DRAINAGE AND SLOPE PROTECTION STRUCTURES

Drainage
-

The means of collecting, transporting, and disposing of surface water

originating on or near the right of way, or flowing in stream crossing, or
bordering the right of way.

about 25% of roadway funds are for drainage structures(culverts, bridges)

bigger appropriations allotted for ditch, dikes, channels and erosion control
structures.

major investment on urban area(cities) for drainage.

Drainage System

Sanitary Sewer

(also called a foul sewer and a covered sewer) is an underground carriage

system specifically for transporting sewage from houses and commercial
buildings through pipes to treatment or disposal. Sanitary sewers serving

industrial areas also carry industrial wastewater. The system of sewers is

called sewerage.

Sewer System

Septic Tank
a

key component of the septic system, a smallscale sewage treatment system common in
areas that lack connection to main sewage
pipes provided by local
governments or private
corporations. Other
components, generally controlled by
local governments, may include

pumps,
alarms, sa
nd filters, and clarified liquid effluent disposal methods such as a septic
drain field, ponds, natural stone fiber filter plants or peat moss beds.

Types of Drainage

1. Surface Drainage
- a system of drainage measures, such as open drains and land forming, to
pre
- Surface Drainage vent ponding by diverting excess surface water to a
collector drain

Drainage on the adjoining land and roadway surface

Side Drainage and Cross Drainage

2.

Sub-

surface

Drainage

Ditches

DESIGN OF SURFACE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

Can be divided into three phases:

1. Estimation of the quantity of water that can reach any element of the
system.
2. Hydraulic design of each element of the system.
3. Comparison of alternative systems and materials

Criteria-Lowest annual cost alternative

Effects of water on the pavement structure

 Presence of moisture causes:

- reduction in the stability of the soil mass.
- considerable variation in volume of sub-grade in clayey soils.
- Waves and corrugations failure in flexible pavements.
- Stripping failure in flexible pavements.
- Mud pumping failure in rigid pavements.

SLOPE

PROTECTION

Open Channel and Culverts

What is an Open Channel Flow?

An open channel is a waterway, canal or conduit in which a liquid flows
with a free surface. An open channel flow describes the fluid motion in open
channel.

Open channels are a natural or man-made conveyance for water in which:

The water surface is exposed to the atmosphere, and
The gravity force component in the direction of motion is the driving force.
Various Types of Open Channel:

Stream Channel
Roadside Channel
Ditch Channel
Irrigation Channel
Drainage Ditch

Note: The principles of open channel flow are the same regardless of the channel type.

Stream Channel

Roadside Channel

Ditch Channel
Channel

Irrigation

Drainage Ditch

 Channel analysis is necessary for the design of transportation drainage

systems in order to assess:
Potential flooding caused by changes in water surface profiles,
Disturbance of the river system upstream or downstream of the highway right
of-way
Changes in lateral flow distributions
Changes in velocity or direction of flow
Need for conveyance and disposal of excess runoff, and
Need for channel lining to prevent erosion
Design of Open Channel Flow
The hydraulic analysis of a channel determines the depth and velocity at which a
given discharge will flow in a channel of known geometry, roughness and slope.
The depth and velocity of flow are necessary for the design or analysis of
channel linings and highway drainage structures.
Channels
The design of crown ditches, gutters, stream channels and culverts flowing
partially or fully are based on the principles of flow in an open canal.

Culvert

 What is culvert?
A culvert is a structure sized hydraulically to convey surface water runoff
under a highway, railroad, or other embankment.
Design of Culvert
The design selected should be the one that best integrates hydraulic
efficiency, serviceability, structural stability, economics, environmental
conditions, traffic safety and land requirements.
Culverts are used in the following condition:

Where they are more economical than a bridge

Where bridges are not hydraulically required
Where higher velocities can be tolerated
Where greater stage increases can be tolerated, and
Where debris and ice are tolerable

Different Types of Culvert:

Culvert come in many sizes and shapes including round, elliptical, flat
bottomed, pear shaped, and box like constructions. It will depend on the
design requirements and other several factors.
Round Shaped Culvert

Flat bottomed Culvert

Pear Shaped Culvert

Box Culvert

Retaining Walls

V
H

Basic function to retain soil at a slope which is greater than it would naturally
assume, usually at a vertical or near vertical position

Retaining wall failure at the ShinKang Dam

Design of retaining wall

-

Retaining walls have primary function of retaining soils at an angle in excess of

the soils nature angle of repose.

