Philosophical Positivism and American Atonal Music Theory

Author(s): James A. Davis

Source: Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 56, No. 3 (Jul., 1995), pp. 501-522
Published by: University of Pennsylvania Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2710038
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and
Positivism
Philosophical
AtonalMusicTheory
American
JamesA. Davis
oftenengagein controversies
overthevariMusicologistsand theorists
of specificmusicalcompositions;onlyrarelydoes the
ous interpretations
transcend
themusicalsurfaceand confront
thephilosophicalfounargument
dationsin whichsuchanalysesaregrounded.
Needlessto saytheviabilityof
an analysisis contingent
upon thevalidityof thecognitiveand perceptual
premisesheld by theanalyst;likewise,any analysisis subjectto the same
limitations
philosophy.
applicableto themotivating
between
Therehas been some discussiondevotedto the relationship
of previouscenturies,
mostnotablythe
philosophyand themusicalthought
buttheoriesof musicfrom
century,
"Romantic"ideologyof thenineteenth
in
this
ourcentury
havereceivedless attention
respect.Thisis bothsurprising
formusicalanalysisandtheorizing
haverecently
andregrettable,
grownto a
therefore,
that
newheightofrespectability
and prestige.It seemsnecessary,
ofspecificmusicaltheoriesbe investigated
not
thephilosophical
foundations
theimplicitassumptions
containedin suchtheoriesbutalso to
onlyto clarify
whichmaylimitor
uncoverpossibleweaknessesof theoriginalphilosophy,
thevalidityofanyanalysisbasedon thesetheories.Thisarticlewill
endanger
considerone such scenario:atonal music theoryand its relationshipto
positivistic
philosophy.
in claimingthata musictheoryoranalytic
Thereis a certainriskinherent
methodis groundedin a particular
philosophicalsystem,as analystsdo not
fromoutsidetherealmofmusic.As a result,
influences
alwaysacknowledge
betweenthesetwodisciplinestendto lie beneaththe
instancesof correlation
surfaceof the analysis,in thatthe actual analyticconclusionis more a
ofit.Forthis
thana directstatement
consequenceofa motivating
philosophy
in the
to outlinecertainphilosophers
andtheirthoughts
reasonitis beneficial
specificideaswhichformthebasis
hopeofdrawingoutand linkingtogether
outlook.Once suchideasareinplace,thenone canturntothe
ofa positivistic
to see ifanyexplicitreferences
aremade
initially
musictheorists
themselves,
to philosophers
and theirworks.Thencomestheattempted
mappingof one
501
Copyright1995 by Journalof theHistoryof Ideas, Inc.

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JamesA. Davis

502

to specificissues or methodologies
systemon to the other,withattention
has
whichexhibitstrongparallels.Finally,whensome degreeof similitude
beenestablished,
one is in a positionto criticizetheanalyticsystemnotonly
of the originalphilosophyand how this
by focusingon the shortcomings
affectstheattempted
analysisbutalso by notingwherecertaintenetsof the
withtheapparentintention
oftheanalysis.
philosophy
maybe incompatible
ofcertainphilosophical
The result,as I hopeto show,is thatthetransference
modifimethodsand ideas to a systemof musicanalysiswithoutsubstantial
cationmaylead to musicallyunacceptableconsequences.
a numberof substantial
alexperienced
Europeanphilosophicalthought
of
century
andthebeginning
terations
duringthelatterhalfofthenineteenth
thiscentury.
idealismhad cometo
century
Sincethemiddleoftheeighteenth
withthetheories
dominatemostaspectsof Europeanphilosophy,
beginning
ofBerkeleyand continuing
theworkofKantand Hegel. Whatlinks
through
ofa perceiving
mindin
theirtheoriesis a beliefin thenecessaryinvolvement
and
of
For
material
reality.
Berkeley,
objects
theconstitution comprehension
consistonlyofideasfoundeitherinthemindofGod orinthemindofone of
God's creations.Kant held thatthe objects of the materialworld were
on theperceivingmindfortheirexistbasicallyappearancesand dependent
ence.Hegel optedfora monisticidealismwherebyall existencecan onlybe
as belongingto one mind,the"AbsoluteMind."
understood
therebegan to emergea
Aroundthe middleof the nineteenth
century
movement
whichrejectedthedependenceon mentalphenomenathatwas a
of idealism.Manyphilosophers,
and mathematicians
cornerstone
scientists,
to provide
feltthatidealismwas too unstableand uncleara foundation
answersto theirquestions.Theywantedto groundphilosophical
satisfactory
thoughtin more tangibleand empiricalprocesses,and theyrejectedthe
metaphysical,
mental,or even mysticalaspectsof earlierphilosophies.Philosophy,theybelieved,needed to emulatethe methodsand conceptsof
science if it intendedto provideconcreteand defensiblesolutions.Thus
of
positivism
emergedas a responseto whatwereseen as theshortcomings
idealism.'

in pure
withtheriseofpositivism
was an increasing
Concurrent
interest
mathematicians
felt
and logic. Manyphilosophers
and
thatthe
mathematics
of logic and mathematics
had remainedpoorlydefinedfortoo
foundations
had offered
no insights.
Is logicnotcapable
long,andidealisticexplanations
SteveGerrard,
RandyDipert,
I wouldliketo thankJohnDaverio,MarjorieMerryman,
and two anonymousreviewersfor theirvaluable commentson earlierversionsof this
paper.
' For a detaileddiscussionof the relationship
betweenscience and philosophyin the
Philosophyin Germany1831-1933,tr.Eric
nineteenth
century,
see HerbertSchnaidelbach,
Matthews(Cambridge,1984), especiallychapters1 & 3.

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AtonalMusic Theory

503

Arethelaws of
of subjectiveinterpretation?
whichare independent
oftruths
notuniversaland priorto anymentalprocess?If so, thenthe
mathematics
conceptsof logic and idealismwere by theirverynaturesincompatible.
to place logic andmathematbelievedthatidealismthreatened
Thesewriters
removthereby
ics intotherealmof a subjectivedisciplinelikepsychology,
ing any claim to the a priori,universalstatus,whichwas seen as their
characteristic.
defining
and mathematiIt was withinthisclimatethattheGermanphilosopher
of mathematics.
cian GottlobFregeproducedhis workon the foundations
in the realmof the
Frege saw it as a greatmistaketo place mathematics
to as "psychoreferred
subjectiveor psychological(whichhe disdainfully
of
had done.ForFregethetruths
logistictheories")as previousphilosophers
wereobjective,analytic(in theKantiansense),and a priori,for
mathematics
was merelyan extensionof logic.2To help revealthe logical
mathematics
logical system,
Fregedevelopeda function-theoretic
rootsof mathematics,
includinga rathercomplexlogical calculus(whichfailedto attractany adherents)and,in so doing,all butinventedmodemlogic.
Fregebegan to
investigations
Throughthe courseof his mathematical
addressbroaderphilosophicalquestions,but thesequestionswere always
Fregearguedthatall trueknowledgewas
byhis originalconcerns.3
tempered
objective,and logic was thekeyby whichsuchknowledgecould be ascerincludedknowledgeof theelementsof mathematics,
tained.This argument
forthoughtheyarenotphysicalobjects,theycan stillbe treatedas objective
ofmathematics
InitiallyFregesetoutto revealthelogicalstructure
entities.4
the axioms of mathematicsinto logical calculus. As his
by translating
he expandedhis searchto includethelogicalbasis
broadened,
investigations
of language,
the logical structure
of knowledgein generalby considering
analytic
the
first
one
of
to
be
considered
is
often
whichis why Frege
Fregebelievedthatmanyoftheprincipalproblemsofphilosophilosophers.5
2 Paul Benacerraf,
"Frege: The Last Logicist,"MidwestStudiesin Philosophy,6, The
Foundationsof AnalyticPhilosophy,ed. P. A. French(Minneapolis,1981), 17; Gregory
to His Philosophy(Sussex, 1982), 13; see also Hans D.
Currie,Frege: An Introduction
Sluga, GottlobFrege (London, 1980), 26-32.
3 "I claim thatthe Frege of the Grundlagen
has themathematician's
motivation;that
wherehe appearsto deal directlywiththe moretypically'philosophical'issues...,[I]t is
thosequestionsandposed theminsuchaformthattheanswers
becausehe has restructured
questionswhichare his principal
theyrequirewill answer the substantivemathematical
concern"(Benacerraf,"Frege: The Last Logicist,"23). See also Michael Dummett,The
of Frege's Philosophy(Cambridge,1981), Preface.
Interpretation
A HundredYears ofPhilosophy(London,1957), 150.
4 JohnPassmore,
1; Michael Dummett,Frege: The Philosophyof
Currie,Frege: An Introduction,
Chap. 3; GottlobFrege,ConcepInterpretation,
Dummett,
667;
1973),
Language(London,
tual Notationand Related Articles,tr. T. W. Bynum(Oxford,1972), 14ff.The issue of
to analyticphilosophyhas eliciteda certainamountof criticaldebate;
Frege's relationship
Language,83, and Interpretation,
2-3, 167; Dummett,
see Currie,Frege: An Introduction,
Preface.

