21

CHAPTER 2
INVESTIGATIONS OF TRANSFORMER OIL
CHARACTERISTICS

2.1

INTRODUCTION
Power transformers are the most significant components of power

system. Insulation used in transformer are of solid insulation system and

liquid dielectrics. It is important to investigate the cause of the insulation
degradation with respect to age.
The individual parameters of transformer oil have been studied
under different operating conditions. The power transformer has been
quantitatively modeled in order to estimate its reliability. The absence of
defined methodology to correlate the various parameters of transformer oil
reinforces the need to undertake this study.
In this work, changes in the characteristics of insulating oil (Break
down voltage, Flash point, Fire point, Furan compounds, Acidity, Dissolved
gases) were observed and their inter-relationships was determined using
Regression analysis. A new X method have been formed to over come the
problem of ratio codes method for determining fault using dissolved gases.
An expert system is also created using Fuzzy with basic software to
accurately determine the insulation efficiency of system and also the fault in
system due to degradation of oil.

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2.2

BREAKDOWN STRENGTH OF OIL

Dielectric strength of an insulation material depends on pressure,

temperature, humidity, electrode configuration and nature of applied voltage.

Breakdown strength analysis of transformer oil gives effective results through
which suitable dielectric material for the related high voltage applications can
be explored. The Breakdown Voltage (BDV) test kit consists of two
electrodes mounted on horizontal axis with 2.5 mm gap and enclosed in a
glass chamber as shown in Figure 2.1. Electrodes used in test apparatus is of
sphere-sphere electrode configuration since the sphere-sphere configurations
provides uniform field distribution. Diameter of sphere electrodes is of
19.8 mm.
The kit provided with standard oil test cup transparent cover, is
powered through a step up transformer capable of offering up to 60 kV. The
tests are carried as per IS6792 specifications and test results are shown in
Table 2.1. Nine samples with different BDV were taken as the reference for
conducting acidity, Flash, Fire point tests, DGA and Furan analysis. Oil in use
refers to the oil having satisfied with test standards and in working conditions.
Degraded oil refers to the oil contaminated in the moderate level. Highly
degraded oil refers to oil which is highly contaminated by various pollutants
like moisture, furan contents due to paper insulation deterioration and
dissolved gases. Highly burned oil refers to oil which is very highly
contaminated due to pollutants and various internal faults in winding.

Dia =19.8 mm
2.5mm

Figure 2.1 Sphere-sphere electrode configurations

23

Table 2.1 Breakdown voltage of samples

Samples

Conditions of sample

BDV (kV)
[Mean SD]

Oil in use (medium)

26 0.63

Oil in use (low)

300.77

Degraded oil (very low)

240.63

Degraded oil (moderate)

210.74

Degraded oil (very high)

180.63

Highly burned oil (low)

170.93

Degraded oil (medium)

190.74

Highly burned oil (high)

160.63

Degraded oil (low)

220.74

Each sample was subjected to five times of BDV test and their
average is taken as final value. The Standard Deviation (SD) of each test
samples is included along with final BDV value. Based on BDV value the
samples are further classified as very low, moderate and high with respect to
the gradient. From the test results it shall be identified that highly burned oil
shows very lower BDV.
2.3

ACIDITY
It is a measure of free organic and inorganic acid present in the oil

and expressed in terms of milligrams of Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)

required to neutralize the total free acids in one gram of oil. The acidity level
of transformer oil is measured as per British Standard BS2000 Part 1. From
the test results it shall be identified that acidity content is high for degraded
oil. Same nine samples were investigated for acidity value by means of
titration and also using PH meter. The observed results are listed in Table 2.2.