Walls within the design height range are designed to provide the necessary
resistance by either their own mass or by the principles of leverage.

Design consideration:

1. Overturning of the wall does not occur

2. Forward sliding does not occur
3. Materials used are suitable
4. The subsoil is not overloaded

Factors which designer need to take account

-

Nature and characteristics of the subsoil's

Height of water table the presence of water can create hydrostatic pressure,
affect bearing capacity of the subsoil together with its shear strength, reduce the
frictional resistance between the underside of the foundation

Type of wall

Materials to be used in the construction

Failure of retaining wall (dam) due to water pressure.

Mass retaining walls

Cantilever walls

Counter fort retaining walls

Precast concrete retaining

walls

Precast concrete cribretaining walls

Mass retaining walls

-

Sometimes called gravity walls and rely upon their own mass together with the
friction on the underside of the base to overcome the tendency to slide or
overturn

Generally only economic up to 1.8 m

Mass walls can be constructed of semi-engineering quality bricks bedded in a 1:3

cement mortar or of mass concrete

Natural stone is suitable for small walls up to 1m high but generally it is used as a
facing material for walls over 1 m

Typical examples of mass retaining wall

Brick Retaining Wall

Cantilever wall
Usually of reinforced
concrete and work on the
principle of leverage where
the stem is designed as a cantilever fixed at the base and the base is designed
as a cantilever fixed at the stem
Economic height range of 1.2 m to 6 m using pre-stressing techniques
Any durable facing material can be applied to the surface to improve appearance
of the wall
Two basic forms:
-

base with a large heel

-

A cantilever with a large toe

Cantilever T

Counterfort retaining walls

Cantilever L

Can be constructed of reinforced or prestressed concrete

Suitable for over 4.5 m

Triangular beams placed at suitable centres behind the stem and above the base
to enable the stem and base to act as slab spanning horizontally over or under
the counterforts

Precast concrete retaining wall

-

Manufactured from high-grade pre cast concrete on the cantilever principle.

Can be erected on a foundation as permanent retaining wall or be free standing

to act as dividing wall between heaped materials which it can increase three
times the storage volume for any given area

Other advantages- reduction in time by eliminating curing period, cost of

formwork, time to erect and dismantle the temporary forms

Lifting holes are provided which can be utilized for fixing if required

Pre cast concrete crib-retaining walls

Designed on the principle of mass retaining walls

A system of pre cast concrete or treated timber components comprising headers

and stretchers which interlock to form a 3 dimensional framework or crib of pre
cast concrete timber units within which soil is retained

Constructed with a face batter between 1:6 and 1:8

Subsoil drainage is not required since the open face provides adequate drainage.

SHEET PILING

Sheet pile retaining walls are usually used in soft soils and tight spaces.
Sheet pile walls are made out of steel, vinyl or wood planks which are
driven into the ground. For a quick estimate the material is usually driven
1/3 above ground, 2/3 below ground, but this may be altered depending on
the environment. Taller sheet pile walls will need a tie-back anchor, or
"dead-man" placed in the soil a distance behind the face of the wall, that is
tied to the wall, usually by a cable or a rod. Anchors are then placed behind
the potential failure plane in the soil.

The Importance of a Retaining Wall

A retaining wall might be built on property for various reasons. Some level of dirt
and soil will be held away from home, garden, pool or play area by building a
retaining wall.

Highway Bridges
What is a Highway Bridge?
-

Highway Bridge is a major road structure that is designed to go either over or

underneath an obstacle. Most highway bridges are not used by pedestrians and
do not contain pedestrian walking paths. Instead, they are usually intended to
allow vehicles, such as passenger cars or semi-trucks, to safely cross over or
under the obstacle.