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504

JamesA. Davis

inherentin ordinarylanguage.
phy were the resultof the imperfections
to be a strivingfor an ideal
his
there
seems
writing
Throughmuch of
purlanguage,based on his logical calculus,whichwould freeintellectual
ofordinary
languagethathinderseriousdiscourse.6
suitsfromtheconfusions
and logic,
his blendingof empiricism
Frege's approachto philosophy,
anticipated
a largeportionof
to languageand mathematics
and his attention
workwhichwas to followhim.ForFregeformallogicwas thelanguageand
mustbe approachedif
whichthemajorissuesofphilosophy
methodthrough
objectivetruthdid exist,
one intendedto obtainsomedegreeof objectivity;
language;
theinadequaciesof ordinary
thoughit was oftenhiddenthrough
mustadhererigidlyto an almostscientific
and philosophicalinvestigations
programif theyhopedto be valid.7This shouldnotbe takento implythat
philosophicalpositivismfirstemergedwiththe workof Frege,forsuch a
of Comte,Bacon, and manyof theBritish
claimwouldignorethewritings
Empiricists.Frege,however,was one of the firstto mergea positivist
philosophyand symboliclogic,and
withelementsofmathematical
program
impact
whichappearsto have had thestrongest
it is thisformof positivism
on future
academicdisciplines.
Bertrand
turnedphilosopher,
Russell,
mathematician
In England,another
similarlines as Frege.Aftera
along remarkably
was developingthoughts
influenced
by
briefforayintoBritishIdealism(an absoluteidealismstrongly
Hegel), Russellquicklyturnedto a staunchrealismwhichlinkedempirical
andlogic.Like Frege,Russellinhisearlyworkssoughtto cleanse
perception
arguinginsteadthatpuremathematof itsidealisticovertones,
mathematics
oflogicandhenceindependent
of,orpriorto,subjective
ics is a development
questionsand philoIn his approachto mathematical
mentalparticipation.
rigor;and his rejecsophicalissuesas a whole,Russellstroveforscientific
led himto developa logicalcalculus(basedon the
tionofidealisticdoctrines
workof theItalianlogicianGiuseppePeano) in orderto clarifyhis discusAs Russell
sions and removeany dependenceon subjectiveinterpretation.
himselfsays:
Modem analyticalempiricism... differsfromthatof Locke, Berke-

of mathematics
and itsdevelopley,and Humeby itsincorporation
mentof a powerfullogical technique.It is thusable, in regardto
6 For example,Frege(and Russell)soughtto avoid semanticalproblemsof denoting
by
logical analysis.
analysis with function/argument
replacingtraditionalsubject/predicate
(Cambridge,1973), 22; Michael D. Resnik,"Fregeand
See AnthonyKenny,Wittgenstein
AnalyticPhilosophy:Facts and Speculations,"MidwestStudiesin Philosophy,6, 90, 99;
tr. J. L. Austin(Evanston,1980), 59ff;
GottlobFrege, The Foundationsof Arithmetic,
Frege, "On Sense and Reference,"Translationsfrom the Philosophical Writingsof
GottlobFrege,ed. P. Geach and M. Black (Oxford,1952), 69ff.
I A primeexample of the emulationof science is foundthroughout
GottlobFrege,
(New Haven,
tr.P. T. Geach and R. H. Stoothoff
"Thoughts,"in Logical Investigations,
1977).

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AtonalMusic Theory

505

to achievedefinite
answers,whichhavethequality
certainproblems,
thanofphilosophy.8
of sciencerather
on thephilosophyof mathematics
WhereasFregehad focusedprimarily
Russell
and approachedbroaderphilosophicalquestionsalmosttangentially,
boldlyappliedhis new approachto mostfacetsof philosophicalinvestigawere never
inclinations
tion.Like Frege,however,Russell's mathematical
forexample,led
set-theory,
farfromthesurface.His workin mathematical
whichhe thenoften
himto developa complextheoryof class membership
employedin more traditionalphilosophicalpursuits.As Russell moved
he becamemoreandmoreconcernedwith
beyondthestudyofmathematics,
(due inpartto the
tophilosophy
oflanguageanditsrelationship
thestructure
Russellalso believedthatthe
oftheyoungLudwigWittgenstein).
influence
forphilolanguageposed a greatmanydifficulties
of ordinary
ambiguities
of
philosophy
propositions
linguistic
If
one
the
reduced
sophicaldiscourse.
such propositionsinto
oftenby translating
to theirlogical constituents,
unsolvableproblemswereeitherresolved
manypreviously
logicalnotation,
or shownto be theresultof a logical,conceptual,or linguisticmisunderstanding.As Russell says, "It graduallybecame clear thata greatpartof
thatmaybe called 'syntax,'though
can be reducedto something
philosophy
been
thiswordhas to be used in a somewhatwidersensethanhas hitherto
from
of
(and
this
propositions
analyzing
It
is
from
technique
customary."9
similarworkby G. E. Moore) thatthe title"AnalyticPhilosophy"was
derived.
as foundin his TractatusLoThe earlyworkof LudwigWittgenstein,
though
on
drew
Fregeand Russell,10
heavily
(1921-22),
gico-Philosophicus
in manyrespectshis stancewas to be themostradical.In thebroadestsense
how it shouldbe
.whatit comprised,
topicwas philosophy..
Wittgenstein's
ofFrege
andhowitis relatedtotheworld.Followingthethoughts
practiced,
used language(or
and Russellas well as his ownuniqueideas,Wittgenstein
and
to be moreprecise)as thefocalpointof his investigation,
propositions,
"picturetheory"of language.Language,for
theresultwas the isomorphic
of theworld.It is because of this
reflects
thelogicalstructure
Wittgenstein,
abouttheworld.Butitis for
meaningful
thatwe can sayanything
congruence
ourselvesto thatwhichcan be
theverysame reasonthatwe mustrestrict
mentiontheway thingsare; statements
discussed.Meaningful
propositions
are
ofmetaphysics,
to go beyondthis,suchas thepropositions
whichattempt
useless to the philosopher,for they are not consistentwith the logical
8 Bertrand
Philosophy(New York, 1945), 834.
Russell,A Historyof Western
9 Russell,History,830.
see Michael Dummett,"Frege
10For moreon Wittgenstein's
intellectualbackground,
ed. I. Block (CamPerspectiveson the Philosophyof Wittgenstein,
and Wittgenstein,"
bridge,1981), 31-42; PeterM. S. Hacker,Insightand Illusion: Themesin thePhilosophyof
(Oxford,1986), chapters1 and 2.
Wittgenstein