24

The acidity of the samples for titration method is calculated using formula
Total Acidity = A N 56.1 / W

mgKOH/g

(1.1)

A - Quantity of KOH solution in ml

N - Normality of KOH solution used for titration
W - Weight of the sample in grams
Table 2.2 Acidity value of samples

2.4

Samples

Titration Value
(mgKOH/g)

PH meter

0.2243

5.70

0.2467

5.50

0.1802

6.10

0.3590

5.46

0.3300

5.67

0.3123

5.65

0.3256

5.70

0.2854

5.25

0.0900

6.53

FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT

Flash point of a volatile liquid is the lowest temperature at which it

can vaporize to form an ignitable mixture in air. The flash point is an

empirical measurement rather than a fundamental physical parameter. The
Fire point is defined as the temperature at which the vapour continues to burn
after being ignited. It is the lowest temperature at which, on further heating
beyond the flash point, the sample support and combustion for five seconds.

25

Flash and fire point test is carried out in Pensky-Martens closed cup
apparatus as per ASTM D3828. Total amount of transformer oil used for
analysis in the test apparatus is of 60 ml. The various combinations of
samples (Ideal sample along with natural dust and saw dust) are evaluated for
flash point and fire point values in the closed cup are shown in Table 2.3.

26

27

Saw dust is composed of fine particles of wood and the material is

produced by cutting wood with a saw and they are of electrically insulating.
The factors such as moisture and density have little effect on the electric
resistance of saw dust. A low dielectric has low permittivity or low ability to
polarize and hold charge. Low dielectrics are very good insulators and the
high dielectric on the other hand has a high permittivity, because high
dielectrics are good at holding charge.
The Table 2.4 illustrates that while adding the normal dust with
humidity nature to samples; it acts as a conductive medium and hence
decreases the Flash and Fire point values.
While adding saw dust to samples it permits to act as insulating
medium and hence increases the Flash and Fire point values as evident from
results. It is inferred by means of proper combination of materials with
dielectric nature the flash and fire point values can be increased for
transformer oil.

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29

2.5

FURAN ANALYSIS
Cellulose is a natural polymer of glucose and it degrades slowly as

the polymer chains breakdown during service, releasing degradation products

in to the oil. Insulation paper eventually degrades to such an extent that it
loses all its mechanical strength and becomes susceptible to mechanical
damage, which is liable to expose the electrical integrity of the equipment.
Thermal degradation of cellulosic materials present in electrical
equipment with oil-paper insulation systems yields different amount of
furanic derivatives, the most common being 2-furfuraldehyde and these test
are conducted periodically after a period of 1-2 years.
Furanic compounds in electrical insulating liquids are extracted
from a known volume of test specimen by means of a liquid extraction. An
aliquant of the extract is introduced into a High Performance Liquid
Chromatography (HPLC) system which is equipped with suitable analytical
column and UV detector. Furanic compounds within the test specimen are
identified and quantified by comparison to standards of known concentration.
The tests are carried out as per International Electro technical
committee IEC-61198 specifications. Furan analysis of oil samples obviously
highlights the level of paper insulation. The test samples are investigated for
derivatives of Furanic compounds by means of HPLC and observed results
are listed in Table 2.5. The detail of instrument is provided in Appendix. The
test results reveal that eighth sample has highest value of deterioration of
insulation papers.

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Table 2.5 Furan analysis of test samples

Total value

Samples

2FFD

2AF

5MFFD

5HMFFD

49

24

20

32

125

70

33

30

59

268

100

30

65

82

283

121

42

57

90

320

123

40

57

100

330

500

10

150

265

1034

120

43

60

127

354

4900

35

120

287

5482

100

40

67

98

305

FFD

- Furfural dehyde,

AF

- Acetyl furan,

MFFD

- Methyl Furfural dehyde

(ppb)

HMFFD - Hydroxy Methyl Furfural dehyde

2.6

REGRESSION ANALYSIS OF PARAMETERS

Regression analysis is a statistical tool for the investigation of

relationships between variables. It facilitates to recognize how the typical

value of the dependent variable changes when any one of the independent
variables is varied. Correlation coefficients measure the strength of
association between two variables. Some of the uniqueness of regression
coefficient is listed below.
Value of a correlation coefficient ranges between 1 and 1.
Greater the absolute value of a correlation coefficient, the
stronger the linear relationship.

