0, 0), at (0, 0) must be the same. Since f (0, 0) is undened the function
cannot be continuous at (0, 0). However, the function as limit at the origin given by lim(x,y)(0,0) f (x, y) = 0
and so we can dene f (x, y) to be continuous at (0, 0) as:
f (x, y) =
2
x42 x+ yy2
if (x, y) = (0, 0)
if (x, y) = (0, 0).
The following theorem, which we state without proof, illustrates some of the ways in which continuous
functions can be combined to produce new continuous functions.
Theorem
(a)
(b)
If h(x, y) is continuous at (x0 , y0 ) and g(u) is continuous at u = h(x0 , y0 ), then the composition
f (x, y) = g(h(x, y)) is continuous at (x0 , y0 ).
(c)
If f (x, y) is continuous at (x0 , y0 ), and if x(t) and y(t) are continuous at t0 with x(t0 ) = x0 and
y(t0 ) = y0 , then the composition f (x(t), y(t)) is continuous at t0 .
xiii
Problem #1
Find the limit of f as (x, y) (0, 0) or show that the limit does not exist.
(a) f (x, y) =
x3 x y 2
x2 + y 2
(
x3 y 3
x2 + y 2
|x| + |y|
x2 + y 2
You may use any of the methods discussed above to verify our answer.
xiv
Section 1
Problem #2
(b) f (x, y) =
3 x2 x2 y 2 + 3 y 2
x2 + y 2
2 x y2
x2 + y 2
(c) f (x, y) = x y
x2 y 2
x2 + y 2
Section 2
Problem #3
tan1 xy
x2 y 2
<
< 1 and 1 cos
3
xy
tan1 xy
and
xy
(x,y)(0,0)
lim
lim
(x,y)(0,0)
( )
1
1
y
x cos
1
?
y