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506

JamesA. Davis

soughtto addressthe
ofreality.It was in thiswaythatWittgenstein
structure
and he believedthathe had at leastremoved,if not
whole of philosophy,
resolved,all the major questionsof philosophy.Not only will the many
manywillbe revealedas meaningproblemssolvethemselves,
philosophical
less and nonsensical,and philosophywill thenbe freeto pursue more
of language.11
realisticand usefulgoals,especiallytheclarification
Tractatus,as well as the work of Russell and Frege,
Wittgenstein's
and
on the groupof scientists,mathematicians,
provedto be influential
knownas theViennaCircle(c. 1920-30).Some oftheprincipal
philosophers
Waismann,Hans
membersof thecircleincludedMoritzSchlick,Friedrich
Hahn,PhilippFrank,HerbertFeigl,KurtG6del,OttoNeurath,and Rudolf
Camap. Thoughnotactuallymembersof thecircle,a numberof prominent
philosopherscame into contactwith or were directlyinfluencedby the
ViennaCircle,includingKarl Popper,AlfredTarski,GilbertRyle,W. V. 0.
adopted
Quine,and A. J.Ayer.FromFregeand Russellthesephilosophers
logic in generalphilosophicalendeavors,and from
theuse of mathematical
of languageand its effecton
theylearnedof the limitations
Wittgenstein
questionsof knowledge.These approacheswere mergedwitha thorough
derivedfromAugusteComteand ErnestMach, and
empiricism
positivistic
movement
knownas Logical Positivism.12
was
the
theresult
of theViennaCirclein the 1920s,the
By thetimeof theorganization
"hard"scienceswere seen as the dominantfieldof inquiry,due mostlyto
Philosophy,
oftheirfindings.
andtheconclusiveness
theirrigidmethodology
for
so
had
which
dominated
long,was
theidealisticphilosophy
specifically
its conclusionsor even its purposewiththe confiincapableof justifying
It seemedas ifphilosophy
now
community.
bythescientific
denceexhibited
The membersoftheCircledecidedthatthebest
founditselfon thedefensive.
to
toreassertitselfwas to adopta scientific
methodology,
wayforphilosophy
in favorof objectiveproof,and to reject
avoid subjectiveinterpretations
factsalone.
and deal withverifiable
metaphysics
the
Vienna
Circle
conceptionofthe
adopteda "scientific
Fromthestart,
In a sense theybelievedthattherewas onlyone valid meansof
world."13
thatof science,and thatall the variousfieldsof
investigation,
intellectual
science(and ideallyphilosophy)were but the applicationof a singleaptopics.14Thisapproachled to twoofthemostoutstanding
proachto different
" See LudwigWittgenstein,
tr.D. F. Pears and B. F.
TractatusLogico-Philosophicus,
McGuinness(London, 1988), 4.0-4.0031. See also Hacker,Insightand Illusion,85.
12 For moreon the development
of Logical Positivism,see A. J. Ayer,"The Vienna
Circle,"MidwestStudies in Philosophy,6, 181ff.;A. J. Ayer (ed.), Logical Positivism
Hacker,Insightand Illusion, 134-45; Oswald
(New York, 1959), Editor's Introduction;
Hanfling,Logical Positivism(New York, 1981), chapter1; BertrandRussell, "Logical
Positivism,"Logic and Knowledge(London, 1956), 39-56.
Philosophyin Germany,98.
'3 Schnadelbach,
'4 Ayer,"Vienna Circle," 183.

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AtonalMusic Theory

507

featuresof the logical positivists:the rejectionof metaphysicsand the

The ViennaCirclebelievedthatscienceconcernsitself
principle.
verification
withfacts,thatis, elementsand eventspossessingobjectiveand empirically
verifiablereality,and thatthisshouldbe thecase withphilosophy.For too
questionswhose ambiguous
had dwelton metaphysical
long philosophers
to
termsand conceptswere impossibleeither confirmor disprove.These
andRussell),wereshowntobe
whenanalyzed(as byWittgenstein
questions,
theViennaCircleadopted
nonsense.To guardagainstmakingsuchmistakes,
namely:
principle,
theverification
... [T]he meaningof a propositionconsistsin the methodof its
or experiencesshow,
thatis in whateverobservations
verification,
ornotitis true.Mathematics
and logic,whichareconsistent
whether
at the price of
are admittedas meaningful
withall observations,
thatis in
proposition,
But anynontautological
beingtautological....
of
is
devoid
facto
ipso
observation,
unverifiable
by
any
principle
15
meaning.
to be meaningless
arenowconsidered
statements
metaphysical
By definition
Mostofthe
to definethatwhichis beyondexperience.
as theyfutilely
attempt
greatquestionsof philosophyare swept away as meaningless,and the
stateis leftto analyzelanguageto insurethatonlymeaningful
philosopher
mentsare allowed.'6
Logical Positivismhad an intenseimpacton thephilosophicalcommuit quicklydissipated.The stanceof
nity,thoughas an organizedmovement
evenone of
was too dogmaticto holdup underclose scrutiny;
thepositivists
itsown
not
meet
of
could
the
verification,
theirfundamental
tenets, principle
weremade to modifythepositivistic
position,butit was
criteria.Attempts
quicklyabandonedin favorofmorelenientapproaches.'7
Thoughthe specificmovementcalled Logical Positivismfadedrather
quicklyfollowingthebreakupof the Vienna Circle in the late 1930s,the
established.
ofwhichit was a partwas by thistimefirmly
largermovement
to as AnalyticPhilosophy,
though
As a wholethismovement
can be referred
To
analysis. avoid
side ofphilosophical
thistitletendsto stressthelinguistic
I
whichsurround
AnalyticPhilosophy,
thespecificissuesand controversies
fromthe
choose insteadto extracta moregeneralphilosophicalorientation
writersdiscussedso far,one whichincludeslinguisticanalysisas well as
This generalapproach,which I referto as
variousothercharacteristics.
'5 Quoted fromthe entry"Logical Positivism"in AnthonyFlew, A Dictionaryof
principle
of theverification
and definitions
Philosophy(New York, 1984). Interpretations
can varygreatly;see Hanfling,Logical Positivism,Chapter2.
Philosophyin Germany,98; also Hanfling,Logical Positivism,
16 See Schnadelbach,
45; Russell, "Logical Positivism,"367.
17 Ayer,"Vienna Circle," 184.

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JamesA. Davis

508

which
Philosophy,
can be definedby isolatingcertaintendencies
Positivistic
which
Thesetendenciesincludea rigidempiricism
exhibit.'8
itspractitioners
a
and terminology;
leads to an emulationof sciencein bothmethodology
rejectionor avoidance of metaphysics;the use of linguisticand logical
the avoidanceof
analysis;and, partlyas a resultof these characteristics,
in theprocessof analysis.
subjectiveinterpretation
The stancetakenby positiviststendsto be more dogmaticthanthat
The positivistis conin mostpreviousempiricalmovements.
encountered
or
directobservation
cernedwith"facts"whichcan be proveneitherthrough
throughlogical deduction.Ultimatelyit is the mergingof the empirically
verifiablewiththemethodsof formallogic whichprovesto be one of the
It is notsurprising
thatthisempirical
positivists'mostcompellingfeatures.'9
itselfwithscience.Scileads positivistic
philosophyto identify
orientation
As Michael
is theidealmodeofinvestigation.
ence,as seenbythepositivists,
Resniknotes,
emulatessciencenotonlyinthesensethatmany
Analyticphilosophy
withscience
ofitspractitioners
takeitto be prescienceor continuous
butalso inthesensethatitlaysclaimtoprecision,demandsattention
to detail,and has developedits own batteryof technicaltermsand
results....Justas researchprogramsin science are promptedby
so
scientific
hypotheses,
empiricalproblemsand aim at establishing
in emulatingscience have proposedhypothanalyticphilosophers
eses fordealingwithphilosophicalproblemsand have pursuedreto establishthem.20
searchprograms
thatattempt
likewisereflectsthisscienThe emphasison formallogic and mathematics
In the realm of symboliclogic the positivistfindsthe
tificorientation.
more
objectiveand verifiabletools necessaryto deal withthetraditionally
esotericsubjectsofphilosophy.
The emphasison scientificvalidityhas led mostpositivistseitherto
whichfallsbeyondtherealmof theempirically
anything
rejectcompletely
or at leastto expressan extremesuspicionof themetaphysical.
verifiable,
will
Mostoftenthetopicis simplynotaddressed.In thisway thepositivist
tendto avoid any"mental"phenomenaas well;2'as a result,theroleof the
in no way dependent
subjectall butvanishes."Objective"truth,
interpreting
on any perceivingsubject,is seen as the onlyproperor worthyrealmof
makesuse ofa
To carryoutitsprogram
philosophy
positivistic
investigation.
greatdeal of reductiveanalysis.This includesboth linguisticanalysis,in
and also
to evaluatetheirmeaningfulness,
whichsentencesare scrutinized
18

Resnik,"Frege and AnalyticPhilosophy,"88.