31

Weakest linear relationship is indicated by a correlation

coefficient equal to 0.
Strongest correlations (r = 1.0 and r = 1.0) occur when data
points fall exactly on a straight line.
Correlation becomes weaker as the data points become more
scattered.

Acidity (mgKOH/g)

Figure 2.2 Correlation of Acidity and Flash point

Acidity (mgKOH/g)

Figure 2.3 Correlation of Acidity and Fire point

32

Acidity (mgKOH/g)

Figure 2.4 Correlation of Acidity and Break down voltage

Table 2.6 Regression analysis of critical parameters

Description

Coefficient of
determination
r2

Slope of the Y intercept of

regression the regression
line
line

Acidity vs Flash point

0.2759

-133.24

176.510

Acidity vs Fire point

0.1158

-59.36

192.63

Acidity vs BDV

0.5670

38.94

-38.94

Acidity vs Furan

0.0222

2980.69

165.102

BDV vs Furan

0.643

-0.0023

23.418

Figures 2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 illustrates the correlation between
critical parameters Acidity, BDV, Flash point, Fire point and Furan contents.
Regression analysis of the Flash and Fire point implies that the Flash and Fire
point moderately linear with the acidity value as observed from Figures 2.2
and 2.3. Regression analysis of the Acidity and Breakdown voltage strongly
implies the linearity between them as observed from Figure 2.4. Results of
correlation coefficients from the Figures.2.2, 2.3, 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6 are listed in
Table 2.6.

33

Regression analysis of Acidity and Furan content implies very high

non linearity as shown in Figure 2.5 Analysis of BDV and Furan content
implies strong linearity as shown in Figure 2.6.

Acidity (mgKOH/g)

Figure 2.5 Correlation of Acidity and Furan contents

Furan (ppb)
Figure 2.6 Correlation of Furan with Break down voltage

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2.7

DISSOLVED GAS ANALYSIS (DGA)

DGA is a diagnostic tool for detecting, evaluating incipient faults in

oil immersed transformers and test is carried for regular periodic intervals. It
mainly involves the following steps,
1.

Sampling of transformer oil

2.

Extraction of the gases from oil

3.

Analysis of extracted gas mixture

4.

Interpretation of gas data

Table 2.7 DGA analysis for test samples
H2

CH4

Samples

ppm

ppm

650

C2H6

C2H4

C 2 H2

CO2

ppm

ppm

ppm

ppm

116

43

528

528

19

12

0.3

0.3

910

17

39

0.7

160

305

112

163

359

11998

2212

0.1

0.02

269

14

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.1

436

23

0.4

0.4

38

3986

21

26

14

0.5

0.5

857

The oil sample must be protected from all contaminations. The

removal of the gases from the oil can be accomplished by various methods.
After extraction, the extracted gas mixture is separated into individual
chemical compounds. Each compound is then identified and their
concentrations are determined using the Gas chromatograph. The detail of

35

instrument is provided in Appendix. The test results reveal that transformer

containing sample 4 is highly affected by partial discharge fault.
Data from DGA provides,
Presence of fault
Development of fault
Suitably scheduling for maintenance
A fault is in this context defined as a process that causes abnormal
dissipation of energy within the transformer. When a fault occurs in the
transformer, the insulation system undergoes chemical degradation which
leads to a production of various gases that dissolves in the oil. These gases are
often referred to as key gases, based on their concentrations and interpreting
methodology various type of faults in the transformer can be recognized.
Interpretation is performed using Rogers and Dorenburgs
methods. Dissolved gas analysis of test samples are carried out as per IS
9434:1992 specifications and results are listed in Table 2.7.
2.8

PROPOSED X METHOD
Traditional methods for determining the faults using dissolved

gases are of Rogers 3 ratio method as shown in Table 2.8 and Dorenburg 4
ratio method as shown in Table 2.9. The drawback of these methodologies is
some code of range of ratios does not harmonize with the Rogers method and
others with the Doernenburgs method.
The characteristics of the fault are not the same in both methods.
Besides the faults in the Rogers table are not present in the Doernenburgs
table and those in Doernenburgs table are not in the Rogers table.