Two types of Highway Bridges:

1. Those that carry vehicular traffic and pedestrians over a large stream.
2. Those that separate traffic movements as interchanges and street pedestrians over
or under crossings.
Hydraulic Problems:
1. There should be available stream records which provide the usual methods for
estimating water discharge under the bridge.
2. Analysis of the channel relationship to peak flow, waterway opening water surface
elevation at the structure and upstream from it and flow velocity.
3. One major consideration is the degree of contraction of flowing water in the channel
approach.
4. Final structure proportions and required channel modification based from the study.
5. Effect of bridge openings and approaches that might flood the adjacent properties.
This is associated with hydraulic aspects of bridges design.
6. Economic, legal and social implications where cooperative planning with all affected
groups agencies is necessary.
7. Where bridge is to rest on erodible stream beds undermining by scour should be the
primary concern. The problem of design Engineer is that if the estimated is over safe,
the foundation becomes very costly, but if scour is underestimated, the foundation might
be undetermined that may result to total destruction of the entire bridge.
8. Recent findings show that the least scours are when piers have less resistance to
flow.

Load bearing and Environmental Forces

1. The weight of the structure itself.
2. The weight and dynamic effect of moving load.
3. The wind load.
4. The centrifugal force developed by moving vehicles on curved structure.
5. Stress brought by:
a. Change in temperature
b. Earth Pressure
c. Shrinkage
d. Buoyancy

e. Rib Shortening
f. Erection
g. Current Pressure
h. Earthquakes

Bridge Types
1. Beam Bridges
- are horizontal beams supported at each end by substructure units and can be either
simply supported when the beams only connect across a single span, or continuous
when the beams are connected across two or more spans.
2. Truss Bridge
- is a bridge whose load-bearing superstructure is composed of a truss. The connected
elements (typically straight) may be stressed from tension, compression, or sometimes
both in response to dynamic loads. Truss bridges are one of the oldest types of modern
bridges.
3. Cantilever Bridge
- are built using cantilevers. Most cantilever bridges use a pair of continuous spans that
extend from opposite sides of the supporting piers to meet at the center of the obstacle
the bridge crosses
4. Arch Bridge
- It has abutments at each end. The weight of the bridge is thrust into the abutments at
either side.
5. Tied Arch Bridges
- have an arch-shaped superstructure, but differ from conventional arch bridges. Instead
of transferring the weight of the bridge and traffic loads into thrust forces into the
abutments, the ends of the arches are restrained by tension in the bottom chord of the
structure. They are also called bowstring arches.
6. Suspension bridge
- are suspended from cables. The earliest suspension bridges were made of ropes or
vines covered with pieces of bamboo. In modern bridges, the cables hang from towers
that are attached to caissons or cofferdams.

7. Cable Stayed Bridge

Bridge that uses deck cables that are directly connected to one or more vertical
columns.
Length of individual spans:
1. Short span ranges up to 18 meters.
a. Reinforced concrete rigid frame with slab deck.
b. T-beam or Box Girders or Reinforced concrete.
c. Steel or Pre-Stressed Concrete I beam with reinforced concrete deck.
2. Bridges of Large Span
a. Girder type Rigid Frames or Reinforced Concrete or Steel.
b. T-beam or Box Girders of Reinforced Concrete.
c. Steel Plate Girders with Reinforced concrete decks.
3. Span that exceeds 90 meters long preferably use steel trusses or arches of steel or
reinforced concrete.
5. Span that exceeds 150 meters are generally of steel trusses, cable stayed or
suspension bridge.
Note: Highway bridges require regular upkeep in order to ensure public safety is
maintained. Typically, highway bridge inspection encompasses pinpointing minor issues
and ensuring they are properly repaired. Preventative bridge maintenance can help
ensure costly replacements are avoided down the road. If conditions with potential risk
are noted, bridge inspectors must thoroughly document this data and recommend any
remedial measures. In some cases, this may mean reducing bridge traffic and vehicle
weight or even temporarily closing the bridge to traffic until it can be fully repaired.