19Russell,History,828.
20
21

Resnik,"Frege and AnalyticPhilosophy,"86.

Searle, "AnalyticPhilosophy,"405.

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AtonalMusic Theory

509

are translated
logical analysis,in whichproblemsor specificpropositions
into symboliclogic to test theirvalidity.Again, the concernis almost
and subjective
and logicalsoundness,
withobjectiveverification
exclusively
is avoided.
interpretation
as a worthphilosophy
soughtto reestablish
In thesewaysthepositivists
and subjectivebaggageof idealisticphiwhilediscipline.The metaphysical
losophieswas rejectedin favorofan objectiveapproachwhichthepositivists
believedcould not only competewith,but whichwas a partof, the unknowledge.Such beliefscontinueto thisday
of scientific
assailablefortress
and can be foundin manyfieldsotherthanphilosophy.
werenotlimitedtophilosophy.
thought
ofpositivistic
The radicaleffects
Most scholarlyfieldscame underits sway at some pointor another,espeof Europeanscholars
ciallyin theUnitedStates.Followingthe emigration
afterWorld War II, positivismfound a home at many universitiesin
and
of Chicago,ColumbiaUniversity,
America,mostnotablytheUniversity
then,thatit was at manyof these
It is notsurprising,
University.
Princeton
schoolsthata new approachto music scholarship,influencedheavilyby
beganto emerge.22
positivism,
a centerforanalyticphiThis is perhapsmostnoticeableat Princeton,
music
most influential
one
of
the
and
losophyand positivisticthought,
As JosephKermannotes:
schoolsofthetime.23
... [W]e have seen how underArthurMendel Princetontook an
musicology.It also becamea centreforthe
explicitlead inpositivistic
of Schenker'ssystem;thisin turnprovidedan important
propagation
whichwas the
theory,
compositional
ideologicalspurto avant-garde
real creationof Babbittand the grouparoundPerspectivesof New
Music. Yale underAllen Forte became anothersuch centre.The
of Schenkerat Princetonand Yale in the 1950's reprerediscovery
in
linkbetweenAmericanneopositivism
sentsa trueunderground
movement.24
German
nineteenth-century
musicand theoriginal

22 This is equally true for musicology as it is for music theory;"Positivismin

movement,a movementwhich puts its
scholarshipwas originallya nineteenth-century
Music [Camineradicablestampon early musicology"(JosephKerman,Contemplating
bridge,1985], 74; see also chapters2 and 3).
philosopherof
Kurt Godel and Carl Hempel, the influential
23 The mathematician
wereactiveat Princetonduringthistime.See Kerman,Contemplating
scienceand history,
Music, 27, 43, 56; Fred EverettMaus, "RecentIdeas and Activitiesof JamesK. Randall
and BenjaminBoretz: A New Social Role for Music," Perspectivesof New Music, 26
(1988), 214-15.
24
Music, 75.
Kerman,Contemplating

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510

JamesA. Davis

a positivistic
influence
theory
mayreflect
Thoughthegrowth
ofSchenkerian
of atonaltheoryand analysisin the
to some degree,it is the development
whichmostclearlyreflectsthis
handsof Americancomposersand theorists
connection.
manycomposersbeganto
century
Duringthelaterpartofthenineteenth
to a pointwheretradiwithharmony,
extendingchromaticism
experiment
pitch
wereno longerthesole meansof determining
tionaldiatonicfimctions
It was the composerArnoldSchoenbergwho took the most
organization.
decisivestepinthisevolutionary
process.In 1908he begantoproduceworks
in a "free"atonalstyle,whereno singlepitchhas tonalprimacyover any
of 1923, in
arrivedat thedodecaphoniccompositions
otherand eventually
ofserialorganization
areusedto determine
thepresentation
whichprinciples
of the completechromaticscale. Though Schoenbergpublisheda rather
on music,at no point
his thoughts
extensiveamountof literature
concerning
methodof analysis.25
The same can be said for
did he producea systematic
successors,AntonWebernand AlbanBerg.It was
Schoenberg'simmediate
suchas MiltonBabbitt,AllenForte,Benjamin
notuntilthe1950sthatwriters
to formulate
analyticprincipleswhichwould
Boretz,and othersattempted
formthebasis of an atonaltheory.26
to notewhomthesemusicians
At themostbasic level,it is interesting
chooseto citeas theirinfluences.
Babbitt'searlyworksreferto philosophers
and
suchas Carnap,Hempel,andGoodmanmorethananymusicalsources,27
factorsin his develophe namesCarnapas one of thethreemostinfluential
ments.28
The Meta-Variations
by Babbitt'spupil and colleague,Benjamin

25 For example, see Parts II, V, and VI, in Arnold Schoenberg,Style and Idea
(Berkeley,1975).
26 A partiallist of the primary
sourceswherethis approachcan be foundincludes
Music Compositionand Music Theoryas Contemporary
MiltonBabbitt,"Contemporary
IntellectualHistory,"Perspectivesin Musicology,ed. B. Brook (New York, 1972), 15184, "Past and PresentConcepts of the Nature and Limits of Music," Perspectiveson
Contemporary
Music Theory,ed. B. Boretzand E. T. Cone (New York, 1972), 3-9, "The
Structureand Functionof Musical Theory,"Ibid., 10-21; Benjamin Boretz, "MetaVariations:Studies in the Foundationsof Musical Thought(I)," Perspectivesof New
Music, 8 (1969), 1-74; Allen Forte,TheStructure
ofAtonalMusic (New Haven, 1973), "A
Theoryof Set-ComplexesforMusic,"JournalofMusic Theory,8 (1964), 136-83;Michael
Kassler, "A Sketchof the Use of FormalizedLanguages for the Assertionof Music,"
Perspectivesof New Music, 1 (1963), 83-94; JohnRahn, "Logic, Set Theory,Music
Theory,"Symposium,
19 (1979), 114-27,"RelatingSets,"Perspectivesof New Music, 18
(1979-80), 483-98. More recently,Brown and Dempsterhave considereda "scientific
approach"to music theorywhich attemptsto take into accountmanyof the traditional
arguments
againstpositivistic
programs.See MatthewG. Brownand Douglas J.Dempster,
"The ScientificImage of Music Theory,"Journalof Music Theory,33 (1989), 65-106.
27 See Babbitt,"Past and PresentConcepts."
28 JasonGibbs,"Review of Wordsabout Music by MiltonBabbitt,"In TheoryOnly,
10 (1988), 16, 19-20.

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AtonalMusic Theory

511

philosophy.As
Boretzreadslike a Who's Whoof analyticand positivistic
Boretzhimselfsays:
to createstructural
Even more,it shouldbe obviousthattheattempt
of
coherencein the unique relativisticcontext the compositional
to thecentralconcerns
presentlinksthecomposer'sproblemdirectly
thoseof linguisticand scientific
particularly
thought,
of present-day
fromwhichhe thusis in a positionto takeadvantageof
philosophy,
of course,thathe possessesapprorelevantdiscoveries...assuming,
priateeducativeequipmentto be aware of and criticalabouttheir
thatcomposershavefound
relevance.It is outof suchconsiderations
and conceptualinsightsintotheirown workin the
methodological
workdoneinthesefields,andthattheyhaveborrowedsymbological,
methods,and descriptive
analytic,and criticaltools, experimental
thatcan be
syntaxes
musical
to
intheirattempt construct
terminology
revealand characterized
precisely,verifiedempirically,
controlled
ingly.29

Claimslikethismakeit clearthatphilosophicalpositivismis themodelfor

and a closerlook at specificissues revealsthatpositivistic
thesetheorists,
philosophythatwere
musictheorysharesmanyof thetraitsof positivistic
discussedearlier.
to approachmusictheoryand
Generallyspeaking,one sees an attempt
In thewordsof MiltonBabbitt,
analysisscientifically.
... [T]hereis butone kindof language,one kindof methodforthe
of "concepts"and the verbalanalysisof such
verbalformulation
"scientific"languageand "scientific"method.30
formulations:
Not onlyis thereone method,thatof science,butthereis a simultaneous
emphasison language,anotherindicationof Babbitt'sdebtto philosophical
positivism.

analysis
methoddefined?Whenconsidering
Buthow is this"scientific"
theobjectto be analyzed.
whatconstitutes
of anysort,one mustdetermine
What are the entitieswhich an analystseeks to isolate and understand?
Positivistic
philosophy,in its bid to distanceitselffromsubjectivemystiverifiable
objects.Butto deal only
cism,soughtto deal onlywithempirically
withinthe"real
perceivedas entities
withthoseobjectswhichareobjectively
of
a
dead-end.
Positivists,
somewhat
as
Hume
discovered,
world"becomes,
however,did not limitthemselvesto the objectsof everydayexperience:
29

79.