36

Table 2.8 Rogers Ratio Method

Ratios of Characteristic Gases

Sl. No.

Code of Range of Ratios

R1

R2

R3

Less than 0.1

0.1-1

1-3

Greater than 3

Characteristic Fault

No fault

PD of low energy density

PD of high energy density

Discharge of low energy

1-2

1-2

Discharge of high energy

Thermal fault of low

temperature<150oc

Thermal fault of low

temperature150oc-300oc

Thermal fault of medium

temperature300oc-700oc

Thermal fault of high

temperature>700oc

R1 = C2H2/ C2H4
R2 = CH4/ H2
R3 = C2H4/ C2H6,
R4=C2H6/ CH4
In this Proposed X method, the two ratio methods are merged and
include all types of characteristics faults that are present in both the ratio
methods. The role of intertwined Fuzzy with basic software like visual basic,

37

because of the versatility of its functions and general program capabilities is

chosen to interpret the performance.
Fuzzy logic is a form of many-valued logic or probabilistic logic; it
deals with reasoning that is approximate rather than fixed and exact.
Compared to traditional binary sets (where variables may take on true or false
values) fuzzy logic variables may have a truth value that ranges in degree
between 0 and 1. Fuzzy logic has been extended to handle the concept of
partial truth, where the truth value may range between completely true and
completely false.
Fuzzy logic has been applied to many fields, from control
theory to artificial intelligence. Classical logic only permits propositions
having a value of truth or falsity. The notion of whether 1+1=2 is absolute,
immutable, mathematical truth. However, there exist certain propositions with
variable answers, such as asking various people to identify a color. The notion
of truth doesn't fall by the wayside, but rather a means of representing and
reasoning over partial knowledge is afforded, by aggregating all possible
outcomes into a dimensional spectrum.
If a software program could manipulate the data from an oil sample
in various ways and return the results of several analyses there were two main
advantages. It would increase the system confidence if all methods were to
agree and in the case of varying diagnosis, each could be investigated quickly
and compared to one another.
Advantages of the application of fuzzy logic in fault gas analysis
were published by several authors. It was pointed out, that uncertainties of
diagnosis due to the values close to limit values of classification procedures
can be effectively handled by fuzzy sets. "Fuzzy version" of different
methods, like Key gas analysis were made. A typical solution is the

38

application of a fuzzy inference system to approximate the relationship

between the measured values and the faults causing the different gas
combinations. Its application for fault gas analysis is presented through the
Ratio methods.
Table 2.9 Doerenburgs Ratio Method
R2

R4

R3

R1

Evolution

If CH2 H2 0or less than 0.1 Partial discharge

otherwise normal deterioration

Slight overheating below 150oc

Slight overheating below 150oc-200 oC

Slight overheating below 200oc-300 oC

General conductor overheating

Circulating current/overheated joints

Flashover without power follow current

Tap changer selector breaking current

Arc with power follow through or persistent sparking

On entering the gas concentration (ppm) and rating of transformer,

the system will calculate the R1, R2, R3 and assign code of range of ratio
values from Table 2.8 and corresponding fault will be displayed. If the code
of range of ratios is not in the Rogers table means it will move to Dorenburgs
method given in Table 2.9 to obtain R4 and the corresponding fault will
determined.
A typical solution is the application of a fuzzy inference system to
approximate the relationship between the measured values and the faults
causing the different gas combinations. The degree of uncertainty can be
taken into consideration and the upper and a lower limit is calculated
separately to specific faults.

