Aristotle's Political Theory

(Fonte:http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotlepolitics/)

Presuppositions of Aristotle's Politics

Aristotle'spoliticalphilosophyisdistinguishedbyitsunderlyingphilosophicaldoctrines.Ofthesethe
followingfourprinciplesareespeciallynoteworthy:
(1)TheprincipleofteleologyAristotlebeginsthePoliticsbyinvokingtheconceptofnature(see
PoliticalNaturalism).InthePhysicsAristotleidentifiesthenatureofathingaboveallwithitsendor
finalcause(Phys.II.2.194a289,8.199b1518).Theendofathingisalsoitsfunction(EEII.1.1219a8),
whichisitsdefiningprinciple(Meteor.IV.12.390a1011).OnAristotle'sviewplantsandanimalsare
cardinalexamplesofnaturalexistents,becausetheyhaveanatureinthesenseofaninternalcausal
principlewhichexplainshowitcomesintobeingandbehaves(Phys.II.1.192b323).Forexample,an
acornhasaninherenttendencytogrowintoanoaktree,sothatthetreeexistsbynatureratherthanby
craftorbychance.Thethesisthathumanbeingshaveanaturalfunctionhasafundamentalplaceinthe
EudemianEthicsII.1,NicomacheanEthicsI.7,andPoliticsI.2.ThePoliticsfurtherarguesthatitis
partofthenatureofhumanbeingsthattheyarepoliticaloradaptedforlifeinthecitystate.Thus
teleologyiscrucialforthepoliticalnaturalismwhichisatthefoundationofAristotle'spolitical
philosophy.(FordiscussionofteleologyseetheentryonAristotle'sbiology.)
(2)TheprincipleofperfectionAristotleunderstandsgoodandevilintermsofhisteleology.The
naturalendoftheorganism(andthemeanstothisend)isgoodforit,andwhatdefeatsorimpedesthis
endisbad.Forexample,hearguesthatanimalssleepinordertopreservethemselves,because"nature
operatesforthesakeofanend,andthisisagood,"andsleepingisnecessaryandbeneficialforentities
whichcannotmovecontinuously(DeSomno2.455b1722).Forhumanbeingstheultimategoodor
happiness(eudaimonia)consistsinperfection,thefullattainmentoftheirnaturalfunction,which
Aristotleanalyzesastheactivityofthesoulaccordingtoreason(ornotwithoutreason),i.e.,activityin
accordancewiththemostperfectvirtueorexcellence(ENI.7.1098a717).Thisalsoprovidesanorm
forthepolitician:"Whatismostchoiceworthyforeachindividualisalwaysthehighestitispossible
forhimtoattain"(Pol.VII.14.1333a2930;cf.ENX.7.1177b334).Thisidealistoberealizedinboth
theindividualandthecitystate:"thatwayoflifeisbest,bothseparatelyforeachindividualandin
commonforcitystates,whichisequippedwithvirtue"(Pol.VII.1.1323b401324a1).However,
Aristotlerecognizesthatitisgenerallyimpossibletofullyrealizethisideal,inwhichcaseheinvokesa
fallbackprinciple:itisbesttoattainperfection,but,failingthat,athingisbetterinproportionasitis
nearertotheend(seeDCII.12.292b1719).
Aristotle'sperfectionismwasopposedtothesubjectiverelativismofProtagoras,accordingtowhich
goodandevilisdefinedbywhateverhumanbeingshappenedtodesire.LikePlato,Aristotle
maintainedthatthegoodwasobjectiveandindependentofhumanwishes.However,herejectedPlato's
owntheorythatthegoodwasdefinedintermsofatranscendentformofthegood,holdinginsteadthat
goodandevilareinawayrelativetotheorganism,thatis,toitsnaturalend.
(3)TheprincipleofcommunityAristotlemaintainsthatthecitystateisthemostcompletecommunity,
becauseitattainsthelimitofselfsufficiency,sothatitcanexistforthesakeofthegoodlife(Pol.
I.2.1252b2730).Individualsoutsideofthecitystatearenotselfsufficient,becausetheydependonthe
communitynotonlyformaterialnecessitiesbutalsoforeducationandmoralhabituation."Justas,

