2

DATACOLLECTION
INTRODUCTION:
We have previously seen some major steps of research such as how to select a
topic, whatmethod and approach to select, where to find reading materials, and,
above all, how tomanage time. They all prepared you to the upcoming and equally
important stage; datacollection. This summary is an attempt to bring forth all that is
related to the data collectionprocess. It will first highlight some access and ethical
issues that one may encounter whilecollecting data and the ways to overcome
them. Second, it will present the various samplingtechniques. Third, it will go
through all the different methods and techniques that one couldfollow in collecting
data such as questionnaires,
documents, interviews etc
Then it will lookat the possible ways to keep them recorded. Last but not least, it
will shed light on some tipsand advice in order to avoid psychological pitfalls while
pursuing data collection.
ACCESS AND ETHICAL ISSUES
Access:Any research project necessarily involves getting access to documentation,
people orinstitutions. This chapter discusses the need to negotiate with library,
school or companypersonnel to get access to the books or people you need. In
certain domains, such as healthand social care, the written consent of all those to
be involved in your research is essential.In our case, as cultural studies students,
the most important thing is access to books andarticles. The writers go on to advise
the reader on the best way to negotiate and ifnecessary, renegotiate access. See
box 6.1 below for this advice (see
appendix)
.The reader is then warned that negotiating access is not a one-off experience
which isdone and dealt with at the beginning; rather it is a continuous process that
becomesincreasingly demanding. A quote is given to illustrate the issue:

As the fieldworkprogressed, further dynamics of power emerged

(Munro et al. 2004: 290 cited by LoraineBlaxter et al.) This signifies that sometimes

the very content and direction of ones research

can depend upon access to all-important documents or lack thereof. Box 6.2 (see
appendix
)suggests what one may do in case of refusal. As concerns access, the reader is
advised to
remember that research is the art of the feasible, so one should not be unrealistic
in ones
demands and expectations.Ethics:An important ethical issue has emerged with the
progress of technology, and this is that theuse of email when interviewing research
subjects or sending results back and forth can jeopardise confidentiality as well as
the research project itself, as it may get intoirresponsible hands and be meddled
with. A quote
demonstrates this: While electronic

communication i
s in transit the researcher has no control over it.
(Mann and Stewart2000: 42

3cited by Loraine Blaxter et al.). The administrators of a network can

interceptmessages and have the power to alter or even destroy them. Law
organisations
can tapinto
online discussions that deal with criminal activity and disregard anonymity if they
feelthe need to get involved. Furthermore, the internet does not only raise ethical
issues but canbe a practical obstacle as well; it is hard to establish a rapport with
research subjects in theabsence of face-to-face contact. The questions on a
questionnaire or survey for instance maynot be understood correctly, leading to
wrong or vague answers.Most ethical issues arise when one undertakes qualitative
research, as the relationshipbetween the researcher and his subjects is closer, thus
risking the breach of privacy andsecrecy, informed consent and anonymity. The
writers recommend getting the writtenconsent of those one is going to interview,
observe or get documents from in order to avoidethical issues. A range of these
issues are discussed in box 6.3 (see
appendix

), including theuse of videos, audio or wri

tten data without the subjects consent or knowledge, lying aboutones identity to
get more information, accepting a grant for research that may have a
negative effect on your environment or community, and of course plagiarism.

The main ethical issues in research are discussed in box 6.4 (see
appendix
). It is importantto keep in mind that
The pursuit of truth, and the publics right to know
are not held as
absolute values by everyone. In fact, it is often the case that the researchers drive
to
reveal
what he feels are essential details in his/her research conflicts with the subjects
need to
remain anonymous. Furthermore, the data one collects and the conclusions reached
can be
sensitive enough to raise alarm in ones university, workplace or s
ociety at large; theresearcher may face hostility from the place where they are
conducting their work.
SAMPLING AND SELECTION:
While these terms are usually associated with the survey approach, some form of
sampling
and selection exists in any research project. In general, as it is impossible to
observe all of
the subjects of ones i
nterest at once for instance, it is important to sample part of the
population one is focusing on and select it carefully. The chapter details the
different

sampling strategies a researcher can pick from. Box 6.6 (see

appendix
) reveals differentsampling strategies. They are divided into two large categories;
probability and non-probability sampling. If the former is selected, this means that
every member of a researchpopulation has an equal chance of being selected.
The choice of samples is based on thescale of the study (a small-scale study would
not allow you to choose from the wholepopulation so you are forced to use
a cluster), on knowledge of the population (probability is
used if you dont know enough about it), and on the topic you are worki
ng on. A sensitive
issue such as emotional trauma due to sexual abuse may cause one to select ones
subjects
more carefully for instance.