BenjaminBoretz,"A Note on Discourse,"Perspectiveson New Music, 4 (1966),

Babbitt,"Past and PresentConcepts," 3. See also Brown and Dempster,"The

ScientificImage."
30

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512

JamesA. Davis

mathematics
and logic had providedthemwithnumerousentitieswhich
servedas one of the
seemedworthyof analysis.Originallymathematics
and logic was thetool through
primary
fieldsof inquiryforthepositivists,
thepositivistsexwhichsuch investigations
were carriedout. The further
more
they
began
to
deal intherealm
however,the
tendedtheirinvestigations,
of logic,and logicalentitiesbecamethefocusof theirstudies.
... Fregearguesthatwhereconceptualelements,whichare notthe
system,
of logicalexpressions,
enterintoa mathematical
references
ofsucha system.For
as thesubject-matter
theremustbe newentities
suchconceptsimplytheexistenceof objectsof whichtheyare the
properties;
thatis, thatthereare objectswhichfall underthe conandpossibly
thesystemis an empty,meaningless,
cepts.Otherwise,
structure.31
contradictory
For Frege,then,"entities"includenot onlyphysicalobjectsbutalso truthobjects,groupsof symbols,and more,assumingof course
values,linguistic
some
objectincludedwithinthebroaderconcept.
thatthereis
as one
It seemsplausiblethatpurelogic is aboutas stablea foundation
it was vastlysuperiorto anything
metaphysical.
can find;forthepositivists
is this:wherFor Russell,"The suprememaximin scientific
philosophizing
forinferred
entiare to be substituted
everpossible,logical constructions
are preferableto "inferred
ties."32It may be that"logical constructions"
ormathematical
this
intherealmofgeneralphilosophy
entities"
speculation;
is certainly
truein a fieldsuchas physics.
But whatof a subjectsuch as musicanalysis?We have moveda great
distancefromour originalintent,namely,the analysisof empirically
peris thattherenow appearsa new
ceived objects.Whatis moredisturbing
of objects,specifically
foundin therealmof logic,whichare open
category
do thesenew entitieshave withthosefound
foranalysis.Whatrelationship
withinthe musicalcomposition?
Philosophershave learnedthatthereis a
too wide an ontologicalstatusto logical entities;
greatdangerin granting
theymustbe dealtwithonlywithintheabstractdomainin whichtheyare
thereference
ofobjects,notto
found.The taskofthelogicianis to determine
inventnew objects.33
Thisdifficulty
is ofgreatimportance
whenconsidering
music
positivistic
withthe
have expressedtheirdissatisfaction
analysis.Manycommentators
Frege's Logical Theory(Carbondale, 1966), 84-85. See also
31 RobertSternfeld,
176-77.
Currie,Frege: An Introduction,
32 As quoted in A. J. Ayer,BertrandRussell (Chicago, 1972), 35. See also Herbert
Hochberg,"Logical Form, Existence,and Relational Predication,"MidwestStudies in
Philosophy,6, 216: "Russellthusfeltcompelledto recognizelogicalformsand directions
or senses of relationsas objectsof knowledgeby acquaintance."
33 See Sternfeld,
Frege's Logical Theory,59-62.

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AtonalMusic Theory

513

the elementswithina
ways in whichcertaintheoristsdefineand identify
Take for instancethe conceptof pitch-class,which Forte
composition.34
definesas:
musicallanguage
The notionof pitch-classis implicitin ordinary
scale. Thatis, it
whenever
we speakofthe12 notesofthechromatic
pitchescomprisethebasic stockof
is assumedthatonly12 different
system.More precisely,thismeansthatthe 12 notes
thechromatic
in a singleoctave(by assumingoctaveequivacan be represented
notationfora pitchis not unique (by
lence) and thata particular
equivalence).35
assumingenharmonic
All notatedpitchesC, B#,Dbb, regardlessof theiroctave placement,are
by the integer
membersof the same pitch-class(in this case represented
distancedourselvesfromtheoriginalcomposi"0"). We haveautomatically
we are denotinga logicalentityof which
to a pitch-class,
tion.By referring
ouroriginalnoteis onlya member.It is as ifwhenanalyzinga chessmatch
thisis
all thepawnsundertheclass "pawn."Certainly
we beginbygathering
logicallytenable,but will it be of value when consideringthe individual
betweensuch
patterns
movesof thegame?Even if one is able to determine
classes,willanylightbe shedon whytheplayerschoseto place theirpieces
wheretheydid?
The same concernshold trueformusicalanalysis.As EdwardT. Cone
says:
is a dominantone today,and an unThe trendtowardabstraction
healthyone forart.The devices criticizedhere,introducedin the
have
system,
unitywithinthetwelve-tone
hopeofachievinga perfect
resultedin producinga unity,true...butoutsidethemedium,in the
realmof arithmetic.36
Once pitch-classesbecome the elementsof an analysis,one is no longer
Instead,theanalystis
dealingwiththepitchesfoundwithina composition.
classes whichareby no meansthesameentitiesas thepitches
manipulating
whenthese
The problemis intensified
theirmembership.
whichconstitute
pitch-classesare gatheredto formpitch-classsets,and thesesets are then
At this pointwe have set-theoretical
subjectedto variousmanipulations.
the
functionsapplied to sets whose membersare classes. Unfortunately,
of Atonal Music by Allen
34 See forexample William E. Benjamin,"The Structure
Forte,"Perspectivesof New Music, 13 (1974), 170-90; George Perle, "Pitch-ClassSet
Analysis: An Evaluation," Journal of Musicology, 8 (1990), 151-72; and Richard
Taruskin,"Letterto the Editor,"Music Analysis,5 (1986), 313-20.
oftheRiteofSpring(New Haven, 1978), 1.
35 AllenForte,TheHarmonicOrganization
36 EdwardT. Cone, Music: A ViewfromDelft(Chicago, 1989), 27.