whenperfected,ahumanisthebestofanimals,soalsowhenseparatedfromlawandjustice,heisthe
worstofall"(1253a313).OnAristotle'sview,then,humanbeingsmustbesubjecttotheauthorityof
thecitystateinordertoattainthegoodlife.Thefollowingprincipleconcernshowauthorityshouldbe
exercisedwithinacommunity.
(4)PrincipleofrulershipAristotlebelievesthattheexistenceandwellbeingofanysystemrequiresthe
presenceofarulingelement:"Wheneverathingisestablishedoutofanumberofthingsandbecomesa
singlecommonthing,therealwaysappearsinitarulerandruled....This[relation]ispresentinliving
things,butitderivesfromallofnature."(1254a2832)
Justasananimalorplantcansurviveandflourishonlyifitssoulrulesoveritsbody(Pol.
I.5.1254a346,DAI.5.410b1015;comparePlatoPhaedo79e80a),ahumancommunitycanpossess
thenecessaryorderonlyifithasarulingelementwhichisinapositionofauthority,justasanarmy
canpossessorderonlyifithasacommanderincontrol.AlthoughAristotlefollowedPlatoonthis
principle,herejectedPlato'sfurtherclaimthatoneformofruleisappropriateforall.ForAristotle
differentformsofrulearenecessaryfordifferentsystems:e.g.,politicalruleforcitizensanddespotic
ruleforslaves.Theimpositionofaninappropriatetypeofruleresultsindisorderandinjustice.
TheaforementionedprinciplesaccountformuchofthedistinctiveflavorofAristotle'spolitical
philosophy,andtheyalsoindicatewheremanymoderntheoristshaveturnedawayfromhim.Modern
philosopherssuchasThomasHobbeshavechallengedtheprinciplesofteleologyandperfectionism,
arguingagainsttheformerthathumanbeingsaremechanisticratherthanteleologicalsystems,and
againstthelatterthatgoodandbaddependuponsubjectivepreferencesofvaluingagentsratherthanon
objectivestatesofaffairs.Liberaltheoristshavecriticizedtheprincipleofcommunityonthegrounds
thatitcedestoomuchauthoritytothestate.EventheprincipleofrulershipwhichAristotle,Plato,and
manyothertheoriststhoughtselfevidenthascomeunderfirebymoderntheoristslikeAdamSmith
andF.A.Hayekwhoarguedthatsocialandeconomicordermayarisespontaneouslyasifbyan
"invisiblehand."ModernneoAristotelianpoliticaltheoristsarecommittedtodefendingoneormoreof
thesedoctrinesagainstsuchcriticisms.

Political Naturalism
AristotlelaysthefoundationsforhispoliticaltheoryinPoliticsbookIbyarguingthatthecitystateand
politicalruleare"natural."Theargumentbeginswithaschematic,quasihistoricalaccountofthe
developmentofthecitystateoutofsimplercommunities.First,individualhumanbeingscombinedin
pairsbecausetheycouldnotexistapart.Themaleandfemalejoinedinordertoreproduce,andthe
masterandslavecametogetherforselfpreservation.Thenaturalmasteruseshisintellecttorule,and
thenaturalslaveuseshisbodytolabor.Second,thehouseholdarosenaturallyfromtheseprimitive
communitiesinordertoserveeverydayneeds.Third,whenseveralhouseholdscombinedforother
needsavillageemergedalsoaccordingtonature.Finally,"thecompletecommunity,formedfrom
severalvillages,isacitystate,whichatonceattainsthelimitofselfsufficiency,roughlyspeaking.It
comestobeforthesakeoflife,andexistsforthesakeofthegoodlife."(I.2.1252b2730)
Aristotledefendsthreeclaimsaboutnatureandthecitystate:First,thecitystateexistsbynature,
becauseitcomestobeoutofthemoreprimitivenaturalassociationsanditservesastheirend,because
onlyitattainsselfsufficiency(1252b301253a1).Second,humanbeingsarebynaturepolitical
animals,becausenature,whichdoesnothinginvain,hasequippedthemwithspeech,whichenables
themtocommunicatemoralconceptssuchasjusticewhichareformativeofthehouseholdandcity

state(1253a118).Third,thecitystateisnaturallypriortotheindividuals,becauseindividualscannot
performtheirnaturalfunctionsapartfromthecitystate,sincetheyarenotselfsufficient(1253a1829).
However,thesethreeclaimsareimmediatelyfollowedbyafourth:thecitystateisacreationofhuman
intelligence."Therefore,everyonenaturallyhastheimpulseforsucha[political]community,butthe
personwhofirstestablished[it]isthecauseofverygreatbenefits."Thisgreatbenefactorisevidently
thelawgiver,forthelegalsystemofthecitystatemakeshumanbeingsjustandvirtuousandliftsthem
fromthesavageryinwhichtheywouldotherwiselanguish(1253a2939).
Aristotle'spoliticalnaturalismpresentsthedifficultythathedoesnotexplainhowheisusingtheterm
"nature"(phusis).InthePhysicsnatureisunderstoodasaninternalprincipleofmotionorrest(see
III.1.192b815).(FordiscussionofnatureseeAristotle'sPhysics.)Ifthecitystatewerenaturalinthis
sense,itwouldresembleaplantorananimalwhichgrowsnaturallytomaturityoutofaseed.
However,thiscannotbereconciledwiththeimportantrolewhichAristotlealsoassignstothelawgiver
astheonewhoestablishedthecitystate.ForonAristotle'stheoryathingeitherexistsbynatureorby
craft;itcannotdoboth.(ThisdifficultyisposedbyDavidKeyt.)Aristotlecanseeminglyescapethis
dilemmaonlyifitissupposedthathespeaksofthecitystateas"natural"inanothersenseoftheterm.
Forexample,hemightmeanthatitis"natural"intheextendedsensethatitarisesfromhumannatural
inclinations(toliveincommunities)forthesakeofhumannaturalends,butthatitremainsunfinished
untilalawgiverprovidesitwithaconstitution.(ThissolutionwasproposedbyErnestBarkerandis
defendedmorerecentlybyFredMillerandTrevorSaunders.)