APPLYING TECHNIQUES FOR COLLECTING DATA:

Collection of data procedure obeys a certain method in order to sustain consistency
in your dissertation. Studies in anthropology, geography, or sociology often require
fieldwork, that is to say, using techniques such as observation and questionnaires. It
is true that, as first time researchers, postgraduate students may find it awkward
to go down the streets asking people they do not know about topics that sometimes
sound complicated to them.However, students should overcome such a feeling,
because in fact fieldwork requiresrelative rigour and procedure so that research can
be carried out in an optimal way.On the other hand, some disciplines demand
different methods. Research in psychologyor politics, for instance, would be better
studied using already-existing data such asdocuments. Deskwork, i.e. collecting
data from libraries, data bases, or institutions, is indeedbetter fitted in this case
than fieldwork. Still, depending on the chosen approach andmethodology, both
fieldwork and deskwork can be fit for either of the aforementioneddisciplines and it
is up to the researcher to decide accordingly.
DOCUMENTS
:
Since most research in arts and social sciences is based on data collected
fromdocuments, it is then necessary for the researcher to master analytic and
critical readingskills so that he/she can emit his/her comments on previous research
and bring forwardhis/her own viewpoint on the matter. There are several types of
documents one can makeuse of when carrying out research, among which there

is library-based documents, compute-based documents, historical archives etc... As

for the sources of the documents, they can befrom government surveys,
and government legislations; historical records; media documentssuch as
newspapers, magazines articles, TV and radio programs; or sometimes
personaldocuments such as diaries and photographs.Because primary sources are
difficult to access and costly, many researchers nowadaysopt for secondary sources,
that is to say, data that has already been collected and analysedby other people.
These types of documents may be cost efficient and time saving; however,any
rigorous researcher would have to be careful in using them. For instance, one
mustcheck the conditions of its production, its auth
ors position, its way of targeting the
readership, and above all its purpose and ends. Also, one has to verify if variables
havechanged over time in case of quantitative research or if the methods are up-todate, if not,one has to check whether they are still reliable for the current
research.To insert a piece of information taken from a document in a dissertation, it
is a good ideato start with the name of the author, then to put the date of the
publication betweenparentheses, and then proceed with the idea being reported.
Usually, ideas are put with a
reporting verb like analysed, examined, interviewed... after that, a brief
explanation of the
methodology of the experiment is given alongside the aim of the research as in this
example:

task 1 p 2

For most organizations, it is not possible to survey all individuals of interest. For example, a
company with 10,000 employees may wish to survey all their employees on their job
satisfaction. Both the cost and logistics of administering the survey to the 10,000 individuals
would make it prohibitive. This is especially the case when a company surveys its
employees periodically in an effort to improve retention and productivity. Analyzing a large
number of surveys can also be time-consuming and costly as well.
Organizations use a sample rather than an entire population in gathering information for a
number of reasons as follows:

A sample is less time-consuming to survey than a population. Exceptions to using a

sample occur when a company is conducting quality assurance processes and
would need to certify all professionals of a certain designation. For example, if a
company requires that all employees are certified in safety practices, then the entire
population is surveyed to make certain that employees are up to date. Other
instances occur when government offices conduct a census on an entire population.

However, in most cases, an organization can only survey a carefully-selected

sample.

Testing a sample is cheaper than testing a population.

Data from a sample is easier to analyze statistically than a population.

To gain more information about clients and customers without incurring high costs,
organizations choose to use samples. It is important to note that results from a
sample is only useful if it is representative of the larger population. For example, if a
company wishes to develop a new dish-washing product and expects that 80% of
their customer base would be stay-at-home mothers, their sampling strategy must
reflect this demographic. Choosing a sample that is comprised of 20% or 30% stayat-home mothers would not be representative of the population that the company
wishes to target. To avoid inaccurate and/or biased results, an organization has to
make an effort to choose a representative sample.
SAMPLING FRAME

Before an online survey is prepared, a sampling frame has to be identified. A sampling frame is a
listing of all elements within a population. A universitys database of all students currently
registered is considered a sampling frame. The current students registered in the university
represent the entire population. Another example of a sampling frame is a local governments
full-time and part-time employees. Other sampling frames could be geographic maps and
directories.
A sampling frame can provide inaccurate or biased data if:
o The frame does not include certain elements or individuals in the population
necessary for the information to be gathered.
o Certain elements or individuals under-represent the desired demographic that
the organization wishes to target.