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JamesA. Davis

514

originalpitchesfoundwithinthe compositionare no longera partof the

is working.
ontologicaldomainin whichthetheorist
clearthatclasseswerenotrealobjects:
Russellhimselfmadeitperfectly
We shallthenbe able to say thatthe symbolsforclasses are mere
objects called "classes," and that
conveniences,not representing
or (as we say)
in
logical fictions,
classes are fact,like descriptions,
"incompletesymbols."37
of the
Classes are not,as he goes on to say,.partof the"ultimatefurniture
world."To treatclasses as real entitiesleads to logicalproblems:
way as simplyheaps
We cannottakeclasses in thepure extensional
to do that,we shouldfind
If we wereto attempt
or conglomerations.
howtherecan be sucha class as thenullitimpossibleto understand
class, whichhas no membersat all and cannotbe regardedas a
how it comes
"heap";we shouldalso finditveryhardto understand
aboutthata class whichhas onlyone memberis notidenticalwith
thatone member.38
Classes are,in some sense of theword,objects,butit mustbe made clear
entities
exactlywhattheontologicalstatusoftheseobjectsis.39Suchabstract
statusthantheobjectsofrealityevenwhenitis theobjectsof
holda different
of theclass. As a result,classes do
themembership
realitywhichconstitute
as theseobjectsandarenotsusceptible
notoperateunderthesameconstraints
as realentities.
to thesamefunctions
about"all" or "some" of thevaluesthata
Whenever,
by statements
variablecan significantly
take,we generatea new object,thisnew
objectmustnot be amongthe values whichour previousvariable
could take,since,if it were,the totalityof values over whichthe
variablecouldrangewouldonlybe definablein termsof itself,and
we shouldbe involvedin a viciouscircle.40
Classes,then,thoughtheymaybe viewedas a typeof object(in thiscase an
"abstractentity"or a "logical fiction"),are not to be consideredpartsof
Likewise,theyare
realityin thesameway as theentitiesof ourperception.
theobjectsofreality,
whichcan influence
notsubjectto thesameoperations
whichapply
subjecttotheoperations
noraretheobjectsofrealitynecessarily
to classes.
to MathematicalPhilosophy(London, 1919), 182.
BertrandRussell,Introduction
183.
Russell,Introduction,
39 Quine,forexample,refers
to classes as "abstractentities";see Hochberg,"Logical
Form," 215ff.
40 Russell,Introduction,
189.
37
38

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AtonalMusic Theory

515

and pitch-classsetsare treatedas real entipitch-classes

Unfortunately,
of
ties in mostatonaltheory,and the logisticaland musicalramifications
For a closerlook at thisproblem,letus
suchan approachare considerable.
the
thatoffinding
ofatonaltheory,
considerone ofthemostbasic operations
andpitches
primeformofa setofpitches.I use forthisexampletheformula
"41 whichis by farone
Berg's "Wozzeck,
foundwithinJanetSchmalfeldt's
oftheclearestdiscussionsavailableon thesubject.
observable"facts"of a
To beginwith,one mustisolatetheempirically
namelypitches,and translatethemintointegernotation.The
composition,
into
purposeofthisprocessis to organizepitchesfoundwithina composition
betweenothercollections,
comparison
collectionsin a waythatwillfacilitate
basis of the work.For example,take the
therebyrevealingthe structural
intointegernotation,
pitchesF#,A, E, Bb. First,thesepitchesare translated
mod 12: (6, 9, 4, 10). We thenplace theintegersintoascendingorder,and
detercircularpermutation
findtheorderwith"theleastdifference
through
thefirstintegerfromthelast";theresult,(4, 6, 9, 10),
minedby subtracting
is considered
the"normalorder."Now, to makesurewe have thecollection
in itsmostreducedstate,thatis, the"bestnormalorder,"we mustinvertthe
originalset,fora set and its inversionare consideredto be equivalent;the
we transpose
both
comparison,
resulting
collectionis (2, 3, 6, 8). To facilitate
setsso thattheirfirstmemberis thepitch-class"0": theoriginalset(4, 6, 9,
set(2, 3, 6, 8) becomes(0, 1, 4, 6).
10) becomes(0, 2, 5, 6), andtheinverted
thenormalorder,we compare
Usingthesamefactorswe used to determine
thesetwosetsto discoverwhichis the"prime"formoftheset;in thiscase,
it is [0, 1, 4, 6]. Therethenfollowsa comparison,
based on an assumedbut
between
the"facts"of themusidefinedrelationship,
usuallyambiguously
and some logical,set-theoretical,
or other"objective"refcal composition
The mostfrequent
resultis themappingof set typeswithspecial
erence.42
ofany
ofoccurrence,
followedbya consideration
emphasison thefrequency
etc.) betweenthesesets.
(suchas inclusion,complementation,
relationships
Whatis avoidedis anydiscussionwhichgoes beyondtherealmof the
objectivelyverifiableand empiricallyvalid. Allen Forte's single-minded
to pitch-classsetsin his analyseshas led at leastsomecommentaattention
torsto referto himas a "positivistic"43
and his analyticalsystemas exhibiting a "naive empiricism.""As a result,any discussionof the"metaphysiwhichis notfoundin thescore,is
cal" aspectsof a musicalwork,anything
Berg's "Wozzeck":HarmonicLanguage and DramaticDesign
4' JanetSchmalfeldt,
(New Haven, 1983), Introduction.
42 "...
[T]he apparentrelationshipof a mathematicalexpressionand its musical
in theseprocedures,whichparallelstherelationbetweena formal
inherent
representation
of it" (Babbitt,"Past and PresentConcepts,"6). See also
theoryand an interpretation
Pointof View," Interface,2 (1973), 2.
LennartAqvist,"Music froma Set-Theoretical
I
RichardTaruskin,"Review of The HarmonicOrganizationof theRite of Spring,"
CurrentMusicology,28 (1979), 115.
of AtonalMusic," 177.
4 Benjamin,"The Structure

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JamesA. Davis

516

leftunexamined.
Babbitthas oftenstatedthathe all butrejects"meaningless" statementsabout music, thoughit is oftendifficultto determine
whether
whatconstitutes
under
meaninglessforBabbittis thesubjectmatter
Thisuncompromising
attitude
toward
discussionortheverbalpresentation.45
roots;considertwo
theuse of languageclearlyrevealsBabbitt'spositivistic
examples,thefirsttakenfromBabbitt,thesecondfromMoritzSchlick.
[I]t onlyneed be insistedhere thatour concernis not whether
musichas been,is, can be, will be, or shouldbe a "science,"whatabout
everthatmaybe assumedto mean,butsimplythatstatements
music mustconformto those verbal and methodological
requirediscoursein any
mentswhichattendthe possibilityof meaningful
domain.Althoughthereremainunsolvedproblemsassociatedwith
of theseconditionsforcomplexand sophisticated
thedetermination
of the grossly
cases, no problemsaccompanythe identification
"meaningless"....The contentof this specific example is of no
consequence,exceptto theextentthatit shareswiththemajorityof
aboutmusicthe proppast and...admittedly..
.present"statements"
of attitude
statement
grammatiertyof beingat bestan incorrigible
assertion.46
callydisguisedas a simpleattributive
Schlickwrites:
the human"capacityforknowledge,"in
Investigations
concerning
so faras theydo notbecome partof psychology,
are replacedby
considerations
thenatureof expression,
or representation,
regarding
i.e. concerning
everypossible"language"in themostgeneralsense
of theterm.Questionsregarding
the"validityand limitsof knowlis knowablewhichcan be expressed,
edge" disappear.Everything
and this is the total subjectmatterconcerningwhichmeaningful
no questionswhich
questionscan be raised.Thereare consequently
no problemswhichare in principle
are in principleunanswerable,
insoluble.Whathavebeenconsideredsuchup tonowarenotgenuine
questions,butmeaninglesssequencesof words.47
Regardlessof the efficacyof such an approachin philosophy,thereare
difficulties
withsuchan uncompromisingly
empiricalstancein theanalysis
of artworks,as the structuralist
movementin literary
criticismdiscovered
45 As Kermannotes: "In the positivistic
climateof the 1950s, however,the consistencyof logic,notof values,was all thatit was possibleto talkaboutin ways thatBabbitt
would not dismissas 'literallymeaningless'" (Kerman,Contemplating
Music, 98).
46 Babbitt,"Past and PresentConcepts,"3-4.
47 MoritzSchlick,"The TurningPoint in Philosophy,"
Logical Positivism,ed. Ayer,
55-56.