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2.8.1

Analysis of Insulation Efficiency by Expert System

Graphical User Interface (GUI) is developed using Fuzzy logic and

visual basic in order to estimate the fault present in Proposed X method and
the conditions of transformer oil insulation by correlating all the parameters.
Based on recommendations suggested by the IS, IEC, ASTM, BS standards
and also on dexterity of engineers. The adequate limits are fixed for BDV,
acidity, flash, fire point and furan compounds for determining the insulation
condition of transformer.
The minimum and maximum limits to ensure the performance of
transformer oil insulation efficiency are given by Table 2.10. The results to be
exhibited based on conditions satisfaction are given in Table 2.11; it was
framed by means of Expert knowledge in the corresponding field.
Fuzzy strategy entwined with basic software is adopted to ensure
the new merged X conditions for Rogers and Dorenburgs methods. Analysis
of dissolved gas with their corresponding fault is carried out by means of
Fuzzy logic entwined with basic software (Visual Basic), since fuzzy strategy
is used to cover wide range of datas shown in Rogers and Dorenburgs
method. A typical solution is the application of a fuzzy inference system to
approximate the relationship between the measured values and the faults
causing the different gas combinations. It is important to remark, that setting
the crossing of membership functions the degree of uncertainty can be taken
into consideration. The second difference, that by the use of these functions,
an upper and a lower limit are calculated for the specific faults.
An index model of display system used in the expert system (X
method) with their appropriate faults is given in the Table 2.12. In the model

40

of expert system, on entering the data of gas concentrations in ppm and rating
of transformer it will display the fault respective to the ppm concentration of
gases. The details given in the Table 2.12 are of example datas given as input
(transformer rating and ppm concentration of gas) to the system and their
corresponding faults are displayed automatically by expert system. Screen
shots of transformer oil insulation efficiency system and panel view of input,
output panel formed are illustrated in the Figures 2.7, 2.8 and 2.9 respectively.
Table 2.10 Limits for analysis of transformer oil efficiency

S.No

Tests conducted on
transformer oil

Min.
Limit

Max. Limit

Furan Analysis(ppb)

Above 2500

Acidity content(mgKOH/g)

0.35

Break down voltage(kV)

25

50

Flash point (oC)

120

180

Fire point (oC)

150

220

Table 2.11 Conditions for analysis of transformer oil efficiency

S. No

Total number of
conditions to be
satisfied

Results to be exhibited

" The Transformer oil is in Good

condition"

" Satisfactory"

" The Transformer Oil has to be

monitored"

<3

" The Transformer oil is not in

Good condition"

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Figure 2.7 Screen shot of transformer oil efficiency software

Table 2.12 DGA investigations using Fuzzy logic strategy - X method
MVA
Transformer
rating

H2

CH4

C2 H6

C2 H4

C2H2

ppm

ppm

ppm

ppm

ppm

16

650

116

43

528

Discharge of Low
Energy

0.3

Sight Over
heating below150
C)

50

3.15

10

23

19

0.4

12

0.4

0.3

38

Fault type

General
conductor over
heating
Thermal fault of
low temperature
150 to 300 ( C)

25

19

0.1

General over
Heating

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Figure 2.8 Screen shot of input panel developed using Fuzzy logic
strategy - X method

Figure 2.9 Screen shot of output panel developed using Fuzzy logic
strategy - X method

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2.9

DISCUSSION
Tests were carried out on nine samples to investigate various
critical characteristics.
It is inferred on adding saw dust to samples it permits to act as
insulating medium and increases flash point.
It is inferred that on adding dust with humidity contents reduces
the flash and fire point.
Furan analysis of test samples reveals that highly burned oil
shows higher production of furanic compounds. More over the
time duration and cost wise approach for determining furanic
derivatives was very high by HPLC process.
Regression analysis implies that breakdown voltage shows
stronger linearity for furan and acidity.
DGA analysis of test samples reveals that sample four
containing transformer was subjected to very high partial
discharge problems.
The expert system developed for analyzing insulation efficiency
and DGA methods using fuzzy helps the operator to have an
easy solution about the dielectric strength of his transformer.

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2.10

CONCLUSION
The experimentation on various transformer oil samples has been

carried out and the results are interpreted. The methodology has been found to
formulate measures through which effective monitoring of the power
transformer can pave way to determine the life time of insulation. The
strategy has been coined to incorporate measures for evaluating unpredictable
failures and unnatural outages. It can be concluded that predictive monitoring
strategies will enable an extension in life and facilitate proper asset
management. The next chapter deals with investigations of thermal
degradation and spectral response of transformer oil.