SURVEY SAMPLING PROCESS

Choosing a representative sample from a population is a multistep process that
ensures the information received is useful. In the sampling process, the following
steps must be conducted:

1. Defining the population In this step, a population is defined for surveying. If an

organization is interested in the purchasing behaviors of college students in a
particular city, then all students in that city are considered a population. For some
survey studies, the population is simply defined as the consumers (e.g. Internet
users or mall shoppers). However, marketing strategies focus on specific
demographics to survey in a population. If the manufacturer of specialty rugs is
interested only in the buying preferences of upper middle class residents, people
who make a certain amount of money and above (e.g. $250K per year) would be the
population. A clear definition of a population is important for the accuracy of the
remainder of the steps.
2. Developing a sampling frame As described, a sampling frame provides a
source or a listing of all elements or individuals within a population. In the example of
the specialty rugs manufacturer, a sampling frame of upper middle class individuals
could be public records that show tax and income figures. Since those records reflect
all high income earners in one city, they are considered the sampling frame for the
survey study. In sales and marketing, a sampling frame is not as easy to obtain as
customer lists may not be available. For many organizations, sampling frames are
usually previous customers lists or those purchased from other companies.
3. Determining sample size Once a sampling frame is identified, a sample size is
determined. The size of a chosen sample depends on a number of factors: the
number of questions in the survey, the type of questions, and the purpose of the
survey. Sample sizes can range from 30 to several hundred depending on the
availability of time and cost.
4. Specifying sample method This final step in the sampling process determines
the sampling methodology. For instance, a survey may require only answers from
experts in a field. Another survey that is informal may be given to any customers that
frequent a business without regard for the population from which it is drawn.

SAMPLING METHODOLOGY
In the final step of the sampling process, a particular methodology is chosen and
applied. This methodology depends on the type of sample that is surveyed. Samples
are divided in probability and non-probability samples:
1. Non-probability samples Samples chosen out of a target population without
worrying about their probability of occurrence are considered non-probability. There
are four types of non-probability samples:
o Convenience sampling In this type of sampling, customers are pulled out of
the population because it is the easy and convenient thing for the
organization. For instance, a shopping mall manager may survey the first 200
customers who appear for shopping in a Saturday morning. The goal would
be conduct the survey with a minimal investment in time and cost.
o Judgment sampling In this type of sampling, a sample is chosen based on
their specific expertise or knowledge. For instance, a sample of doctors may
be chosen by a medical equipment company to find out their preferences and
requirements.

2. Probability samples Probability samples are chosen in a population based on

known probabilities of occurrence. For instance, in a sample of 300 employees of
whom 50 will be chosen, the probability of each worker being chosen is 1/6.
Probability samples can be as follows:
o Simple random This type of sample means that each element or individual
in a sampling frame has an equal chance of being selected. If a promotions
campaign for a company is surveying customers based on a previous list,
then every customer has the same chance of being selected for the sample.
o Stratified In a stratified sample, the population is divided into strata based
on a common quality such as demographics or earnings. For example, the
specialty rug company owner can divide customers to those earning $250$500K and those earning above $500K. The two earning brackets are
considered strata. In some samples, a company can have upwards of 5 or 10
strata.
o Systematic In a systematic sample, the population is divided into groups
with differing characteristics from which one sample is chosen.

o Cluster In a cluster sample, representative samples from the population are

chosen based on clusters determined by those preparing the surveys. A large
company can divide its employees into clusters based on the number of years
they have worked in the company.

Once a sampling methodology is chosen, the next step is to plan the creation of
questions to be included in the survey.
Task 1 p 3

15) Which one of the following service connections has the best promotionalstrategies?
a)Mobilink
b)Telenor
c ) U f o n e
d ) Z o n g
e ) W a r i d
Suggestions________________________________________________________ ___________
_______________________________________________________ ______________________
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