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AtonalMusic Theory

517

(thoughtheyweremorewillingto broadentheircriticalapproachthanmost
Whattendsto get lost whenthesetheorists
positivisticmusictheorists).48
within
are any subjectiveinterpretations
considerations
rejectmetaphysical
The role of the listener(or analystas listener)is
theprocessof analysis.49
whichare too greatto be
bypassed,and this has aestheticramifications
ignored.
surrounding
It shouldalso be clearbynowthata greatdeal oftherhetoric
music
of
theoryand
between
discussions
shifts
uneasily
theory
positivistic
or analyst.
analysisand discussionsaboutthelanguageused by thetheorist
Thisis trueofthequotescitedabovebyBabbitt,whohas evenrecommended
aboutmusicbe analyzedintotheirlogicalformto gaugetheir
thatstatements
wrongwiththispractice;in
intrinsically
thereis nothing
Certainly
validity.50
ifmorecareweregivento
musicalscholarship
fact,itwouldno doubtbenefit
of musicalconcepts.Whatis dangerousis thatthe
theverbalpresentation
analysisoflanguagecan be confusedwiththeanalysisofmusic,whereasthe
analysisof musicand the analysisof analysesof music are two separate
believed
ThoughRussellandWittgenstein
issuesthatshouldremaindistinct.
thatlanguageandrealitywereclose enoughthatone couldanalyzelanguage
abouttheworld,it seemsthatto applythis
and in so doingrevealsomething
typeof thinkingto musical analysisbegs the question.We have yet to
a "good," "right,"or "useful"muswhatconstitutes
satisfactorily
identify
on whatconstitutes
little
agreement
to
be
seems
There
even
ical analysis.
"music"!To searchfortheansweronlyin thelanguageused to discussthe
experiencefarbehind.
leave thelistening
musicwouldunfortunately
the
whichhelp to identify
These are only some of the characteristics
philosophy.
and
positivistic
theorists
music
certain
between
relationship
arise,
Having isolatedthese traits,we see thata numberof difficulties
indicatingthatperhapsphilosophicalpositivismis not as compatiblewith
musictheoryas somemaybelieve.
and future
and affectscontemporary
Philosophicalpracticebothreflects
is unintentional
Sometimestheinfluence
approachesin all realmsofthought.
and obvious.Intentionto discern;in othercases it is admitted
and difficult
ally borrowingconceptsand practicesfromone discipline,in this case
philosophy,and applyingthemto another,say, music,can providetruly
beneficialresults.However,thereis also a certaindangerpresentwhenone
betweendisciplines.Somethingthatappearsto be
triesto mix concepts48 See forexample TerryEagleton,LiteraryTheory:An Introduction
(Minneapolis,
1983), chapter3.
49 "It is only in morerecenttimesthatanalystshave avoided value judgementsand
equations,
mathematical
corrigiblepropositions,
adaptedtheirworkto a formatof strictly
and the like...all this, apparently,in an effortto achieve the
formulations,
set-theory
of scientificinquiry"(JosephKerman,"How We
objectivestatusand hence the authority
Got intoAnalysis,and How to Get Out," CriticalInquiry,7 [1980], 313).
50 Babbitt,"Past and PresentConcepts,"4.

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518

JamesA. Davis

is
in one contextmaybe ill-suitedto another.
This difficulty
unimpeachable
no doubtpartlyresponsibleforthe failureof so manyphilosophersand
musicalaesthetic.Whatever
musiciansto createa concrete,comprehensible
systemmaybe, such
ofa particular
philosophical
characteristics
thedefining
beforetheycan encompassthearts,and
systems
usuallyrequiremodification
even thensuchtheoriesseldomdo justiceto music.Such is the case with
theeighteenth
century'stheoriesof representaancienttheoriesof mimesis,
Anyinvestheoriesofemotiveexpression.
century's
tion,andthenineteenth
and someother
betweena philosophical'system
tigationintotherelationship
disciplinemustfirstconsiderhow well theoriginalphilosophyis suitedto
or illuminate
thesubjectunderstudy.Thenthespecificapplicacomplement
of
tionof philosophicalconceptsshouldbe examinedand theramifications
whenconsiderimportance
thisapplicationconsidered.This is of particular
ing the philosophicalfoundationsof any methodof artisticanalysis.A
to be of use to
philosophicalsystemneednotaddressaestheticsspecifically
or
considerations,
thestudyofart;yetifthatsystemhasno roomforaesthetic
even deniesa place fortheaestheticexperience,thenit is possiblethatan
analysisbased on sucha systemwill failto considerthoseissueswhichare
oftheartwork.
characteristics
thedefining
betweenpositivistic
philosophyand music,it is
As fortherelationship
of thephilosophers
themtenuousat bestwhenviewedfromthestandpoint
addressedartandithas onlybeenin
selves.Few ifanyoftheearlypositivists
the last fewdecades thata branchof "analyticaesthetics"has emerged,a
thelanguageofartcriticism
meta-critical
approachwhichtendsto investigate
in orderto clarifythe traditionally
vague conceptswhich surroundthe
ofartworks.5"
FregeandRussellneverdealtwithaestheticsor art
perception
The
worksdirectly.
Logical Positivistslikewiseavoided the subject.The
thoughhe neverspoke in lengthaboutart,did leave a
earlyWittgenstein,
suchas "Ethicsand aestheticsare one and the
references,
numberof cryptic
devotedmoretimeto aesthetics,
The laterWittgenstein
thoughthis
same."52
was done primarily
throughhis analysisof language,and does not relate
to thistopic.
directly
This apparentdisregard
foraestheticsand artworksmighteven suggest
art
thatthepositivists
viewed as fallingintoan ontologicalcategoryapart
or language,and hencenotnecessarilysubjectto
fromlogic,mathematics,
ConsiderthispassagefromFrege,wherehe is
techniques.
theirinvestigative
form
the
of
assertic
propositions:
discussing
of languageto whichI herewant
On theotherhand,theconstituents
ofpoetryverydifficult,
indeed
to call attention
makethetranslation
AnalyticAesthetics,ed. R. Shus5' See J. 0. Urmson,"The Methodsof Aesthetics,"
"Philosophyof ArtafterAnalysis
terman(Oxford,1989), 20, and Nicholas Wolterstorff,
Shusterman,
AnalyticAesthetics,32.
and Romanticism,"
52 Wittgenstein,
Tractatus,6.421.

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AtonalMusic Theory

519

almostalways impossible,forit is just in

makeperfecttranslation
whatlargelymakesthepoeticvalue thatlanguagesmostdiffer."3
on,he continues:
Further
I use theword"horse"
whether
to thethought
Itmakesno difference
or"steed" or "nag" or "prad."The assertoricforcedoes notcover
theways in whichthesewordsdiffer.Whatis called mood,atmoand
by intonation
in a poem,whatis portrayed
sphere,illumination
does notbelongto thought.S4
rhythm,
of language"and "thought"
In each of thesecases it is the "constituents
theoretical
concernin Frege'sdiscussion.
whichare ofprimary
Does thismeanthatFregeknewthathis theorieswerenotdesignedto
poetry,or otherartworks?ConsiderRussellas well:
accommodate
includedin phiThereremains,however,a vast field,traditionally
methodsareinadequate.Thisfieldincludes
losophy,wherescientific
questionsofvalue;sciencealone,forexample,cannotprove
ultimate
of cruelty.Whatever can be
thatit is bad to enjoythe infliction
known,can be knownby means of science;but thingswhichare
matters
of feelinglie outsideitsprovince."5
legitimately
It seemsthatRussellhadethicsinmindwhenhe wrotethispassage,thoughit
the studyof
is likelythat"mattersof feeling"are whatwould constitute
wouldconone
creed,
the
aestheticissues forRussell.Following positivist
investigation."6
cludethatsuch subjectiveissues are not open forscientific
here is not so much thatthese philosophersdid not
What is interesting
aesthetics;it is thattheyseemto acknowledgea realmof human
investigate
whichmaynotlie withinthesphereoftheirtheories.Fregegoes so
activity
andaestheticareinsomewaysincompatible:
faras toclaimthatthescientific
In hearingan epic poem,forinstance,apartfromtheeuphonyofthe
onlyin thesenseofthesentencesandthe
languagewe are interested
imagesand feelingstherebyaroused.The questionof truthwould
cause us to abandonaestheticdelightforan attitudeof scientific
investigation.S7
Frege, "Thoughts,"9.
Frege, "Thoughts,"9.
834.
55 Russell,History,
61.
56 Fregehad a similarstance:see Frege,"Sense and Reference,"
63. There are numerousotherplaces whereFrege
57 Frege,"Sense and Reference,"
See Frege,"On Conceptand Object" (Geach and Black, Transdrawssuch a distinction.
of GottlobFrege,46, especiallynote 1); and Frege,
lationsfromthePhilosophicalWritings
"Thoughts," 13-15.
53
54

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520

JamesA. Davis

of artworksintotherealm
to relegatetheperception
For thepositivists,
nowcameundertheheadingof
offeelingsmeantthatquestionsofaesthetics
associatesartand metaphysics,
espeRudolfCarnapexplicitly
metaphysics.
Suddenly
to expresstheinexpressible.58
ciallymusic,as thatwhichattempts
runstheriskofjoiningtherestofmetaphysics
on
theentirefieldofaesthetics
the refusepile. This is certainlythe case of certainconceptswhichare
as MoritzSchlickpointsout:
traditionally
associatedwithaesthetics,
ofmetaphysicians
werealwaysdirectedupontheabsurd
The efforts
end of expressingthe contentof pure quality(the "essence" of
hence of uttering
the unutterable.
things)by meansof cognitions,
Qualitiescannotbe "said." Theycan onlybe shownin experience.
But withthisshowing,cognitionhas nothingto do.59
In thispassage Schlickwas mostlyconcernedwithbroaderissuesof knowlqualitiesis somewhat
edge and logic,so thathistiradeagainstmetaphysical
theseare seriouswords.Are qualities,
expected.But forthe aesthetician,
definedand perceivedin any numberof ways, of no consequencein the
at one pointseem to
analysisof worksof art?Thoughthesephilosophers
acknowledgethatthereis somethingwhich exists beyondthe logically
anyimportance
provable,theyruntheriskofthendenyingsuchpossibilities
(or evenanyexistence)simplybecausetheydo notfitintotheirtheories.To
whichdefineartworks
denythesequalitiesis to denytheverycharacteristics
as uniqueentities.
to apply
It is becomingclearthatthereare manyproblemsin attempting
a "scientific"
approachto theanalysisof worksof art,especiallyin theway
thatscienceis definedin the lexiconof philosophicalpositivism.As was
riskin attempting
to transfer
conceptsfrom
statedearlier,thereis an inherent
thedifficulties
whichmayarise.
acknowledging
one fieldto another
without
in their
werecarefulto makea cleardistinction
BothFregeandWittgenstein
betweenfields.Fregeseparatedthefunction
andmeaning
use ofterminology
of the words "beautiful"in aesthetics,"good" in ethics,and "true" in
theuse oftheword"true"in artfromitsuse
logic,especiallydistinguishing
in science.60
notonlycautionsagainstthemisuseoftermsfrom
Wittgenstein
one fieldto another(especiallyin ethics)but concludesthatthe studyof
a science.AndforWittgenstein,
ethicsinthiscontext
ethicscannotconstitute
includedaesthetics.61

58 Rudolf Carnap, "The Eliminationof MetaphysicsThroughLogical Analysis of

Language,"Logical Positivism,ed. Ayer,78-80.
59 Schlick,"TurningPoint,"57.
60 Frege, "Thoughts,"1-2.
61
"A Lectureon Ethics,"ThePhilosophicalReview,74 (1965).
LudwigWittgenstein,

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AtonalMusic Theory

521

Much of positivistic
philosophyattempts
to bypassthesedifficulties
by
basingitselfon logic,whichis believedto providea systemof clarityand
truthwhichencompassesall fields.Thoughtheuse of logic as a universal
foundation
has provento be invaluablein othersituations,
it is by no means
unassailableinthiscontext.Logiciansthemselves
acknowledge
theexistence
of different
logical types,and different
logical systemsas well. Thereis a
danger,as GilbertRylenotes:
Whathappenswhena personassumesan idea to be of one logical
typewhen it reallybelongs to another?..
.when, for example,he
assumesthattheideas large or threehave logicalpowerssimilarto
thoseof green or merry?The inevitableconsequenceis thatnaive
intellectualoperationswith those ideas lead directlyto logically
intolerable
results.Conceptsofdifferent
typescannotbe coercedinto
similarlogical conduct.62
Even if thereis a logical structure
whichunderliesmusicalcomposition
or
it does not necessarilyfollowthatit is the same logical
understanding,
structure
as foundin otherlogicalapplications,
or setsuchas mathematics
theory.
The sameconcernsapplytothosewhofocuson thestructure
oflanguage
in an attempt
to unravelbroaderphilosophicalquestions.Thereis no doubt
value intheapplicationof linguistic
analysisto thediscussionsfoundwithin
a givenscholasticdiscipline.Music scholarship,
moreso thanmostfields,is
Yet is it truethatthe modes of
certainly
guiltyof hyperbolicdescription.
discoursefoundin different
fieldsare by defaultlogicallycompatible?Are
thepropositions
of, say, musicscholarshipsubjectto the same constraints
It maybe thatthelogicalstructure
relevantto mathematics?
of languageis
thesameregardlessofthevocabularyused,thoughto ignorethecontentand
of thelanguagebeinganalyzedrunstheriskof misreprespecificreference
To quoteRyle again:
sentingtheoriginalintentof theproposition.
In factthedistinction
betweenthelogicaltypesof ideas is identical
withthediscrimination
betweenthelogicalformsofthepropositions
fromwhichtheideas are abstractions.
If one proposition
has factors
of different
thosepropositypesfromthoseof anotherproposition,
tionsare of different
sortsof logical
logicalformsandhavedifferent
invalid
theconjunctions
ofpropositions
powers.The rulesgoverning
reflectthe logical constitutions
of theirvariousabstractarguments
able factorsand features.63

62
63

GilbertRyle, "PhilosophicalArguments,"
Logical Positivism,ed. Ayer,334.
Ryle, "PhilosophicalArguments,"333.

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JamesA. Davis

522

analysistopropositions
outsidetherealmof
The application
oflinguistic
philosophypresentsmanyproblemswhichmustbe addressedbeforetheir
value can be determined.
Thereis littledoubtthata criticalevaluationofthe
languageof musicanalysiswouldbe of immensevalue,butto assumethat
to the
thetechniquesof linguisticanalysisin philosophycan be transferred
without
modification
mayresultin
discoursesurrounding
musicscholarship
an inabilityto speak of any characteristics
uniqueto the objectsof music
been rathervague and impreanalysis.Discussionsof arthave traditionally
ofthesubjectrather
than
cise,butthisis duemostlytotheuniquecomplexity
of criticsand philosophers;
and it is thiscomplexity
whichis of
to inability
foritis herethatthequestionsofaestheticsreside.A truththemostinterest,
of aestheticsfails to considerthataesthetic
value analysisof a statement
statements
sense,forart
may not be concernedwithtruthin a traditional
morethana collectionof sounds,or painton a
worksare by definition
verifiablefromdiscussionsof
canvas.To stripaway all buttheempirically
works
remove
art
anyquestionsof aesthetics.
maysimultaneously
which appear when
These are but some of the possible difficulties
positivistic
philosophyand musicscholarshipmerge;and thoughthereare
to examinetheseissues in moredetail,therestillremainsa great
attempts
Fornowitwill sufficeto reaffirm
thatphilosophideal ofworkto be done.M4
has beenused as a modelforcertainmusictheorists.
Unfortucal positivism
notconcerned
ofpositivistic
wereapparently
philosophers
nately,a majority
withart worksand seemed to acknowledgethattheirsystemsmightbe
This in itselfshouldbe
incapableof sheddinglighton thefieldofaesthetics.
of positivistic
musictheory.It
sufficient
cause fora carefulreexamination
to claimthata positivistic
wouldbe short-sighted
approachcan notprovide
intothefieldofmusicresearch;butas in anyinterdisciplinary
usefulinsights
projectwhat is needed is a moreconsideredexaminationof the original
withmodification,
to see whatconceptsor techniques,
can be of
philosophy
whatproblemsmightarise if one
value to music and, more importantly,
to transfer
thetenetsof philosophicalpositivismto thetheoryand
attempts
analysisof music.
of New York,Collegeat Fredonia.
StateUniversity

64 See forexampleJamesA. Davis, PositivisticPhilosophyand the Foundationsof

1993).
AtonalMusic Theory(Ph.D. diss., BostonUniversity,

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